Essay Questions
mac1091
ALGUnitI--BiologicalBeginnings.pptxHuman Development
Biological Beginnings
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Unit I
Unit I
Overview & History
Nature/Nurture
Research Methods
Overview of Major Theories
Biological Beginnings –Prenatal Development
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Biological beginnings: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
PRECONCEPTION THROUGH THE FIRST YEAR
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Conception
20%-40% chance during any cycle
If you are under 25, you have a 96% chance of conceiving in a year
If you are between the ages of 25-34, you have an 86% chance of conception
If you are between the ages of 35-44, you have a 78% chance of conception
Birth Control: The Pill, Condom and IUD have been found to be 84% effective.
*A Scandinavian company sells Extra Small Condoms for boys, age 12…
http:// www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/7361181/Extra-small-condoms-for-12-year-old-boys-go-on-sale-in-Switzerland.html
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Infertility
50% of couples experience infertility, 40% of the time, the problem is with the male
Why Men? Low sperm count, deformed sperm, infections, std’s, diabetes, injury to the tests, laptops, smoking and tight briefs.
With women, irregular ovulation, low estrogen and inflammation
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (Pcos)—leading cause of female infertility
Between 5-10% of women have Pcos between the ages of 20-40 and 30% of all women.
Symptoms: irregular bleeding, infrequent cycles, weight gain, high bp, acne, dandruff, excess flaps of skin near armpit, diabetes, excess hair growth.
Pcos—rate of miscarriage is 45%
Invitro—increases chance of having multiples by 33%
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Natural Help for Infertility
Robitussin has been found to thin the cervical mucus to help sperm swim faster
Baby aspirin helps with fertility
Black cohosh—helps with fertility and PMS
Evening Primrose Oil—good for brain and uterine contractions. Recommended to speed up labor.
Ginseng, CoQ10, Resveratrol and Pine Bark—helps with sperm mobility
Hypnosis has been found to be equally effective as Invitro
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Did You Know???
Why are pregnant women so tired? Blood volume grows, mostly in the form of plasma, holds more red blood cells—lower percentage of cells to deliver oxygen and glucose to the body.
Neuro- imaging studies show women’s brains shrink 8 percent during gestation—triggered by hormones
A woman can pick out the cry of her own baby within 48 hours
For a woman, her progesterone levels go up 40x
Maternal stress is the leading cause of miscarriage
40% physical assaults by spouse begin during first pregnancy.
Pregnant women have twice the risk of battery
At 7-12 weeks gestation, a fetus has equal levels of testosterone as a full grown adult male
A depressed Mom—her baby will show less activity in the left frontal lobe (happiness/joy) (in utero)
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Problems…Just a Few.
Ectopic: implants outside uterus in fallopian tube, can rupture. Signs: crampy, tender, strain with bowels, browns potting, nausea, shock, clammy, shoulder pain.
Spontaneous Abortion: cramps in center of abdomen, 24 hours of bleeding, clots, grayish matter passing
Gestational diabetes—not enough insulin, sugar circulates in blood Sign: thirsty
Pre-ecampsia—hypertension. Signs: blurred vision, swelling, protein in urine, pb 160/110
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Teratogens:
Alcohol
Nicotine
Heat
Toxoplasmosis—also found in dairy, luncheon meat, hot dogs, etc.
Malnutrition
Stress
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The Pregnancy…Points to Consider
Most fertile, 14 days after the onset of menstrual cycle
25% all pregnancies result in miscarriage
33% women will miscarry at some point in her life
Babies born weighing less than 5 ½ pounds or 3 weeks early considered premature
Miscarriage most likely to occur in first trimester
Age of viability—26 weeks
Chromosomal abnormalities—4,000 types (review in your text)
Birth defects (1/100)
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The Baby!
Average 7 ½ inches, 20” long
Triples weight by first birthday
106 males/100 females, more males pass in utero/first year—from 106 to 96
Babies lose as much as 10% of body weight first few days of life
Vernix caseosa—cheesy white coating
Lanugo--hair
1/10 as many air sacs as adults, so prone to respiratory problems
Neonatal jaundice—immaturity of the liver
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APGAR
APGAR: measured at birth and 5-10 minutes later….
A score above 7 is good, below 3 is critical and the baby generally needs immediate resuscitation
--5 tests: Appearance (color), Pulse (HR), Grimace (reflex, irritability), Activity (muscle tone) and Respiration (breathing)
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The Labor—Joy!
Braxton Hicks—not regular contractions, and the pain is in the lower abdomen rather than the back. Contractions change with position
Real labor—pain begins in lower back and then lower abdomen
Membranes rupture 15%
Labor, 45 second contractions with 5 minutes in between—go to hospital
3 stages: 1st, longest (14 hours), backache, indigestion, urinating frequently. 2nd—2-3 hours pushing, dilation. 3rd stage—placenta expelled
25-33% babies delivered by way of C-section. Babies more subject to respiratory problems and asthma
Water Births—
https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=02gxCpbpFFA&oref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D02gxCpbpFFA&has_verified=1
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The Baby! Fun Facts…
Average 7 ½ inches, 20” long
Triples weight by first birthday
106 males/100 females, more males pass in utero/first year—from 106 to 96
Babies lose as much as 10% of body weight first few days of life
Vernix caseosa—cheesy white coating
Lanugo--hair
1/10 as many air sacs as adults, so prone to respiratory problems
Neonatal jaundice—immaturity of the liver
The brain is the first organ to develop in utero
A babies brain is 90% developed by the age of 3!
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Birth Defects
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Nausea? Consider homeopathic…
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Major Reflexes
Good to Know: Denver Developmental Screening Test—charts progress from 1m-6 years (Assesses gross motor, fine motor, language development)
Babies have 27 major reflexes
If babies still expressing reflexes by 2, delayed cortical development
Root—baby’s mouth turns when touched, helps find food
Suck—begins 32nd week of pregnancy, pre mature babies often have difficulty
Moro—startle reflex, lasts until 6m
Tonic –fencing position, lasts until 7m
Grasp—very strong, lasts for a few months
Babinski—sole of foot is stroked, the big toe bends back (until 2)
Visual Cliff—assesses depth perception
Step—walking/dance
Swimming-6m (can hold breath under water for up to 20 minutes)
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Rooting
Reflex
Reflexes
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Vision
Visual acuity (sharpness)
Estimate of 20/600
Best see objects 7 to 9 inches from eyes
Lack peripheral vision of older child
Able to track movement within one day of birth
Least developed sense at birth
Color Vision
Cones less developed than rods at birth
At 3 months, can see most visible colors
***I couldn’t resist all of the baby photos!
Characteristics of Neonates: Sensory Capability
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Hearing
Fetuses respond to sound
Middle and inner ear mature in shape and size
Neonates hear remarkably well
Respond to sounds of different amplitude and pitch
May play a role in attachment
Show preference for mothers’ voice
Pre-natal exposure to mothers voice and learning may play a role
Responsive to sounds and rhythms of speech
Show no preference for specific languages
Characteristics of Neonates: Sensory Capability
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Smell
Well developed at birth
Demonstrate facial expressions to different odors
Aversion for noxious and preference for pleasant odors
Recognize familiar odors
Learned preference for mother
Taste
Sensitive to different tastes
Demonstrate facial expressions to basic tastes
Discriminate between salty, sour, and bitter tastes
Prefer sweet tastes
Characteristics of Neonates: Sensory Capability
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Touch
Sensitive to touch
Most well developed sense at birth!
Touch elicits many reflex behaviors
Provides comfort, security, and foundation for attachment
Pain
Less sensitive to pain than older babies
Habituation
Behavioral difference across ethic groups
European American infants habituate slower than Chinese and Japanese American infants
Show a decline in interest as a repeated stimulus becomes familiar
Differences may be due to:
Genetic endowment, pre-natal environment, parental behavior
Characteristics of Neonates: Sensory Capability
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Neonates spend about 16 hours per day in sleep
Typical infants has six cycles of waking and sleeping
Series of naps distributed throughout day and night
Sleep through the night by 6 months to 1 year
Six stages of sleep and wakefulness identified
REM Sleep
Brain waves similar to wakefulness; paradoxical sleep
Neonates spend 50% time in REM sleep
Decreases in percentage of REM
6 months – 30%
Function of REM sleep
Brain activity required for brain development
Older children and adults are stimulated during wakefulness
Neonates compensate by spending more time in REM sleep
Characteristics of Neonates: Patterns of Sleep
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Sleep? Yes, please…
25% babies will sleep through night by 2m
50% by 4m
75% by 6m
We go through the sleep cycle every 90 minutes, babies every 50 minutes
A child will spend 40% of childhood asleep
Between 1-3 years, need 12-14 hours
Between 3-5 years, needs 11-13 hours
Ages 5-12, needs 10-11 hours
Naps required unit 5
Co-Sleeping—Dr. Sears
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Main cause of crying
Pain and discomfort
Universal, expressive and functional communication
Expressive response to unpleasant feelings
Stimulates caregiver response
Distinct causes and patterns of cries
Hunger, anger, pain
Colic: sudden, loud, cries and flexing resulting from digestive tract pain
Peaks of crying in late afternoon and early evening
Pitch can provide information
Crying produces physiological response in others
Can be influenced by parental response
Extinction
Characteristics of Neonates: Crying
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The First Year: Colic
Colic:
Crying 3 hours a day, 3 days a week for 3 weeks.
1/5 –scream, stiffen body, pull legs in (lasts 3-4 months)
Begins at 2-3 weeks and peaks around 6 weeks
Causes: immature digestion, underdeveloped cns, hypersensitivity, moms who smoked
To reduce colic: Five S’s—swaddling on side, stomach, shushing noises, swinging and sucking
Gripe water, sugar water
Shaken Baby Syndrome: whiplash causes bleeding inside head—detaches from skull and blood pools. One of the leading forms of fatal child abuse.
Head trauma is the leading cause of disability among abused infants
Most frequently seen in infants younger than 6m, but can occur to age 3.
No obvious outward sign of injury
May lead to brain swelling, cerebral palsy, mental retardation, blindness, hearing loss, paralysis or death
25% babies die—number one cause for the syndrome is excessive crying
Estimated that 25-50% of parents/caretakers aren’t aware of effects of shaking a bay
Why? Babies’ heads make up 25% of body weight. Their neck muscles are too weak to support.
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Sucking serves as a built-in tranquilizer
Decreases crying and agitated movements
Pacifier, sweet solutions
Soothing processes
Pick baby up, patting, caressing, rocking them
Speaking to them in low voice
Try to find cause of distress
Learning process
Parents learn what works through trial and error
Infants learn that crying is followed by an intervention
Is crying reinforced?
Maturation
Crying tends to be replaced by less upsetting verbal requests
Did you know? Sugar or Gripe water has been clinically effective at reducing colic and fussiness?
Characteristics of Neonates: Soothing
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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – crib death
Apparently healthy babies stop breathing during sleep
Most common cause of death in infants between 1 and 12 months
Most likely to occur between 2 and 5 months
Period when reflexive behavior is weakening
Causes of SIDS remains obscure, but risk factors include
babies aged 2 to 4 months
babies put to sleep on their stomach
premature and low-birth-weight babies
males
lower SES
African Americans
babies of teenage mothers
babies of mothers who smoked or used narcotics during pregnancy
SIDS: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
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SIDS: The Stats
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What to feed the little tyke…?
Breast milk—recommended for 12-24m (less diarrhea, fewer respiratory infections, less middle ear infections, less urinary tract infections, greater visual acuity, lower risk of certain cancers, greater neurological and cognitive development, better social contact.
150 nutrients found in breast milk, not found in formula
Babies fed breast milk less likely to be overweight in adulthood. Bottle fed babies tend to be overfed
On the downside, runnier stool, eats more frequently
4-6m—pureed meals
6m—fruits and veges, introduce cup
6-9m—chunky foods, baby will start to feed self. Avoid hot dogs, popcorn, carrots and grapes
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The First Year: Physical Changes
Reach half adult height by 2nd birthday
4m rolling over, 6m sitting up, 8m eyesight as good as adult
Teething, 3-4 months, 5-9m first tooth, by 2 1/2 , the baby has 20 teeth.
12m walking
Touch is the first sense to develop
Smell and Taste—develop in womb
Vision—least well developed sense
Babies have a preference for visual stimuli (40% of time spent looking at human faces)
By 4m, babies can discriminate red, yellow, blue and green
By 6m, 20/20 vision
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The First Year: Cognitive Changes
100 billion neurons at birth
Child’s brain reaches 90% of weight by age 3, adult size by age 6
Neurons and synapses will die off if unused
Cerebellum: balance, motor coordination—grows fastest during first year
Corpus Callosum: joins sides of brain—adult size by age 10
Cerebrum: outer surface of brain, governs vision and hearing, mature by 6m
Frontal Lobe: mental associations, memory and higher thinking—immature until adulthood
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Cognitive Changes
The growth of brain cells increases in response to environmental stimulation
Sign language: better motor skills, less frustration, speaks earlier, larger vocab, better readers, higher IQ, increases long term memory
By 18m, can speak 50 words (no, cookie, mama, eat, objects, ball, etc.)
Parentese: (Fernald, 2015) children prefer parentese to adult conversation (high pitched, wide expression). Even preferred with spoken in a foreign language.
Children as young as 5m are capable of lip reading
Use higher octave, stimulates the brain
https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKI5886xbBA
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The First Year: Emotional Changes
Emotional Social First Year:
Stress in infancy –highest rate of later addictions
Emotions present at birth: interest, disgust and distress
4m laughing –often associated with anxiety
4-6 month can discriminate strangers
7-9m can imitate caregiver’s emotions, clings to familiar people and hides face
12m can express jealousy
Erikson: (1902-2994) Vienna—born out of an affair, went to Psychoanalytic Institute, when Nazi emigrated Germany, he and wife emigrated to Harvard.
Separation anxiety emerges 6m
Erikson—Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
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Smiling
First smiles typically occur by approximately 6-9 weeks of age
At this point, smiling will occur reliably at the sight of something pleasurable (e.g. toys, mobiles, people)
Social smile – the first smile in response to another person as opposed to nonhuman stimuli
While first smiles are somewhat indiscriminate, as babies get older, their smiles will be directed at certain individuals, not just anyone
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Birth-6 Month Development
Physical
Most movements are reflexes
Nervous system not fully developed
Can clearly see objects 10 inches from face
Vision/Hearing formed during first 6 months
Social/Emotional
Develops trust as basic needs are met
Cries as way of communicating anger, pain, and hunger
May smile in response to pleasant sound or someone familiar
May laugh by 4 months
Intellectual/Cognitive
Babbles, coos, and turns to locate source of sounds
Studies hands and feet
Explores objects with mouth
Follows moving objects with eyes
No “object permanence” ability
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6-12 Month Development
Physical
Sleeps and eats at more regular times
Most can sit unassisted
Most begin crawling
Can pick up objects with thumb and forefinger
Pulls up to standing position; may walk
Social/Emotional
Responds to name
Begins to fear strangers and being left by parents
Shows anger when needs not met in timely manner
Begins learning what is and what is not allowed
Intellectual/Cognitive
Responds to simple directions
Looks for things not in sight
Engages in pretend play
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1 Year-18 Month Development
Physical
Walks alone; may run
Pushes/pulls objects
Moves to music
Social/Emotional
Enjoys looking at books
Laughs at funny things
Responds to verbal requests
Intellectual/Cognitive
Understands words in context
Understands cause and effect
Remembers caregivers when out of sight
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Social Referencing
The intentional search for information about others’ feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances/events
Social referencing is used to:
Clarify the meaning of a situation (unusual toy, unfamiliar face)
Decide what an appropriate response might be
This first occurs at approximately 8 – 9 months
Social referencing implies that infants have an understanding of:
Facial expressions and their contexts for use
Other social cues
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Stranger Anxiety
Stranger anxiety emerges during the second half of an infant’s first year of life (typically 7-8 months)
Stranger anxiety refers to the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person.
Infants with more experience with strangers tend to show less anxiety
Infants tend to show less anxiety to female strangers and other children than males
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Separation Anxiety
Separation Anxiety describes the distress displayed by infants when their parent or care provider departs.
This typically emerges by 7-8 months of age and peaks at 14 months.
Both stranger anxiety and separation anxiety reflect both cognitive advances as well as the social and emotional bonds between infants and their caregivers
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Forming Relationships
Attachment is the positive social bond hat develops between a child and a particular, special individual.
Forming attachments to a particular person enables the child to feel pleasure around them as well as comfort in times of distress.
The nature of our attachment during infancy affects how we relate to others throughout the life span.
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Attachment Styles and Parenting
Attachment research has shown that our attachment style is the biggest predictor of what style we will have with our own children. It is the "working model" we develop of how relationships function, and it influences how we relate with the people in our lives.
It is important to note both the significance of the attachment developed in infancy and what is carried through childhood by caregivers. While multiple attachments can be formed, each has an impact on the individual, and can impact the resulting socioemotional development in a variety of ways.
We will explore the various attachment styles and what their working models "look like" in terms of parenting. Next, the resulting impacts on development will be explored.
Contributed By: Rachel Bartels
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Secure Attachment
To form a secure attachment, parents need to be able to attune to their child's needs. They respond compassionately, regulating their own emotions and reactions and thusly are capable of teaching their child these skills. Attuned parents can be present and "be there" for the child. However, it is important to keep in mind no parent is perfect, and no one is attuned to their child 24/7. In fact, even the best parents are only attuned to their children about 30% of the time.
The "working model" of this relationship is that the child learns that they can trust others to be there when they need them. They grow up, able to connect with others in healthy modes of relating, while maintaining a sense of identity.
Contributed By: Rachel Bartels
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Anxious Attachment (Insecure Resistant)
The "emotional drain“
This style is formed when the parent is inconsistently available or rewarding – who sometimes is attuned, and sometimes isn't. The child is left confused and frustrated, never knowing when they will be receiving the emotional attention they need or not. Sometimes, parents form this style when they regularly (though unintentionally) look to their child to meet their emotional needs, using the child as a substitute for real love and "emotional draining" them, instead of looking to other adults to make themselves feel better. Children should not be used as tools for emotional regulation for adults. Additionally, adults should be aware of how much time they are distracted and the consistency in which they respond to their children.
The "working model" of this relationship is that the child learns that they have to be vigilant and attentive in relationships in order to get their needs met. They will have a difficult time trusting others, and may be clingy or insecure.
Contributed By: Rachel Bartels
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Avoidant Attachment (Insecure Avoidant)
The "emotional desert"
In this style, the parent meets only the child's basic needs, and has difficulty responding to the child's emotional needs. The parent feels like an "emotional desert" to the child, so the child learns to pretend like they don't have any needs. They adapt by removing their emotions from themselves since their caregiver will not provide them with what they need. In the end, they develop a façade that says they "can take care of themselves".
The "working model" of this relationship is that the child learns that they should avoid expressing their needs and wants and to keep an emotional distance from others to be safe. They are unlikely to take a chance on others, struggle with intimacy and trust, and are wary of those who try to get close to them. Sometimes these people have difficulty remembering their childhood, and will see early experience as having no impact on who they a are as an adult.
Contributed By: Rachel Bartels
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Disorganized Attachment (Insecure Disorganized)
This style forms when a parent is frightening to the child or when they are frightened by the child. The parent reacts unpredictably, perhaps one moment laughing and rewarding a certain behavior, and then exploding in anger at the same behavior a moment later. The unpredictability is not the same as in anxious attachment, where the child does not know when the affection itself may be present or not. In the disorganized style, what is unpredictable is the parent's general way of acting. The child therefore has no organized strategy to get their needs met, and they experience fear of their parent without a solution. They want to reach out to their parent for safety and comfort, but the closer they get, the more fear they feel. Children with this attachment demonstrate a confusing array of behaviors.
The "working model" of this relationship is that the child learns that even though you desperately need others, they are dangerous and will hurt you. It causes people to both avoid others and cling to them in their adult relationships. They may feel desperate and needy when someone pulls away, then emotionally withdrawn when someone tries to get close. Their behavior in relationships is typically erratic and can be scary for their partner.
Contributed By: Rachel Bartels
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Attachment and Potential Development
Middle & Late Childhood
At this time in development, the world expands to include peers, teachers, and others. Children spend less time with their parents. Attachment becomes more sophisticated.
Securely attached children are associated with:
* lower levels of anxiety and depression
* higher levels of emotional regulation and less difficulty identifying emotions
Adolescence
Securely attached adolescents are less likely to have emotional difficulties and to engage in problem behaviors such as drug abuse and juvenile delinquency.
They are also more likely to report they are in an exclusive relationship or comfortable with intimacy in mid-adolescence.
They are more likely to have positive peer relations and better emotional regulation.
They are more likely to report increasing financial independence by age 21.
Contributed By: Rachel Bartels
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In Adulthood, there are 3 kinds of attachment:
Secure attachment style
have a positive view of relationships and find it easy to get close to others
report high satisfaction in their relationships
relationships are likely to be characterized by trust, commitment, and longevity
typically enjoy sexuality in context of a committed relationship and less likely than others to have one-night stands
Avoidant attachment style
are hesitant to get involved in romantic relationships
once in relationships, tend to distance themselves from their partner
may lead to love or sex addiction – when a parent has effectively "abandoned" their child, either physically or emotionally. The child seeks to 'make it up' somehow through fantasy, fairytale, and unrealistic expectations. As an adult it creates a cycle of forming these idealized people and then bolting when either real intimacy comes up or when the fantasy bubble breaks.
Anxious Attachment style
demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive
may lead to love or sex addiction – when a parent has a child take care of their feelings, the child grows up needing to be needed. They can read a room, know what people need. They search for that feeling of fulfillment, but will inevitably find it smothering, and will push that person away.
Contributed By: Rachel Bartels
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Temperament—80% innate
Temperament:
Tomas & Chase: Goodness of Fit (compatibility between caregiver and child)
Measured: activity level, distractibility, persistence, attention span, quality of mood, intensity of reaction, etc.
NY Long Study—133 infants measured for adaption, sensitivity, mood, adjustment
Easy (40%), Slow to Warm (15%), Difficult (10%)
Harlow’s Study on Attachment
Easy babies:
40% of infants; adjust easily to
new situations, quickly establish routines, are
generally cheerful and easy to calm.
•
Difficult babies:
10% of infants; slow to
adjust to new experiences, likely to react
negatively and intensely to stimuli and events.
•
Slow-to-warm-up babies:
15% of infants;
somewhat difficult at first but become easier
over time
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Child Abuse
Strauss & Strauss (2009)—by age 2, 90% of parents engaged in some sort of psychological/emotional abuse
55% parents slapped child
31% parents pushed, grabbed or shoved child
3% threw something at child
1% kicked, bit, threatened with knife or gun
1:6 children seriously injured by parent. Boys more likely to be hit, more in the south, mother is aggressor
50-60% cases of abuse/neglect go unreported
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