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Socioeconomic Status of Female Offenders Once Released from Incarceration

The Lemoyne Owen College

Division of Social and Behavior Science

What is the Socioeconomic Status of Female Offenders Once Released from Prison?

A Senior Capstone

Submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for

CRJS 460 Comment by Calverta McMorris: correct

By

Alex Washington

Instructor

Dr. Calverta H. McMorris

February 26, 2020

Abstract:

The exponential increase in the number of women parolees and probationers in the last decade has made women the most rapidly growing group of offenders in the United States. The purpose of this descriptive, qualitative study is to understand the unique gendered experiences of homeless female ex-offenders, in the context of healthcare needs, types of health services sought, and gaps in order to help them achieve a smooth transition post prison release. Focus group qualitative methodology was utilized to engage 14 female ex-offenders enrolled in a residential drug treatment program in Southern California. The findings suggested that for homeless female ex-offenders, there are a myriad of healthcare challenges, knowledge deficits, and barriers to moving forward in life, which necessitates strategies to prevent relapse. These findings support the development of gender-sensitive programs for preventing or reducing drug and alcohol use, recidivism, and sexually transmitted infections among this hard-to-reach population.

Table of Content

I. Chapter 1

a. Introduction 5

b. Statement of problem 6

c. Significant of the study 6

d. Need for the study 7

e. Purpose of study 7

f. Operational definitions 8

II. Chapter II -Review of Literature

a. Introduction 10

b. Independent Variable (Incarceration) 14

c. Dependent Variable (Socioeconomic Status) 14

d. Theory Discussion. (Locus of Control) 15

III. Chapter III Research Methodology

a. Research Question 18

b. Research design 18

c. Selection of participants 18

d. Procedure 19

e. Instruments 19 f. Demographics collected 20

g. Assumptions about the kind of research project 20

Chapter I Comment by McMorris, Calverta: Check APA Manual for correction

Introduction:

Women face many objections as they reenter their community after being incarcerated. The collective voices of homeless female ex-offenders are both unified and emblematic of a population which continues to struggle and is at a crossroads. Successful reintegration amidst a storm of healthcare barriers, relationship challenges, substance use and addiction, as well as lack of education and job skills is the reality for many women. The study findings emphasize the need to understand that successful post-release supervision necessitates adequate linkage to healthcare (physical and psychological), job skills and opportunities for employment, stable and safe permanent housing. Successful community reintegration is composed of providing physical and psychological services, as well as substance abuse treatment, job skills and employment opportunities. For clinicians working with homeless women on parole or probation, it is imperative to understand that this population has experienced victimization, traumatic life conditions, and may continue to be faced with potential substance abuse issues. Furthermore, clinicians need to consider the fact that this population struggles with meeting necessities; thus, they need to develop chronic disease treatment plans to facilitate transportation, appointments, and care. Another strategy which can be employed is that providers of RDT facilities can collaborate with nurses and primary care practitioners in order to help facilitate mental health services, dental and other allied health services for this population. Comment by McMorris, Calverta: Need references and removal of personalpronouns.

Statement of the problem:

The problem is that once female offenders are released back into their community, whether its directly or indirectly, these ex-offenders’ socioeconomic status’ changes unbelievably because of the times they are disadvantaged while being incarcerated. Women are typically convicted of relatively minor crimes, because they are usually convicted of offences that are less serious than those committed by men, the sentences they receive are also different. However, female imprisonment has increased dramatically in most western jurisdictions over the last 15-20 years as evidenced by increases in the numbers of women given sentences of imprisonment, in daily female prison populations and in the rate of imprisonment of women (McIvor, 2010). Furthermore, because the rise in women’s imprisonment has outstripped parallel increases in the imprisonment of men, women now make up a greater proportion of prisoners. As of 2016, the number of incarcerated women increased by more than 750% (N/A, 2017). Comment by Calverta McMorris: Too much space

Significant of the study:

African American women make up the largest percentage of incarcerated women, they are also the most invisible prison population, because their voices are often ignored. As a result, literature on African American women's prison writing is even scarcer, due to lack of access or knowledge. Most importantly, they address broader social problems with race, gender, and sexual oppressions. Women social relationships, incarceration experiences, and community context, and the intersection of these factors with race, influence the occurrence and timing of recidivism. The significance of this study is to report the discovery of how female offenders’ socioeconomic status is overwhelmed by their time spent incarcerated. Over the past quarter century, there has been a profound change in the involvement of women within the criminal justice system. This is the result of more expansive law enforcement efforts, stiffer drug sentencing laws, and post-conviction barriers to reentry that uniquely affect women (N/A, 2019). Treatment, education and a focus on return to the community need to be the new model, not just locking people in cages. Recidivism rates are high, and this is largely because people are not provided the resources while incarcerated to improve their behavior (Redden, 2018). Comment by McMorris, Calverta: rewrite Comment by McMorris, Calverta: reference Comment by McMorris, Calverta:

. Given the lack of information about the background of the family of the ex-offenders, future research could benefit from further investigating the family system that was in place before the prisoner's admittance to prison. That investigation could further the supportive nature in which there is a necessary support for studying the family. Another option to help further this study would be to take heed of the programs that are in place to help with prisoner's reintegration into society. This would allow for more information about how the program works and if that would be effective in keeping prisoners out of prison and lowering recidivism. The policies put in place and when they were put in place should also come into play in further investigation of this study. Policies could affect how many prisoners enter prison or possibly released from prison because of the "enforcement" of the policy. Depending on the prison conditions that they faced while incarcerated, it could increase their criminal activity following reentry intosociety (Francesco, 2011).

Need for the study:

This study is compulsory to the increasing number for female offenders that are continuously being imprisoned. They are taken away from job opportunities or employment, education opportunities, friends, associates, and even their families. The United States is one of the top incarcerators of women in the world. The percentage at which women are incarcerated diverge greatly from state to state. That indicates to the number of problems that female offenders faces as being the criminal justice system. As they are incarcerated families are overwhelmed as well as the person imprisoned. This study will inform options as to what can be done to decrease ex-offenders’ chances of returning to prison as well as their chances of being successful following their time spent being incarcerated. Lastly, over the past 24 years our knowledge and understanding of women’s lives have increased dramatically. The new information has impacted and improved services for women in the fields of health, education, employment, mental health, substance abuse, and trauma treatment. At present, both a need and an opportunity exist to bring knowledge from other fields into the criminal justice system in order to develop effective programs for women. Until recently, theory and research on criminality focused on crimes perpetrated by males, with male offenders viewed as the norm. Historically, correctional programming for women has thus been based on profiles of male criminality or paths to crime. However, the programs, policies, and services that focus on the overwhelming number of men in the corrections system often fail to identify options that would be gender-responsive and culturally responsive to the specific needs of women. Comment by McMorris, Calverta: References

Purpose of study:

The purpose of this study is to regulate if imprisonment influences the socioeconomic status of a female prisoner once they are released. The increasing of female offenders is rising each year, as the years continue to go on all across the nation is something that should be discussed. The lack of awareness taking place in prison for female offenders could examine positive and negative development of these prisoners’ lives. Whether a person is incarcerated for a few months to a few years, they are still not a part of their community during the time that is spent in prison. They feel like they have to acclimate to life all over again after being released from prison, hence bettering their socioeconomic status if it was at all afflicted to them being incarcerated. The primary focus of this study is to describe the socioeconomic status of female offenders after incarceration women. The independent variable in this study would be incarceration, and the dependent variable would be socioeconomic status. The target population is female offenders who were released from prison between the ages of 18-35. the research question by explaining the aspects of the socioeconomic status of female offenders once they are released from incarceration Aside from the race in which the study is being conducted, choosing the age group was imperative. The millennials seem to be the age group that is more likely to be incarcerated than any other age group. Comment by McMorris, Calverta: Wrong word Comment by McMorris, Calverta: New word Comment by McMorris, Calverta: Missing information. See Capstone format. References Comment by Calverta McMorris:

Operational definitions: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Terms must be alphabetized and referenced

Socioeconomic status- is the social standing or class of an individual or group. It is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation.

Offender- is the way prison inmates and lawbreakers are often referred to in news reports or by police officers and prison staff.

Recidivism- tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behavior.

Incarceration- the state of being confined in prison; imprisonment.

Success- is peace of mind, which is a direct result of self-satisfaction in knowing you made the effort to do your best to become the best that you are capable of becoming.

Community- a group of people living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in common.

Victimization- the action of singling someone out for cruel or unjust treatment.

Crime- an action or omission that constitutes an offense that may be prosecuted by the state and is punishable by law.

Locus of Control- a construct that is used to categorize people’s basic motivational orientations and perceptions of how much control they have over the conditions of their lives.

external locus of control- tend to behave in response to external circumstances and to perceive their life outcomes as arising from factors out of their control. 

internal locus of control- tend to behave in response to internal states and intentions and to perceive their life outcomes as arising from the exercise of their own agency and abilities.

Quantitative- relating to, measuring, or measured by the quantity of something rather than its quality.

Transition- the process or a period of changing from one state or condition to another.

Solitary Confinement- the isolation of a prisoner in a separate cell as a punishment.

Psychological distress- is a general term used to describe unpleasant feelings or emotions that impact your level of functioning. ... Sadness, anxiety, distraction, and symptoms of mental illness are manifestations of psychological distress.

Chapter II

Literature Review:

Women make up a growing share of incarcerated populations, and they have different needs than justice-involved men. Most female inmates are also mothers of children under the age of eighteen. These women do not stop being mothers when they receive a prison sentence, but in fact try a variety of means to maintain motherhood and mothering while away from their children. Based on research conducted in a women’s prison, mothering from the inside reveals how inmate mothers find places for their children to live, manage relationships with caregivers, demonstrate their fitness as mothers, and negotiate rights to their children under challenging circumstances. The impact of race, ethnicity, and marginality on women in prison is traced through the development of the women s motherhood careers. The incarceration of African American women and threaten to render these women recidivists. The increased incarceration of African American women is part of a cultural phenomenon that reflects their social exclusion in U.S. society. African American women possess limited access to resources to address their health conditions due to intersecting oppressions of race, class, and gender that may be further compounded by involvement with the criminal justice system. Women presented with multidimensional treatment needs, including limited educational/employment histories, significant child-care needs, and histories of victimization and psychological distress. Comment by Calverta McMorris: Correct and explain Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Name of authors and dates Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: This information is not congruent Comment by Calverta McMorris:

Women being incarcerated for drug related offenses at an alarming rate, it is imperative that treatment services be designed to reflect the realities of their lives. This means comprehensive, integrated programs that understand and address the intersection of race, class, gender, and addiction. Even though most professionals believe addiction is a disease, societally we still respond to it chiefly as a crime. When men are incarcerated, women are usually the ones 'holding them down', supporting them and taking care of their children, on the outside. The woman will regularly visit her man and promise to wait for him. But when women become inmates themselves, they rarely get that same kind of support. Despite decreasing crime rates, the United States incarcerates more people than any other nation. Comment by Calverta McMorris: This is your thesis sentence. All things in the rest of this paragraph must support, explain, discuss, describe this sentence. Follow this for all paragraphs Comment by Calverta McMorris: Incomplete sentence

We can also no longer think only of individual addicts but must acknowledge that society fosters addiction. In 2016, there were 1.2 million women under the supervision of the criminal justice system, including 1,031,999 women on probation or parole. Out of 213,722 women incarcerated in 2016, nearly half (102,300) were in jail, and an earlier study suggests that more than half of the women in local jails likely have not been convicted of a crime. While the rate of imprisonment for African American women has been declining since 2000, the 2016 rate (96 per 100,000) was twice the rate of imprisonment for white women (49 per 100,000)(EJI, 2018).Women in state prisons are more likely than men to be incarcerated for a drug or property offense. Compared to 14 percent of incarcerated men, 25 percent of incarcerated women have been convicted with a drug offense; 27 percent of incarcerated women have been convicted of a property crime, in contrast with 17 percent of incarcerated men. Girls of color are much more likely to be incarcerated than white girls. The number of incarcerated youths has declined significantly, but the placement rate for African American girls (110 per 100,000) and Native girls (134 per 100,000) is more than three times greater than for white girls (32 per 100,000). Girls are more likely to be incarcerated for the lowest level offenses; 38 percent of youth incarcerated for status offenses like truancy and curfew violations are girls, and more than half of all youth incarcerated for running away are girls (EJI,2018). The United States judicial system seems to be inefficient. Both men and women, who have not yet been convicted of a crime, rot in overcrowded, unsafe, understaffed jails while waiting on their fair trial in court. Considering the case of Kalief Browder, who was a 16-year-old when he was arrested and who spent three years behind bars on Rikers Island—including two of which he spent in solitary confinement--- before his case was dismissed (Brown & Patterson, 2016). Riker's practices isolation incarceration at its jail complex. It has been discussed that data on jail isolation is not as available as it should (Haney, 2016). The trauma of those years behind bars lingered. At the age of 22, Kalief Browder committed suicide. Comment by Calverta McMorris: explain Comment by Calverta McMorris: reference, but this paragraph is about addictions. Were the crime committed because of acditions? Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris:

Socioeconomic Status (SES) is a measure of an individual's sociological and economic status. Socioeconomic status is considered to be a major basis for inequalities and an important predictor of life. It is an assessment measured in a variety of ways that pertain to a person's work experience, economic, and social position concerning their counterparts, based on education, income, and occupation (Andrew, 2010). The quantitative differences of socioeconomic status can be measured. The metrics of socioeconomic status include: current occupation, education of parents, the highest level of education attained, household income, wealth (assets, capital), net income, and other related variables. People are usually separated into groups based on metrics, from least advantaged to most advantaged, or low, medium, or high SES (Andrew, 2010). There are also three theories of how SES might also greatly affect health. Comment by Calverta McMorris:

Theory

The materialist theory states that gradients in income and wealth are associated with varying levels of deprivation, which in turn affects health status as those with fewer means have inferior access to health care and the necessities of life (Andrew, 2010). Another view is that education influences health through lifestyles and health-related behaviors such as smoking, substance use, and diet (Andrew, 2010). The third theory sees the social status and personal autonomy as key influences on health, particularly through the stresses that accompany low autonomy and low social status (Andrew, 2010). Income is associated with employment status, and many economic factors and the benefits are available to those with disabilities and poor health raising problems of reverse causation (Alexander, 2010). Socioeconomic status is a property of individuals; however, a collection of measures that can be used to describe the social context in which people live. For example, employment rates, average income, or educational attainment may be useful descriptors when describing the groups of people living in similar geographic areas such as housing facilities or neighborhoods and may allow for a conducted study on health. Comment by Calverta McMorris: Need more references. Each paragraph must have at least four different references. Comment by Calverta McMorris: How is this information related to your topic?

There are several strategies for creating alternatives to incarceration for non-violent and drug-affected women, and specific policies that should be modified or nullified in order to give women exiting prison an opportunity to reconstruct their lives. We must advocate for changes in the following laws and policies to assist women in maintaining their ties to their children while incarcerated and provide the legal and economic support that will enable them to regain custody of their children, as they have the basic supports to do so, after their release from prison. More than 60 percent of women in state prisons have a child under age 18(EJI, 2018). (Bloom, Chesney-Lind, & Owen, 1994) argue that mothers in prison face multiple problems in maintaining relationships with their children and encounter obstacles created both by the correctional system and child welfare agencies. The distance between the prison and the children's homes, lack of transportation, and limited economic resources compromise a woman prisoner's ability to maintain these relationships. Children of women in prison experience many hardships. Children may be traumatized by the arrest of their mother and the sudden, forced separation imprisonment brings. Emotional reactions such as anger, anxiety, depression, and aggression have been found in the children of incarcerated mothers. Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Incorrect. Get APAM Comment by Calverta McMorris:

Using a large, modern sample of women released from prison, we find that women who are drug dependent, have less education, or have more extensive criminal histories are more likely to fail on parole and to recidivate more quickly during the eight-year follow‐up period. We also observe racial variation in the effect of education, drug use, and neighborhood concentrated disadvantage on recidivism. This study highlights the importance of an intra‐gender, theoretical understanding of recidivism, and has import for policy aimed at female parolees. There are numerous amounts of issues, problems, and trends facing prisons today(Travis,2014). (Travis, 2014) Some of the major problems that prisoners face while still incarcerated are overcrowding, health care, racism, gang activity, and assaults. Overcrowding in the U.S. Prison system is a huge issue. The United State has the world's largest prison population. Although the United States only takes up 5% of the world's population, they are responsible for 25% of the world's prison population (Brown & Patterson, 2016). There are more mental health patients in prisons and jails than in hospitals or special facilities (Lurigio,2011). They await trial such as their counterparts and miss out on the treatment they need because funding for mental health has been cut from the state budget. With that being said prisoners are not receiving the proper treatment, thus, possibly keeping them in prison longer. Racism, gang activity, and assaults still exist even with prison walls. Prisoners are abused by fellow prisoners as well as by guards. These issues that are faced by prisoners affect their socioeconomic status once they are released. The reentry process for offenders is very difficult. Once prisoners are released into society, they must become accustomed to the many changes that may have taken place. Depending on how long they were incarcerated, it may seem as though prisoners are completely oblivious to the outside world. The reentry process for offenders is very difficult. They may have to brush up on technology, employment opportunities, and uniting with their support system which is a combination of family and friends. Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Comment by Calverta McMorris: Treatment for what

The theory that best regulate with this research is the Locus of Control Theory. The Locus of Control Theory was created by Julian Rotter in 1954. Control can be defined as the power to determine outcomes by directly influencing people, events, and actions. A locus is a place, position, or point in which something occurs. Locus of Control Theory is broken down into two schools of thought. One school of thought is the internal locus of control and the other being the external locus of control. People who base their success on their work and believe they control their life have what is called an internal locus of control (Vyncke, 2010). Opposed to its counterpart the external locus of control, which is when people attribute their success or failure to outside influences. Those who take responsibility for their actions, whether those actions or results are good or bad identify more with an internal locus of control. They tend not to reject the thought of outside influences, for the outcomes in their lives. Conflicting a person with an external locus of control looks to their surroundings as a part of their success or failure. They applaud those around them for a job well done, even if they did not contribute to the accomplishment. Socioeconomic status was theorized by sociologist Talcott Parsons in 1970. Parsons understood that there is such a thing as an idea of status as a position in the social structure. A status is assessed, and the social evaluation is central to Parson's contribution to the concept of socioeconomic status. Parson's also understood family units as the key component of rank, class or caste. The core premise of this theory is that society has to differentially evaluate positions so that members of society are motivated both to pursue the training necessary for the most important positions and, once in those positions, to perform them as well as possible. There are differences in socioeconomic status which is another way to understand "necessary" hierarchy. Once female offenders are released from prison, they must reenter a society that is comprised of their possible occupation, the highest level of education attained, wealth (capital, assets), household income, education of parent/guardian, net income, and other related variables. All these variables are entities of socioeconomic status and are influenced when prisoners are released. An ex-offender can have an internal or external locus of control, which can then affect their socioeconomic status. If a person has more of an internal locus of control, they are more likely to take responsibilities for their actions. The ex-offenders with an internal locus of control, are least likely to fall victim to a low socioeconomic status. However, those with an external locus of control tend to blame their surroundings for their missteps. Many accumulate a low socioeconomic status as well as, the possibility of returning to prison. Comment by Calverta McMorris: How does theory support, explain, discuss, the DV

Methodology:

Research Question

The research question for this study is: What is the Socioeconomic Status of Female Offenders Once Released from Prison?

The hypothesis for the study:

H0: There is no association between incarceration and socioeconomic status.

H1: There is an association between incarceration and socioeconomic status.

The research question for the Locus of Control Theory: How does the Locus of Control Theory play a part in life after incarceration as it pertains to the ex-offender’s socioeconomic status?

Design:

This is Quantitative Research.

Sampling Procedure and Sample

It is essentially beyond the bounds of possibility to study every individual in the target population. In this case, the target population, female offenders who were recently released from prison between the ages of 18-35, would be sampled in Memphis, TN. The simple random sampling procedure would be used for this specific study. There is a need for an equal chance among everyone in the target population to be able to participate in this study. The sample will possibly be more altered depending on who randomly selected for this study and who responds. The participants of the study will be selected at random. They will be chosen from the different steppingstones of the legal system at 201 Poplar. Furthermore, there is not limited to those who have probation meetings, those whom might have an active court case, as well as those whom might just be there to pay on their court fees.

Data Collection Procedure

The issue for this would be: following an everyday routine and the unbelievable conditions that a corrections facility offer; how would that influence a female offenders’ socioeconomic status once releases? Data will be collected from recent studies, done by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. Also, at random sampling, a survey will be distributed to female offenders between the ages of 18 and 35. An association between both the independent variables and dependent variables will be shown through the results. The participants of the study will be selected at random. They will be chosen randomly at 201 Poplar in Memphis, TN which houses some inmates but is also where different types of the court are held, as well as probation offices. The study will be conducted with surveys. These questionaries’ would be constructed of questions with close-ended questions. These questionnaires will be both self-administered. The surveys will also include a Locus of Control Theory test to measure if they seem to be internally or externally controlled.

Instruments:

The instruments used would be surveys, to operationalize the key variables in the study are described below in the text. Instruments were developed to address two of the research questions, 1) Females offender’s socioeconomic status once released and 2) Concerns of being incarcerated as a woman. Both questionnaires designed for use in the study was developed concert with women who has history of being incarcerated.

Demographics collected

The demographics collected would be female offenders that have been previously incarcerated, between the ages 18-35. The study will be conducted in Memphis, TN.

Assumptions of this study

The assumptions of this study vary. The literature review is breaking down the research question by explaining the aspects of the socioeconomic status of female offenders once they are released from incarceration. Based on previous studies the odds seem to be against them once they are released back into society. This study is only being conducted on female offenders the ages of 18 -35, with that being said false stereotypes can arise, presuming the assumption that all female offenders among any age face the same problems upon release from prison. Given the lack of information about the background of the family of the ex-offenders, future research could benefit from further investigating the family system that was in place before the prisoner's admittance to prison. That investigation could further the supportive nature in which there is a necessary support for studying the families of ex-offenders. Another option to help further this study would be to take heed of the programs that are in place to help with prisoner's reintegration into society. This would allow for more information about how the program works and if that would be effective in keeping prisoners out of prison and lowering recidivism. The policies put in place and when they were put in place should also come into play in further investigation of this study. Policies could involve how many prisoners return to prison or possibly, released from prison because of "enforcement" of the policy. It is somewhat assumed that this study, is because of the number of females that are incarcerated, are more likely to have a much harder time in reentering society because of the limitations one could be presented with once you are released. Such as readjusting to a society that is constantly changing, reconnecting with family members and friends, finding a job, and for some even finding a place to live.

Need to develop an outline for this paper, especially for chapter two

Chapter one

Introduction

Problem statement

Need Statement

Significance Statement

Purpose

Chapter II

Introduction

Incarcerated Women

1. Incarcerated Women

Gender differences

2.Separation from children and significant others.

3. Drug and Substance Abuse Before and After imprisonment

a. Rate of SA or addiction in prison among women

b. Lack and need for substance abuse treatment.

4. health care

a. Physical

b. mental

5. Vocation and educational programs.

6. Sexual abuse Before and After imprisonment

7. female incarceration statistics 2019

Choose topics from above to included in the paper, number 7 must be included

Move the information in this paper under the selected sections.

Find information to discuss and complete each section. Do not plagiarize, use your own words. Add references.

References Comment by Calverta McMorris: Correct the reference use APA 7th edition

Alpher, M, Durose, M, Markman, J. (2018). 5 OUT OF 6 STATE PRISONERS WERE ARRESTED WITHIN 9 YEARS OF THEIR RELEASE. Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Andrew, M. K. (2010).  Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2002). Recidivism of Prisoners Releases in 1994. (Index No.

A Woman’s Journey Home: Challenges for Female Offenders and Their Children by: Stephanie S. Covington, PhD, LCSW Co-director, Center for Gender & Justice December 2001

Beth M. Huebner, Christina DeJong & Jennifer Cobbina (2010) Women Coming Home: Long Term Patterns of Recidivism, Justice Quarterly, 27:2, 225-254, DOI: 10.1080/07418820902870486

Bloom, B., Owen, B., and Covington, S. 2000. Focus groups for Gender-responsive strategies: Research, practice, and guiding principles for women offenders project. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Corrections

Brown, V., Melchior, L., and Huba, G. 1999. Level of burden among women diagnosed with severe mental illness and substance abuse. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 31(1): 31-40.

Bureau of Justice Statistics: Historical Corrections Statistics in the United States, 1850-1984; Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear Series (1997-2017), Prisoners Series (1986-2018). Washington, DC

Covington, Stephenie “Women in Prison: Approaches in the Treatment in Our Most Invisible Population.” Women and Therapy Journal, Haworth Press, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1998 

Enos, S. 2001. Mothering from the inside: Parenting in a women's prison, Albany: State University of New York Press.  

Francesco Drago, Roberto Galbiati, Pietro Vertova, Prison Conditions and Recidivism, American Law and Economics Review, Volume 13, Issue 1, Spring 2011, Pages 103–130.

“Harassment, Humiliation and Terror” (front page, Nov. 18):

Henriques, Z. W. and Manatu‐Rupert, N. 2001. Living on the outside: African American women before, during, and after imprisonment. The Prison Journal, 81: 6–19.  

Haney, C., Weill, J., Bakhshay, S., & Lockett, T. (2016). Examining Jail Isolation: What We Don’t Know Can Be Profoundly Harmful. The Prison Journal, 96(1), 126–152

Jacobs, A. 2001. Give me a fighting chance: Women offenders reenter society. Criminal Justice Magazine, 45 (Spring)

Equal Justice Initiative 2020

Lurigio, A. J. (2011). People With Serious Mental Illness in the Criminal Justice System: Causes, Consequences, and Correctives. The Prison Journal, 91(3_suppl), 66S-86S.

Malloch, M. (Ed.), McIvor, G. (Ed.). (2013). Women, Punishment and Social Justice. London: Routledge, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203084755

Manstead, Antony (2018). The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic Status impacts though, feelings, and behavior, British Journal of Social Psychology

Travis, J (2014). The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences CUNY Academic Works.

Utziel‐Miller, N. D., Lyons, J. S., Kissiel, S. and Love, S. 1998. Treatment needs and initial outcomes of a residential recovery program for African American women and their children. American Journal on Addictions, 7: 43–50.  

Vyncke, P. (2010). Restoring Reputations in times of crisis: An experimental study of the situational crisis communication Theory and the moderating effects of the locus of control. Science Direct

Waldman, Alan “Women Face Many Obstacles After Prison Release”, Human Exposures, February 4, 2015 Web. 

Women in Prison Project, 2006 “Coalition for Women Prisoners: Proposals for Reform.” Women in Prison Project, Correctional Association of New York