ASA Format Research Paper - Literature Review

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Adolescent Minorities in Foster Care Systems and the Inadequate Attention They Receive from Society Aliyah Jordan College of Arts, Culture and Scientific Inquiry, University of West Georgia SOCI 3001: Communicating Sociology Angela Brodsky April 4, 2021.

McWey, L. M., Henderson, T. L., & Burroughs Alexander, J. (2008). Parental Rights and the Foster Care System: A Glimpse of Decision Making in Virginia. Journal of Family Issues, 29(8), 1031–1050. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X08316542

Authors McWey, Henderson, and Alexander through their quantitative research of court systems and the foster care process, discovered that there is a disparity in which parental rights can be removed from certain adults who are considered inadequate to provide for their children. The study conducted within the state of Virginia, aimed to determine what factors cause the unchallengeable outcome that results in foster care cases within the Virginia judicial system. They discovered that certain adults who were known to have mental health issues had their rights revoked hastily, parents or guardians who exhibited substance abuse or child neglect (such as the case of Matthew and Charity p.1031). The study examined three separate periods of policies enforced by the court systems and discovered a high amount of TPR (termination of parental rights) decisions enacted upon mentally ill adults. However, there is some concern to be considered in understanding the approach that courts take in considering the “best interest” of the child. As revoking (or reunifying) parental rights is at times a sensitive topic due to legal regulations, at times, coming into conflict with the fundamental nurturing of childcare.

Boddy, J. (2019). Troubling Meanings of “Family” for Young People Who Have Been in Care: From Policy to Lived Experience. Journal of Family Issues, 40(16), 2239–2263. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X18808564

In her scholastic article, Troubling Meanings of Family, author Janet Boddy asserts that for many young people the lack of a stable home or early childhood foundation has prolonging negative effects on relationships. Boddy claims that many individuals have not (or cannot) overcome the turbulent background they lived through within foster care, expanding on that by stating that many young people cannot grasp the concept of family. Her hypothesis she tested and research through European national studies: Beyond Contact and Against All Odds? Asserting that family is not just a genetic relation, instead family is defined as “sense of belonging and of connected selves (Bobby p.2241).” A lack of a nurturing environment and the chaotic upbring results in the concept of family becoming warped and almost insignificant. As people who have lived through these various environments may lack the ability to properly form & build connections due to experiencing several “temporary families.” While analyzing those who suffer troubles with building family-like relations Boddy also examines individuals who are doing “well” after transitioning out of childcare services.

Zhang, Y., & Lee, G. R. (2011). Intercountry Versus Transracial Adoption: Analysis of Adoptive Parents’ Motivations and Preferences in Adoption. Journal of Family Issues, 32(1), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X10375410

In their academic journal, Intercountry Versus Transracial Adoption, authors Zhang and Lee, while studying the intercountry adoption rate in America, assert that there is a disproportionate number of children adopted from the American foster care system due to racial differences. Interviewing parents who have chosen to adopt a child they discovered that there is a negative perception towards American foster children (specifically even black children), in contrast to foreign children who are viewed as “interesting (Zhang & Lee p.76).” While there is a social bias towards adopting domestically, there is also legal barriers that have attempted to combat the prejudice that arises within adoption. Legislative acts such as the 1994 Multiethnic Placement Act aimed to encourage transracial adoption, by making it illegal for adoption agencies to deny children from being adopted by other races. Within that idea of a racial bias, that occurs from selecting children for adoption, many researchers believe that adoption has reinforced and encouraged racial division & hierarchies (Zhang & Lee p.76).

Olmstead, S. B., McWey, L. M., & Henderson, T. (2011). In the Child’s Best Interest: Terminating the Rights of Fathers with Children in Foster Care. Journal of Family Issues, 32(1), 31–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X10375411

Authors Olmstead, McWey, and Henderson through their analytical research of parental rights and the foster care process, aimed to determine the specific factors that prohibit men from being suitable fathers for their children. Within the United States it is often the goal of foster care to reunite families, however there are many issues that arise and ultimately lead to adults being revoked their rights to serve as a parent. Termination of parental rights (TPR) while being the cruel alternative to reunification, has been on an unfortunate uptrend within the U.S., being the eventual fate for many youths in childcare. The authors focus their research on understanding fathers and the role they complete within the family dynamic (within a historical and legal context). Determining that among many other things (substance abuse, commitment to parenting, and mental well-being) it is essential for the co-parental relationship to be healthy and functional, for the father to be involved and a positive influence on their child’s life. “Mothers who prevent fathers from participating…contribute to fathers being even further behind,” (Olmstead, McWey, and Henderson, p.50) it is essential for proper cooperation between mother and father to exist. while there may be a historical reasoning to the gatekeeping method adopted by many mothers, it serves to be more of a detriment than a benefit.

Byrnes, H. F., & Miller, B. A. (2012). The Relationship Between Neighborhood Characteristics and Effective Parenting Behaviors: The Role of Social Support. Journal of Family Issues, 33(12), 1658–1687. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X12437693

In their academic journal researchers, Hilary Byrnes, and Brenda Miller, assert that parental and neighborhood behaviors have a crucial influence on the development of a child’s behavior. Stating that while parental behaviors have a linked connection to the development of the child it is important to note the characteristics of their neighborhood is key to the social foundation for adults and children. Several habits and characteristics (both positive & negative) are found to be linked to the environment in which these people choose to live within the. Within their research Byrnes and Miller discovered, that parents can find difficulty with raising their children in dysfunctional environments (neighborhoods high in crime or lacking in resources) which also has a trickledown effect to the children. Many children (& parents) may choose to adopt the behaviors witness within their neighborhood & immediate environment. Delinquency & substance abuse are among the most common problem behaviors that can arise within undesirable neighborhoods and inadequate social structures. Promoting a healthy & open communication between both parent and children also serves to protect both parties against forming harmful behavioral attributes.

Mersky, J. P., Topitzes, J., & Reynolds, A. J. (2012). Unsafe at Any Age: Linking Childhood and Adolescent Maltreatment to Delinquency and Crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 49(2), 295–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427811415284

In their scholastic article Unsafe at Any Age researchers, Mersky, Topitzes and Reynolds, using data provided by the Chicago Longitudinal Study to analyze the connection between childhood maltreatment and crime & childhood delinquency. They assert that children who are victim to abuse & maltreatment, are more likely to develop criminal behaviors than those who are not victimized. While childhood maltreatment has a significant effect on the growth of violent behaviors in youth, it is also important to note maltreatment that can alter late adolescent developments. Due to many late adolescent behaviors maturing from experiences greatly influenced by childhood experiences. Emotional dysfunction while being the more apparent effect of maltreatment is not the only result, declines in learning and cognitive behavior may begin to simmer into victimized youth. The authors also assert that there is portion of victims who conquer their difficulties & instead are less likely to commit a criminal offense. Not all adolescents who experience abuse change into violent offenders, citing a strong social structure as the protective buffer against criminal behaviors.

Font, S., Berger, L. M., Slepicka, J., & Cancan, M. (2021). Foster Care, Permanency, and Risk of Prison Entry. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224278211001566

In their scholarly journal researchers, Font, Berger, Slepicka, and Cancan, assert that the type of exit a person takes after leaving foster care has a related risk with them experiencing imprisonment. Asserting that there is a “risk of entry into a state prison” (Font, Berger, Slepicka, and Cancan p.1) for many youths who have lived through foster care, either before adulthood or during their time of late adolescence. Studying data measured across the population of Wisconsin youth, the researchers determined to investigate the percentage of imprisonment across the various demographics of children who have undergone foster care. Claiming that the risk of incarceration varies amongst each category, youth who “age-out” of foster care are significantly more disadvantaged than children who either reunify or enter permanent placement. Foster’s youth who end up in aging-out may be the most disadvantaged group however, that is not revealing the harsh reality of those who choose to reunify with their family. Individuals who choose to reunify lose out on the support and benefits provided by foster care, among “30% of youth who reunify” (p.6) with their family experience repeated maltreatment and have continued unsteadiness with familial relations.

Dijkstra, J. K., Kretschmer, T., Pattiselanno, K., Franken, A., Harakeh, Z., Vollebergh, W., & Veenstra, R. (2015). Explaining Adolescents’ Delinquency and Substance Use: A Test of the Maturity Gap: The SNARE study. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(5), 747–767. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427815582249

In their academic journal, the authors, researchers located at the Utrecht University and the University of Groningen, assert that delinquency and substance abuse is linked to biological maturation. By using data provided by the Social Network Analyses of Risk (SNARE) to test their hypothesis, that there is in fact a link between “parental conflict and the development of delinquency” (Dijkstra, Kretschmer, Pattiselanno, Harakeh, Vollebergh and Veenstra p.748) in youth. The researchers found their theory to be strongly supported by the evidence of maturity gaps and certain delinquent behaviors exhibited by a large number of adolescents. The need to seek validation from a growing peer network and many physiological changes (such as puberty) lend to the increased sense of independence & awareness for many adolescents. While they may be going through biological and mental changes, for many young people they are still seen as children from a societal viewpoint. The combination of both psychological obstacles and dysfunctional environments, will give rise to problematic behaviors in youth as asserted by the authors. Adolescents (regardless of gender) may display delinquent behavior as reflected through their social maturation, to declare their independence.

Harris-McKoy, D., Meyer, A. S., McWey, L. M., & Henderson, T. L. (2014). Substance Use, Policy, and Foster Care. Journal of Family Issues, 35(10), 1298–1321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13481439

In their scholastic article, Substance Use, Policy, and Foster Care, the researchers assert that the Adoption and Safe Families Act (the ASFA), has terminated the parental rights of more parents than any previous time before its formation. The authors argue that termination of parental rights can permanently “sever the relationship between parent and child” (McKoy, Meyer, McWey and Henderson p.1299), and under the regulation of ASFA securing the relationship between parent and child is not as relevant. In the eyes of the court, the struggles of alcohol or other drug (AOD) problems and ensuring the safety of the child takes a higher importance than the family relationship. Nevertheless, that does not mean that all courts view AOD as an absolute decision, depending on the circumstances of treatment a parent has attempted certain courts have overturned the TPR decision. Proper reunification of families can take place depending on how long the parents’ treatment has been going on and how long it takes for them to begin treating their AOD issues.

Costa, P. A., & Tasker, F. (2018). “We Wanted a Forever Family”: Altruistic, Individualistic, and Motivated Reasoning Motivations for Adoption Among LGBTQ Individuals. Journal of Family Issues, 39(18), 4156–4178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X18810948

While there may be a diverse count of children that may be adopted from foster care, there is also a diverse population of parents who can also be motivated to adopt a child. Within this academic journal authors, Costa and Tasker, claim that there is a growing diversity of LGBTQ parents (within the United Kingdom) who are adopting foster children. “94% of adoptive parents decided to pursue adoption because they wanted to make a difference.” Using LBGTQ parents who have adopted children across the UK as the sample populations the research discovered that many parents were adopting kids for altruistic reasons more so than anything else. However, this practice has received criticism (or vocal displeasure) from a certain individual within society. Many LGBTQ parents received discrimination or barriers to adoption, due to negative biases about sexual/gender identity. Other parents have stated to have fears for their adopted children, expecting their kids to face discrimination or victimization from society.