Discussion 1: Impact of Unmet Expectations on Employee Attitudes

A historical approach to realistic job previews

An exploration into their origins, evolution, and recommendations for the future

John E. Baur, M. Ronald Buckley and Zhanna Bagdasarov University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA, and

Ajantha S. Dharmasiri Postgraduate Institute of Management, University of Sri Jayewardenepura,

Colombo, Sri Lanka

Abstract

Purpose – The aim of this paper is to provide some historical understanding of a popular recruitment procedure called a Realistic Job Preview (RJP). As long as individuals have worked for others there has been a need to exchange information about a focal job. Information can be exchanged through myriad channels. The aim here is to trace the origins of RJPs and discuss the initial studies that generated attention and interest in what has become known as “realistic recruitment”.

Design/methodology/approach – Along with a historical account, this paper provides a summary of the limitations associated with this method, proposed psychological processes mediating effectiveness of RJPs, and issues with development, mode of presentation, implementation of RJPs, and an important alternative/accompanying technique (ELP).

Findings – While this technique has been used for many years, it will continue to be a quality addition to any worker socialization program.

Originality/value – The value of this paper is that it places this technique in an historical context.

Keywords Recruitment, Human resources management, Realistic job previews

Paper type Research paper

Introduction Throughout the history of organizations there has been a need to exchange information about the content of the work that needed to be performed. This information has been essential in helping workers to be able to successfully prepare for both the organization and the specific duties of the employment position. In order to help ensure a better fit between the organization and the employees, this exchange of information should be conducted during the recruitment process and prior to a mutual selection by the organization and employee into an employment contract.

The study of employee recruitment has been central to the human resource literature and has markedly increased in recent years (Billsberry, 2007; Breaugh et al., 2008; Breaugh and Starke, 2000) leading to numerous reviews of the literature (e.g. Barber, 1998; Breaugh, 1992, 2008; Breaugh and Starke, 2000; Rynes, 1991; Wanous, 1992). Recruitment has been defined as the practices and tasks by an organization to identify and attract potential employees (Barber, 1998). However, as Barber (1998) noted, the recruitment process continues after the mere attraction of job candidates. Because candidates are able to self-select out of the hiring process when

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Journal of Management History Vol. 20 No. 2, 2014 pp. 200-223 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1751-1348 DOI 10.1108/JMH-06-2012-0046

they do not perceive a good fit with the organization, unattractive job offerings may not be accepted (Turban et al., 1993). The majority of the research into recruitment has focused on what Saks (2005) described as the “3 R’s” – realistic job previews, recruitment methods, and recruiter behaviors. Although researchers have begun to look into other areas of the recruitment process (e.g. Boswell et al., 2003; Dineen et al., 2007), realistic job preview continues to remain a central area of interest.

The purpose of this paper, then, is to examine the evolution of the processes that organizations use to disseminate information to job candidates and the outcomes associated with the work socialization process as well as realistic recruitment. In doing so, we focus this paper on realistic job previews, the area of the recruitment literature that has received the most interest from organizational scholars (Phillips, 1998). First, we briefly discuss what realistic job previews are. Next, we review the expansive literature and organize it in chronological order from its conception as a “realistic job concept” in the 1950s to the current day. Then we pay special attention to the psychological processes that underlie the effectiveness of realistic job previews, as well as the mixed results that have been found, leading some scholars to question the value of the previews. Finally, we use the synthesized review of the past and present literature to offer suggestions for several future advances in both the theoretical and practical use of realistic job previews.

Realistic job previews Research in realistic job previews has been conducted for over 50 years (Breaugh, 1992). Phillips (1998) noted that realistic job previews have garnered the greatest level of attention of all recruitment issues. A realistic job preview (RJP) is defined as a technique that presents job applicants with a “realistic” view of what they should expect from the organization. To do so, the organization provides job applicants with “all pertinent information without distortion” (Wanous, 1980, p. 37) which is both positive and negative (Ganzach et al., 2002; Wanous, 1973, 1977, 1980).

Realistic job previews were created as an alternative to the “seduction” method of recruiting in which job candidates were only told positive information. This was done to maximize the attractiveness of the position at the expense of decreased accuracy of the actual duties and/or work environment. Since many employers attempt to entice job applicants by portraying a purely positive image (Billsberry, 2007), job candidates often have unrealistically high expectations which are then subsequently unmet upon employment (Wanous, 1992). These unrealistically high expectations have been theorized to lead to employees having a harder time integrating into the organization, which results in lower job satisfaction and increased intentions to quit (Breaugh and Starke, 2000). Scholars have frequently found that the integration into the organization during the initial employment period is critical to the success of the employee in the organization (Caplow, 1964; Crow, 1967; Feldman, 1976; Porter et al., 1975).

In addition to the effect of reducing turnover and increasing job attitudes (Reilly et al., 1981; Wanous, 1977, 1980), scholars have argued that employers also have an “ethical imperative to provide recruits with realistic job previews” (Buckley et al., 1997, p. 468). Further, new employees with inflated expectations may feel misled when they perceive that the organization did not fulfill their expectations, thereby leading to perceived psychological contract breeches (Rousseau, 1995). Psychological contract breeches have been defined by Roehling (1997) as the perceived beliefs by an employee

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of an exchange agreement regarding what he or she is expected to give to the organization and what the organization is expected to reciprocate in return. Turnley and Feldman (2000) found that the relationships between psychological contract breeches and intentions to quit, neglect of in-role duties, as well as organizational citizenship behaviors are moderated by unmet expectations. Breeches in psychological contracts can lead to resentment, anger, decreased motivation, reduced job satisfaction and commitment, and turnover (Cole, 1981; Roehling, 1997; Rousseau, 1989; Schein, 1980; Tornow, 1988).

Therefore, realistic job previews are able to help accomplish two simultaneous organizational goals (Tate, 1994). First, job candidates are given accurate information with which they can self-select out of a job offer that is not a good match for them. Second, organizations will have a more stable and satisfied workforce.

At the core of realistic job previews is the belief that employees deserve to enter organizations with their eyes wide open, being aware of not only the details of what their jobs entail (e.g. tasks involved, hours required, and format of compensation), but also possessing clear and accurate expectations so as to prevent disillusionment following entry into the organization. These ideas, over the years, have been embraced by organizational researchers as key tenets of what has become known as “realistic recruitment” (Wanous, 1980).

Psychological processes underlying RJPs The question of why RJPs work was first investigated by Wanous (1973). His “met expectation” hypothesis, also known as the “reality shock” model, states that RJPs lower the initial job expectations of new employees to a level that is more likely to be congruent with what is actually encountered on the job (Miceli, 1985; Wanous, 1977). In doing so, he found support for the claim that individuals whose expectations are met are more likely to be satisfied with the job, and less likely to leave voluntarily. Zaharia and Baumeister (1978) interviewed departing employees and found that the misalignment of initial employee expectations with the actual job situation was a key source of dissonance.

The second hypothesis claims that RJPs impact job satisfaction and turnover by improving an employee’s ability to cope with the new job demands (Ilgen and Seely, 1974). This may occur because employees were cautioned about unpredictable events during the RJP. Also it may be that employees occasionally rehearse methods of dealing with issues they were warned about, and thus are better equipped when a similar event occurs (Breaugh, 1983).

The third explanation suggests that RJPs communicate an “air of honesty” to applicants when the organization is willing to divulge both negative and positive aspects of the job (Wanous, 1977). Organizations that are perceived as being honest will be more likely to attract loyal job candidates that will be less likely to voluntarily quit (Cialdini et al., 2004; Earnest et al., 2011; Schwepker, 1999).

The fourth and final explanation suggests that RJPs lead to self-selection on the part of job candidates. Simply stated, it is reasoned that job applicants will select themselves out of the running for a job if it appears that the job is not a good fit for them (Wanous, 1977, 1980).

In addition to the main four hypotheses that have been suggested above, Greenhaus et al. (1983) hypothesized another psychological process to explain the success of

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realistic job previews – value attainment. Value attainment is the aligning of personal job values with job experiences. The authors found support for an increased effect of value attainment in explaining satisfaction than a similar effect of met expectations on satisfaction.

Historical evolution of the realistic job preview research Weitz and Nuckols (1955) provided the first evidence that employees can possess unrealistic expectations about the nature of work they perform. Although primarily interested in studying the relationship between employee satisfaction with specific aspects of their jobs and its impact on performance (operationalized as job survival), Weitz and Nuckols found an interesting pattern of results. Specifically, the authors generated a list of 58 satisfaction and 82 dissatisfaction items for inclusion in a questionnaire and then distributed the instrument to 2,710 insurance agents. A large percentage of the sample marked two items that were not part of the initial hypotheses. Agents appeared to be highly dissatisfied when there was a misrepresentation of their employment contracts or of their job requirements and advancement possibilities (Weitz and Nuckols, 1955). The employees’ disillusionment with their work, then, may have resulted from misrepresentation of the job during the recruitment phase. Further, the authors discovered that those agents who claimed that their managers misrepresented the job or job possibilities during the interview were more likely to voluntarily quit than were those who did not agree with these statements. This finding inspired the authors to speculate about the content of recruitment communications, most of which are likely positively skewed by the recruiters.

Weitz (1956) conducted a follow-up study to explore these unexpected outcomes by testing the hypothesis that being given a more accurate job description will lead to a reduction in employee turnover. This study became the first published example of a realistic job preview, although called a “realistic job concept” by Weitz. Interested in the impact of job expectancy on job survival, Weitz tested the usefulness of a booklet containing “realistic” information about the work of an insurance agent (i.e. sketches of agents performing various duties with detailed descriptions of each and the expected hours of work). The study’s sample was derived from the applicants for employment of an insurance firm with several district offices, half of which were selected for the experimental group while the other half were placed in the control group. Participants in the experimental condition were mailed the “realistic” booklet, while those in the control group were not. The study found that of the 226 applicants in the experimental group that were hired, 19 percent voluntarily terminated within six months. During the same timeframe, 27 percent of the 248 applicants hired from the control group voluntarily quit. With these results, the author concluded that turnover was impacted by the “realistic job concept.”

Unfortunately, Weitz’s early work did not build the momentum to spark an immediate surge in research. In the 1960s only two studies were conducted using Weitz’s “realistic job concept,” neither of which was published (Macedonia, 1969; Youngberg, 1963).

The 1970s saw a noticeable increase in attention and research in the realm of realistic recruitment. In 1973, Wanous published the first empirical article since Weitz (1956), and has been credited with renaming the construct as Realistic Job Preview (RJP) (Morse and Popovich, 2009). In his first study in the newly renamed construct,

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Wanous investigated the effects of a realistic job preview versus a traditional preview (the orientation currently in place in the organization) on job acceptance, attitudes, and survival while focusing on job expectations. In this field study of newly hired female telephone operators, participants were randomly selected to watch one of two preview films about the telephone operator’s job. One of the films was a traditional recruitment tool used previously by the organization, while the other was an experimental film developed by the author. The traditional film was mostly positive while the experimental film contained both positive and negative information about the job. Wanous posited that the inclusion of negative information would lower employees’ initial job expectations, making them more consistent with the reality of both the actual job and the organization. Wanous found that those who viewed the “realistic” film had lower expectations in comparison to the control group. These findings were consistent with the one published (Weitz, 1956) and two unpublished (Macedonia, 1969; Youngberg, 1963) prior studies. However, Wanous was unable to find statistically significant results for job survival between the new employees in the two groups. The experimental group had a turnover rate of 38 percent after three months, while the control group’s turnover rate was noticeably higher at 50 percent during the same period. In addition to these findings, Wanous also discovered that those who viewed the realistic film had significantly fewer thoughts (based on self-report questions) about leaving the organization than those who viewed the traditional film, thereby indicating reduced intentions to quit.

Following this foundational study, the 1970s saw limited but increased research utilizing RJPs with similar outcomes. Most of the research on realistic recruitment centered on “realistic expectations,” as suggested by Wanous (1973) (e.g. Farr et al., 1973; Ilgen and Seely, 1974). Also, realistic expectations were found to mediate the relationship between RJPs and turnover. These consistent findings in support of the organizational benefits of RJPs led to a surge of research in the 1980s and 1990s.

So great was the newfound interest in RJPs, that of the 38 studies published between 1956 and 1989, 25 (66 percent) were done in the 1980s (Wanous and Colella, 1989). It was also during this time that Wanous published his book on organizational entry in 1980 that outlined a model for the realistic recruitment approach and continues to serve as a seminal work in identifying the need for realistic job previews and the mutual process of recruitment for both the organization and the employee. In 1984, Colarelli sought to test the medium that information is delivered by when giving realistic job previews, by examining bank tellers. In doing so, he created two experiment groups; the first received an RJP through a brochure and the second through a conversation with an employee already performing the job. Colarelli’s results indicated that the face-to-face conversation was more effective than the brochure in reducing turnover, however, both treatment groups produced similar results regarding job satisfaction and intentions to quit.

Also during the 1980s, Dean and Wanous (1984) compared RJPs that were specific to the job versus RJPs that were more general to the organization. The results from studying 249 bank tellers found no difference in job attitudes or turnover rates, although there was a temporal effect to the turnover in which those new employees that were given the specific RJPs were more likely to quit earlier than those given the general RJPs. As early turnover is cheaper to an organization, these findings are an important discovery to the practical use of RJPs. Pond and Hay (1989) tested the

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moderating effect of perceived general self-efficacy on the relationship of task preview and task performance and found support for the moderation in a sample of undergraduate students. Students high in general self-efficacy had higher task performance after experiencing a realistic task preview, while those students low in general self-efficacy had a negative effect on task performance after experiencing a realistic task preview.

Meglino et al. (1988) also furthered the study of realistic job previews by not only looking at previews that were created to reduce unrealistically high expectations (reduction previews), but also previews that were created to raise unrealistically low expectations (enhancement previews). In a study of 533 US Army recruits, the authors found that trainees that were exposed to both the reduction and enhancement previews had the lowest turnover while, surprisingly, the trainees that were only exposed to the traditional form of RJPs, reduction previews, actually had the highest turnover. As rationale for these findings, the authors agreed with Meglino and DeNisi (1987) for the possibility of a threshold effect in which previews that provide too much negative information will surpass an individual’s threshold, thereby no longer providing a beneficial preview but rather influencing him or her to self-select out of the hiring process.

As the 1990s began, there were several interesting questions yet to be answered by researchers. Pitt and Ramaseshan (1995) explored which factors of a realistic job preview were important in a study of 130 salespeople. In doing so, they found that personal relevance, as well as information depth and accuracy, were significant predictors in whether the salespeople perceived they had previews which realistically reflected their jobs. Information volume, however, was not found to be significant, thereby making an argument for the importance of RJP quality over quantity. Bretz and Judge (1998) used two samples of undergraduate and graduate students to find support for job candidates becoming less interested in employment positions when negative information is provided. Additionally, the authors also found that higher quality candidates have higher opportunity costs due to their increased alternative job opportunities. As such, they are more likely to self-select out of the hiring process when negative information is provided. This is likely to have negative implications for the organization which must then make offers to less qualified employees (Boudreau, 1991). As the 1990s concluded, a new meta-analysis produced surprisingly mediocre results (Phillips, 1998). Specifically, correlations between RJPs and voluntary turnover (20.06), job satisfaction (20.01), and a climate of honesty (0.05) produced results with very small effects. These lower than expected results led some scholars, including Phillips, to question the value of RJPs in practice and research. Recently, Breaugh (2008) attributed the decline in research of RJPs in the 2000s to the findings of this meta-analysis.

On the heels of Phillips’ (1998) meta-analysis, research in the 2000s began with another meta-analysis (Meglino et al., 2000). Meglino and colleagues found that prior exposure to the employment position moderated the effect of the RJP in such a way that the more exposure an employee has to the position, the less effective the RJP will be. Additionally, the meta-analysis found that newly hired employees who had experienced realistic job previews remained likely to voluntarily quit shortly after accepting the position, but were more committed in the long run than employees who did not experience the previews. Earnest et al. (2011) conducted a meta-analytic path

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analysis and found similar results as Phillips’ (1998) earlier meta-analysis. Using path analysis of the four hypotheses proposed as the psychological processes underlying the functioning of realistic job previews, only the perceptions of honesty in the organization had a significant effect on voluntary turnover. Further, the results suggested that realistic job previews are surprisingly more effective when given post-hire rather than pre-hire.

Mixed results of realistic job previews Despite the logical relationships between realistic job previews and outcomes such as job satisfaction and reduced intentions to quit, results have often been mixed, with many studies finding either weak or no relationships (Breaugh, 2008). For example, two early meta-analyses (Premack and Wanous, 1985; McEvoy and Cascio, 1985) found differing results. Premack and Wanous (1985) found that realistic job previews had an average effect size of 0.06 on job survival which included very little between-studies effect size variance. McEvoy and Cascio (1985), however, found the average effect size for the same relationship of realistic job previews and job survival to be 0.09 with significant between-studies effect size variance. These conflicting results were addressed by Wanous and colleagues (Wanous et al., 1989) in their important work in outlining the numerous judgment calls that must be made when conducting a meta-analysis. In doing so, the authors found that, in addition to only using 11 of the 20 studies from the Premack and Wanous (1985) meta-analysis, McEvoy and Cascio (1985) also used two additional studies that were highly significant outliers which greatly impacted their results. Another study found that realistic job previews negatively impacted the decision by European graduate students who were being mentored to accept a job offer at their mentor’s organization (Spitzmuller et al., 2008). Specifically, the study found that realistic job previews may have a suppressor effect (Conger, 1974) by decreasing the intentions of the protégé to pursue employment opportunities with the organization.

The lower than expected results have led some scholars to question the value in studying realistic job previews (e.g. Phillips, 1998). Breaugh (2008) suggested that the modest effects from Phillips’ (1998) meta-analysis caused a reduction in interest by researchers, as evidenced by a decline in new studies. Rynes and Cable (2003) as well as Saks (2005) have also found only modest positive effects of RJPs. Miceli (1985) conducted a laboratory experiment to specifically test the self-selection rationale for the effectiveness of RJPs against the reality shock psychological process. The findings from the study led the author to suggest that applicants that receive unrealistically positive information, the very reason for the creation of RJPs, actually had higher levels of satisfaction than did employees receiving realistic previews. Following this work, Miceli (1985) again found that the more that social cues pre-hire were favorable, the more that evaluations post-hire would be favorable as well. In doing so, she created an alternative model, the “fadeout” model which suggests that these social cues from recruiters will impact the applicant’s perceptions initially in a positive direction, such that those previews with more balanced or unfavorable information will lead to a reduction in satisfaction. Further, these effects will fade away over time. As such, several scholars (e.g. Lewis, 1980; Reilly et al., 1981; Schwab, 1981; Tenopyr and Oeltjen, 1982) have argued that RJPs serve little benefit to organizations. Zaharia and Baumeister (1981) tested both written and videotaped RJPs and found no statistically significant effect of either on turnover above the results of the control groups.

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The modest findings have led researchers to speculate under which situations and using what mediums realistic job previews are the most effective (Allen et al., 2007). Breaugh (1983) suggested that the job candidate must have unrealistic expectations and be able to self-select out of the hiring process in order for realistic job previews to be effective. Without unrealistically high initial expectations, the RJP will be less effective, as the purpose of reducing these expectations is unneeded. As such, the degree to which the focal position can be easily observed, such as bank tellers and convenience store attendants, may help to diminish high expectations thereby making them less than ideal to test realistic job previews (Dean and Wanous, 1984). Meglino et al. (1988) suggested that RJPs are effective only if the information contained within them can be comprehended and therefore should be more successful for more intelligent applicants. Breaugh and Billings (1988) proposed that job applicants find some aspects of the employment position more important than others. The effectiveness, then, of the RJP should be linked to whether it addresses the important aspects of the position or not. Breaugh and Billings (1988) agreed that a successful RJP must contain important information, and information which is already known is not considered important to learn. Therefore, having past experience with the position, either through similar work experience (Breaugh, 1992) or internships (Taylor, 1988) should decrease initial expectations to a more realistic level.

Reilly et al. (1979) suggested that the complexity of the job may moderate the effectiveness of the realistic job preview. In doing so, the authors noted that the early studies that found significance were of more complex jobs, such as West Point cadets and insurance agents (Ilgen and Seely, 1974; Macedonia, 1969; Weitz, 1956; Youngberg, 1963), while the studies that did not find significance were of less complex jobs, such as sewing machine operators and telephone operators (Farr et al., 1973; Wanous, 1973). The moderation of work complexity was also suggested by Dean and Wanous (1984).

Informal realistic job previews, such as a casual conversation with a friend already employed at the organization, have been suggested to be more effective in increasing both performance and survival rates (Bretz and Judge, 1998; Rynes, 1991; Wanous and Colella, 1989). Finally, Earnest et al. (2011) found support through their meta-analysis that RJPs may actually be more effective when they are administered post-hire rather than pre-hire.

Scholars have also questioned whether providing realistic job previews may actually harm the organization’s chances of hiring more qualified candidates. Guion (1991) noted that there are differences in the quality of the job candidates. Subsequent studies found that more desirable candidates may, due to their alternatives, be less willing to accept an offer in which any negative situations are discussed (Bretz and Judge, 1998; Rynes et al., 1991). In many ways, this concept addresses the self-select hypothesis in that employees are able to use RJPs in order to assess the perceived fit between their values and needs with those offered by the organization. Other scholars, such as Reilly et al. (1979) also found support for lower acceptance rates of job offers by applicants who received realistic job previews. A meta-analysis by Meglino et al. (1997) found that employees that have prior similar work experience, and therefore realistic initial expectations, were turned off by the discussion of the negative aspects of the position.

One concern is that researchers may often incorrectly operationalize RJPs by studying what Miceli (1983) described as fundamentally different phenomena

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(Breaugh and Billings, 1988). In many ways, these criticisms are an adaptation of Wanous’ (1978) claim that researchers have often used RJPs to focus on the organization’s rather than the employee’s expectations. In order to help provide more clarity and consistency in the RJP research, Breaugh and Billings (1988) argued that five key attributes of the information contained in RJPs: accuracy, specificity, breadth, credibility, and importance, should be the focus of future research. Further, Wanous (1989) noted that despite the increase in interest by researchers in the examination of realistic job previews, no guide had been presented on how to conduct RJPs. As such, he presented ten tough choices that scholars and practitioners alike must consider when creating a realistic job preview. These ten choices include deciding whether or not the content will be descriptive or judgmental, extensive or unstructured, and high or medium negativity. Also decisions must be made as to the medium used to deliver the RJP and whether to initiate it late or early in the recruitment process. Wanous’ work, in addition to reconfirming some of the suggestions listed in this paper by other scholars (e.g. what medium to deliver the RJP and the degree of negativity to include within it) also highlights that there are ten separate decisions or tough choices that must be made in crafting a realistic job preview. Undoubtedly, these tough choices can create radically different RJPs which will in turn affect the measurement of their effectiveness and possibly explain some of the mixed results in the research to date.

Another concern centers on the methodological flaws that have plagued some of the RJP research. Scholars have debated and tested which of the psychological processes are central to the success of realistic job previews with mixed results. The met-expectation hypothesis, originally created by Wanous (1973) and Porter and Steers (1973), has received much of the attention. A meta-analysis (Wanous et al., 1992) found support for the hypothesis; however these results were later questioned due to a potential methodological flaw (Irving and Meyer, 1994, 1995). Specifically, Irving and Meyer argued and found support for the claim that direct measures of realistic job previews may be artificially skewed. Direct measures often require employees to compare their current experiences with their previously held expectations. In doing so, the authors found that the perceptions the employees had of their pre-employment expectations were biased due to their recent behaviors and experiences. The work by Irving and Meyer helped to shed light on the underlying problem of using difference scores.

Subsequently, Hom et al. (1998) attempted to examine the effects of met expectations, the employee’s ability to cope, and the air of honesty. The study once again found met expectations to be an important mediator for the success of RJPs. Nevertheless, Irving and Meyer (1999) also found similar methodological flaws in the work of Hom et al. (1998) as of that in the prior meta-analysis. In this case, Irving and Meyer (1999) found a similar methodological weakness in the use of residual difference scores, as they had prior shown with standard difference scores when relating post-hire experiences with pre-hire expectations After correcting for these flaws, the authors reran the data and found that met expectations was no longer the central mediator, but instead, coping strategies along with perceived employer concern and honesty played a more critical role (Hom et al. 1999). Likewise, several studies have also disputed the self-select hypothesis (Colarelli, 1984; Far et al., 1973; Haccoun, 1978; Macedonia, 1969; Reilly et al., 1981; Wanous, 1973; Zaharia and Baumeister, 1981).

As reflected by the studies above, findings of realistic job previews have frequently suffered from methodological issues. Breaugh and Starke (2000) suggest there are two

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main areas of concern. First, additional emphasis needs to be placed on the differences between job applicants in order to determine to whom and in what conditions RJPs are successful. Second, the way the variables have been measured is a cause for concern. Specifically, the use of difference scores and residual difference scores have inflated the results, and in some cases, produced opposing results than when correctly measured (Hom et al., 1999). It is due to these methodological problems that some scholars have posited that the benefits of RJPs have been underestimated (Breaugh, 2008).

The future of realistic job previews in research Realistic job previews (RJPs) have been studied for over half a century (Breaugh, 1992). With several organizational benefits such as decreased turnover, increased job satisfaction, and stronger organizational commitment, RJPs offer many advantages to organizations and warrant its place as a central component in the research of organizational scholars. To date, scholars have found RJPs to be effective in different environments, contexts, formats, and organizations. Undoubtedly, RJPs will continue to be studied and implemented for years to come both in testing the theoretical conceptualizations posited in prior work and in advancing the empirical studies into dynamic new areas. Based upon our examination of the historical lineage of the RJP research presented in this paper, we suggest the following important areas of research still waiting to be discovered.

Recently, scholars have deconstructed RJPs to create a new realistic recruitment procedure, expectation lowering procedures (ELPs) (Buckley et al., 1998). Buckley and colleagues suggested that expectation lowering procedures may be able to serve as a substitute or complement to RJPs. In doing so, the authors focused on the met expectation hypothesis and created ELPs as another way in which a closer alignment between candidate expectations and actual experiences could be fostered. ELP proponents claim that it addresses some of the weaknesses in RJPs, thereby making it a more powerful tool to accomplish the same purpose. For example, the content of ELPs is more general, while RJPs require organization-specific information. ELPs provide general information that helps applicants to better realize the expectations and dynamics of working for the organization (Morse and Popovich, 2009). This is considered an improvement over RJPs because developing RJPs can be a long and costly procedure (Morse and Popovich, 2009) forcing managers to create separate RJPs for each employment position within the organization. ELPs, on the other hand, frequently include a general conversation in which topics discussed include: basic expectations, occasions in which expectations were not met, and a warning of the dangers of having unrealistic expectations (Buckley et al., 2002). In this way, not only can an organization perform identical ELPs for all newly hired employees, but templates ELPs can also be created for entire industries. In addition to the cost saving benefits, ELPs also help to address the concern of individual differences within job candidates. Specifically, different candidates may be interested in different information or learn through different methods. Breaugh and Billings (1988) raised this concern when they questioned the ability to create an accurate RJP for all applicants when individuals have different desires in seeking jobs. ELPs, because of their broad discussion of general expectations, are able to be adapted and interpreted in different ways by different job candidates to best meet their individual needs.

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Buckley et al. (1998) maintain that job applicants exposed to ELPs would be less likely to generate negative attitudes towards a specific job/organization. It has been suggested that RJP’s inclusion of negative aspects about the job may deter skilled applicants from accepting an offer for employment (Bretz and Judge, 1998). ELPs are not company-specific and thus do not derogate the organization: two studies (Buckley et al., 1998, 2002) have found support for these claims by showing that ELPs were successful at lowering employee expectations, reducing turnover, and enhancing job satisfaction when compared to control groups. Buckley et al. (2002) compared ELPs and RJPs, with the results demonstrating analogous findings. Thus, it appears that RJPs and ELPs work in a similar manner, but ELPs might deliver comparable results faster and cheaper than RJPs. In light of this important advancement, scholars should reevaluate the espoused benefits of RJPs in order to determine the ideal system in which to reduce new employee expectations. There are, perhaps, many opportunities for revolutionizing this procedure that will create new, less expensive socialization options.

Researchers have posited several reasons why RJPs may not be as successful as they were hypothesized to be. These reasons include the need for preliminary unrealistic expectations, the ability to self-select out of the process, prior experience with the position, and the ease at which the position can be observed (Breaugh, 1983, 1992; Dean and Wanous, 1984). However, researchers are yet to examine the feasibility and effectiveness of RJPs in rapidly-changing environments such as those in entrepreneurial new ventures. Ortqvist et al. (2007) studied coping mechanisms of entrepreneurs and found that those strategies which reduced expectations and/or led to working harder to meet stakeholder expectations had a positive effect on the new venture’s performance. Carraher (2011) found that an employee’s satisfaction with his or her pay significantly predicted turnover, but the same was not true for entrepreneurs. Also, attitudes towards benefits significantly predicted turnover and performance for both employees and entrepreneurs (Carraher, 2011; Carraher and Buckley, 2008). Yet despite this prior work on the expectations of entrepreneurs and stakeholders, it is still unknown if an entrepreneur can effectively provide a RJP to a potential employee in a high-velocity industry and rapidly changing organization. Although Buckley et al. (2002) found that the effects of ELPs and RJPs were almost identical, in constantly changing environments, like that of a new venture start-up, ELPs could be found to be much more beneficial.

Also, scholars should seek to determine the approximate percentage of organizations that implement realistic job previews or other realistic recruitment procedures such as expectation-lowering procedures. Preliminary results suggest that less than 20 percent of organizations with high turnover use RJPs despite the research indicating that RJPs reduce turnover (Bernardin, 2002). In doing so, an interesting examination could be made into the practical success of such techniques, as well as a longitudinal examination into their popularity over time. Further, such data could help to evaluate the overall success of organizations that use these realistic recruitment methods versus organizations that do not. The recruitment, selection, and training processes are expensive processes for any organization (Dean and Wanous, 1984) and therefore it is necessary to determine whether these costs are being correctly appropriated. When all costs are accounted for, including the separation of the employee, as well as the recruitment and training of his or her replacement, the cost to

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replace an employee can be 1.5-2.5 times the employee’s salary (Branch, 1998; Cascio, 1999).

Another potential area of research lies in the mediums of presenting RJPs. Over the years, realistic job previews have taken many forms. Generally they have been delivered by either a pamphlet or a video (Phillips, 1998;, e.g. Haccoun, 1978; Horner et al., 1979; Ilgen and Seely, 1974; Macedonia, 1969; Weitz, 1956). Weitz (1956) used a booklet in his studies while Wanous (1973), in his examination of telephone operators, provided a video to the experiment group. Other forms of previews consist of an oral presentation (Popovich and Wanous, 1982) or a telephone conversation (Schneider, 1987). Early findings suggested that the audio-visual video was the most effective form of RJP, although results were mixed (Popovich and Wanous, 1982) and some comparisons between brochures and videos provided non-significant results (Haccoun, 1978; Zaharia and Baumeister, 1981).

However, despite these traditional forms of realistic job previews, researchers have questioned whether such one-way communication is truly the most effective way to deliver the preview. Miceli (1983) suggested that one-way communications will be less effective, as they will be more likely to be ignored and two studies (Downs et al., 1978; Schmitt et al., 1986) found support for the use of work simulations, as has been advocated for by Iles and Robertson (1989). Also, Colarelli (1984) theorized that a face-to-face conversation with a current employee would be more beneficial than the traditional brochure. In doing so, he suggested that a current employee would not only be more knowledgeable about the job, but also be perceived by the job candidate to be more trustworthy than an organization-created pamphlet. As the research into realistic job previews has continued to advance, scholars have noted the possibility of even richer forms of previews. Wanous (1992) suggested that researchers should examine other forms of realistic job previews, such as visits to work sites and allowing applicants to perform a sample of the work they will be expected to complete in the employment role. Reilly et al. (1981) presented two types of previews, an audio-visual film and a job visit. Though the authors did not hypothesize about the superiority of one method over the other, results indicated that the job visit was slightly more effective (although not statistically significantly so). More research is clearly needed to uncover the most effective way to present RJPs to potential employees. There are, perhaps, cognitive explanations for the possible superiority of the audio-visual method, although this is yet to be discovered. Additionally, as people are naturally positioned to learn in different ways, it may be necessary to either craft individual RJPs to specific individuals or to combine various RJP methods in order to effectively benefit the most candidates. In this way, then, perhaps a contingency approach to realistic job previews is most appropriate.

Not only should researchers reconsider how RJPs have been studied to date, but also how they may be used in the future. Entwistle et al. (1987) created a computer simulated adventure game to provide a realistic job preview to students who were considering whether or not to advance to higher education. It is very likely that similar RJPs may be created and distributed to millions of users through social media sites and other technological resources. Perhaps a paradigm shift in the way RJPs are currently investigated is necessary to accomplish this goal.

There are several additional opportunities to study realistic job previews in the changing workplace, including the use of RJPs in internal recruitment, during

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organizational downsizing, in the increased globalization for expatriates, and with high-ranking employees. The traditional research of RJPs has focused on lower-level positions which were filled by job candidates from outside of the organization (Breaugh, 1983; Breaugh and Billings, 1988). As employees continue to change jobs (both within their organizations and to new organizations) at a much quicker rate, the RJP research must adapt to the new work environment. Researchers should examine how internal RJPs are conducted and whether the employee’s prior knowledge of the organization compromises the effectiveness of the RJP (Breaugh, 2008).

Also, while realistic job previews are traditionally used during the recruitment process to expand the human capital within an organization, scholars have begun to address the need for realistic previews when organizations are downsizing as well (e.g. Appelbaum and Donia, 2000, 2001a, b, c). Rather than the exception, downsizing has become the norm and standard procedure by organizations to improve efficiency (Cameron and Smart, 1998; Morris et al., 1999). Between 1979 and 1996, 43 million US employees lost their jobs and in the five-year span from 1987 to 1991, 85 percent of the Fortune 1000 underwent major downsizing efforts which affected more than five million jobs (Anfuso, 1996; Appelbaum et al., 2003; Hitt et al., 1994). Regardless of whether downsizing takes place due to a poor economic situation or solely as a means of increasing efficiency, one potential negative outcome is the survivor syndrome. Survivor syndrome can lead to increased workloads and subsequent stress, job insecurity, reduced organizational commitment, and a lack of trust (Appelbaum and Labib, 1993; Brockner et al., 1992, 1995; Kets de Vries and Balazs, 1997; Mishra and Spreitzer, 1998). As such, Mathys and Burack (1993) noted that the psychological contract between the employee and employer is altered during downsizing and frequently leads to a perceived breach of the contract. Appelbaum and Donia (2000, 2001a) created a model of realistic downsizing previews in order to address this need to reduce the survivor syndrome. Downsizing has been found as an effective means of increasing efficieny in organizations despite the economic conditions and therefore is expected to continue to increase, especially considering the recent increase in mergers and acquisitions (Appelbaum et al., 2003). More research is needed into the use of realistic downsizing previews as a means of reducing the survivor syndrome and to determine the variables that may moderate this relationship.

The increasing globalization also requires scholars to examine how employees preview the cultural changes in overseas positions. Several scholars (e.g. Caligiuri and Phillips, 2003; Richardson et al., 2007; Templer et al., 2006) have begun to examine such cultural RJPs that will undoubtedly remain central to the expansion of the industrial world and the emerging markets. Employees who accept global positions and perform poorly incur costs to both themselves (e.g. reduced self-esteem, strained relationships, and interrupted careers) as well as their organizations (e.g. damaged corporate image and reputation) (Black et al., 1992; Copeland and Griggs, 1985; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985; Templer et al., 2006). In order to better understand the necessary adjustments in culturally different settings, Black et al. (1992) posited that the adjustment literature from domestic settings should be adapted to cross-cultural adjustment.

Cross-cultural adjustment is an employee’s psychological comfort and familiarity with a new environment (Black, 1990) and is comprised of general adjustment, interaction adjustment, and work adjustment (Black and Stephens, 1989; Gregersen and Black, 1990). Caligiuiri and Phillips (2003) used an experimental study in a field

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setting to examine the impact of self-assessment realistic job previews for expatriates. The results found that those participants that received a RJP had increased self-efficacy toward the success of completing the new global assignment, as well as increased perceived ability to correctly decide whether or not to accept the new position. The employee’s interest in future international assignments was not affected. Carraher et al. (2008) examined the impact of host- and home-country mentors for expatriates who accepted new positions in different cultures. Their work supports that of Mezia and Scandura (2005) who suggested that the use of such mentors can help reduce unrealistically high expectations by the employees.

In addition to realistic job previews, Templer et al. (2006) created the concept of realistic living conditions previews (RLCPs) to address the need to provide accurate information regarding the general living environment in the new location, which helps the employee to adapt to the day-to-day routines of the new assignment. The authors then used RLCPs in part of their study which found that RJPs are positively related to work adjustment while RLCPs are positively related to general adjustment. Additionally, the study found that cultural intelligence (CQ), a motivational factor that includes an employee’s interest and drive to adapt to new cultural settings (Ang et al., 2007) had a significant impact on general adjustment, even after RJPs and RLCPs were controlled. Using a qualitative study of faculty from Canadian universities, Richardson et al. (2007) found support for the use of RLCPs in addition to RJPs and proffered that realistic recruitment should include information for both the responsibilities and specifications of the new position (RJP), as well as non-organizational information for the employee and family, such as spousal employment (RLCP).

There are several areas of research pertaining to realistic previews in expatriate assignments yet to be discovered. First, further research needs to be conducted in order to identify the most appropriate information to include in realistic previews in new cultures. RJPs, as well as RLCPs, must be conducted in order to include accurate and beneficial information to the employee. However, the issue of determining what information is important is increased when the employee will be living in a new country with a new culture of people speaking a different language. Also, consideration should be made as to the benefits of using realistic previews at the end of expatriate assignments as well. When employees return home, the economic environment and local culture they remember may have changed. Much like the previews offered prior to the global assignment, a realistic preview may have a benefit at the end of the international workload as well. In this way, realistic return previews may serve as an ideal way to help debrief and readjust expatriates back into their native environments.

Last, more research is needed into the effectiveness of realistic job previews for higher-level and executive positions in the organization (Breaugh, 2008). Realistic job previews for upper-management and c-suite applicants will need to be vastly different than those for entry-level applicants, such that the focus on job tasks and workplace environment may very well need to be revised to focus instead on leadership styles as well as inner- and inter-organizational relationships. Also, whether the candidates are internally promoted or recruited from outside of the organization, they are likely to have more familiarity with the position and the industry, if not organization-specific knowledge as well. This will reduce the effectiveness of a traditional realistic job preview and therefore different types of information that are unique and not previously known by the candidates will need to be conveyed.

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The future of realistic job previews in practice There are numerous ways in which the impacts of realistic job previews are yet to be explored that may serve as direct benefits to organizations. Internships are one such possibility for reconceptualizing the traditional RJP. Internships provide students with work experience that is both structured and career relevant (Taylor, 1988). Due to the interns’ education and organization-specific knowledge, they are ideal job candidates (Zhao and Liden, 2011). Additionally internships, like temporary workers or the use of probationary hire periods, allow for observation and assessment of the performance an individual can actually do, not just what they say they can do in an interview (Klehe and Anderson, 2007). The use of internships and similar forms of pre-hire assessments offer two main benefits. First, the organization is able to better assess the individual’s actual performance with employees interacting with and evaluating the individual. Second, the individual is better able to determine his or her fit and ability to accomplish the required tasks. As such, unrealistic expectations will be reduced and the intern will be in a better place to assess fit within the A-S-A framework (Schneider, 1987) and self-select out if appropriate. By utilizing multiple interns, the organization can implement a real-options approach (McGrath, 1997, 1999) by reducing the costs of recruiting, selecting, and training an unqualified new employee. In doing so, the organization is able to hedge against the downside risk while maintaining the upside of increased performance. Should the organizational leaders decide to offer employment to a fraction of the interns, they will be able to make a more informed selection decision by comparing the interns’ performance and eliminating the underperformers.

In order to meet the demands of ever-changing technology and increased globalization, organizational structures are adapting and changing the dynamics of the employee-employer relationship (Rosenthal, 1995; Sullivan, 1999). Multi-level organizations are becoming flatter (Miles and Snow, 1996) and the traditional linear model of careers is not applicable any more (Sullivan, 1999; Sullivan et al., 1998). Employees no longer anticipate remaining with one organization throughout the duration of their careers and this has changed the expectations they have from their employers (Sullivan and Baruch, 2009). Sullivan (1999, p. 458) posited that, “Under the old contract, workers exchanged loyalty for job security. Under the new contract, workers exchange performance for continuous learning and marketability”. Indeed, it is through this desire for continuous learning that employees are able to become proficient in the use of new technologies and remain marketable despite global competition. Further, inherent in the new contract in which employees desire learning and marketability is the increased need for realistic job previews. The higher turnover from employees changing jobs and careers equates to a greater importance of organizational recruitment, to both replace those employees who have left, as well as to provide a more accurate selection process in order to hire new applicants that are more likely to remain with the organization. Therefore, realistic job previews are likely to become an even more central component of the recruitment and selection process for both the increased quantity needed as well as the increased value placed on employee retention.

Technological advancements in recruitment processes are inevitable. Thus, an important area yet unexplored is the impact of technology on vocational training, employee socialization, and recruitment practices. RJPs, as they are discussed in contemporary research, have not accounted for the impact of technology to allow for

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distance work that no longer requires physical attendance by the employee. Distance work is becoming more and more common; and as such, recruitment practices must adapt to the new, virtual workplace. In 2010, over 10 percent of employees in the USA work from home at least one day per week (US Census Bureau, 2010). Further, the percent of the workforce that primarily work from home has increased in the last 30 years from 2.3 percent in 1980 to almost double that at 4.3 percent in 2010 (Bloom et al., 2012). Further, Bloom et al. (2009) found that 30 percent of US manufacturing firms allow at least some of their managers to work at home as well. New RJPs should be created to make job candidates aware of the unique nature of distance work, such as a possible feeling of isolation and reduced interactions with coworkers. This way, the candidates can make an informed decision whether to remain interested in the employment position or whether to self-select out, in order to search for a more traditional position.

The ever-increasing automation of many industries and the reduction of brick-and-mortar stores are two additional ways in which technology is changing organizational structure and should thus be considered when helping job candidates become acclimated to the organizational and job-specific demands. The increased useage of automation and robotics that are commonly utilized in many industries, including the automotive industry, have drastically changed the workplace environment. Not only has the automation led to a downsizing of the workforce, but the remaining employees now have a greater sense of isolation and a reduction of personal interaction. Also, the boom in internet sales has created a decreased need for brick-and-mortar stores. As organizations are able to market their goods and services to larger, international markets on the internet, many have decided to either reduce or entirely eliminate their store fronts. Kent and Brown (2006) found that this was a successful strategy for purveyors of personal items which consumers may be embarrassed to shop for in person.

Another technological advance we may see in the near future is the development of a website that allows potential applicants to view RJPs for numerous jobs prior to actually applying for the jobs. Potential applicants would be able to view a preview for any job within his or her profession and decide, based on the preview, whether he or she is a good fit for each job. Such a collection of RJPs would allow a job candidate to compare and contrast several RJPs, thereby making a more informed decision. Additionally, the organizations participating would be able to be more forthcoming about any negatives associated with the position because of the assumption that all other participating organizations would be doing the same. In doing so, the organizations may be able to gain from the upside of having an “air of honesty” while minimizing the downside risk of having qualified candidates become uninterested due to the preview of negatives aspects.

It is also plausible that RJPs may become a permanent part of various vocational aptitude tests. In this scenario, individuals would be able to take an aptitude test, the results of which would be used to recommend compatible vocations or specific occupations. Realistic previews could then be created for these vocations. For example, machinists may be exposed to loud noises and potential safety issues around the machinery; customer service representatives may be expected to frequently communicate with upset or hostile customers; and attorneys may need to work long hours and tolerate high levels of stress. Such a scenario would expand the realistic job preview to a realistic vocation preview. Further, it would allow the test takers to gauge

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whether the recommended vocations are in alignment with their desires and values from employment. Such tools, although not organization-specific, may be able to align individuals with vocations in industries that would better match their values. This alignment, while it may not prevent turnover to other career paths within the same vocation, should at least help to reduce the need to switch to entirely new professions.

Concluding thoughts While the refinement of realistic job previews has evolved a long way, there is still a need to provide a socialization experience to workers that adequately prepares them for what they might experience on the job. History has shown that providing newcomers with realistic information can have numerous beneficial effects for an organization in terms of performance, turnover, job satisfaction and a number of other important organizational outcomes. As such, organizations should actively promote the use of both RJPs and ELPs within the hiring and orientation processes for new employees. Further, it is our hope that recruitment researchers will benefit from our review of the extensive realistic job preview literature, the discussion of the psychological processes underlying RJPs and the mixed results, as well as our recommendations for future research.

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Further reading

Gomersall, E.R. and Myers, M.S. (1966), “Breakthrough in on-the-job training”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 44 No. 4, pp. 62-72.

Corresponding author M. Ronald Buckley can be contacted at: [email protected]

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