read the instruction of the file.

- Who are the critics? Are they scientists?

- What are the main criticisms of zoos? What is the evidence base for the criticisms?

- What are the main effects on animals in captivity in terms of the space they live in? Is it dependent on the animal or the environment?

- What are the main effects on animals in captivity of human interaction? Does human presence bother animals in the same way? What is the issue – noise? smell? physical contact?

- Are there issues when animals are in captivity and then are put back into the wild?

- Have zoos done anything to improve conditions and respond to criticisms? Is there evidence that the measures have been effective?

- What are the positives of zoos / captivity? Conservation / education. Would animals be negatively affected if there were no zoos?

You don’t need to decide what your position is yet; this will be informed by your reading, but if your title asks for a position, you should show that you plan to include it.

Name:

Class:

Date:

Title:

Critics depict zoos as animal prisons where animals are exploited for entertainment. Discuss the impacts of captivity and human interaction on animal behaviour and welfare. To what extent are the concerns upheld by the scientific community?

Plan for overall structure

Introduction – context and position: While there are concerns around animal welfare, zoos perform a significant role in both in conservation and education.

Thesis statement: The scientific community are working at a national and global level to mitigate the negative impacts of captivity on animal welfare.

P1. Background: The aims / purpose of zoos

P2. Conservation and Species Protection - the role of zoos

P3. Key issues and concerns related to animal welfare – overview of complexity of the issue

P4. The effect of human visitors on animal behaviour – effect on animal welfare / behaviour and if negative effects can be mitigated

P5. Physical Space and Exhibits – effect on animal welfare / behaviour and if negative effects can be mitigated

Conclusion

Books / chapters of books:

Surname, I. and Surname, I. (Year) Title of the book Place of Publication: Publisher

Surname, I. (Year) ‘Chapter of the book’ In: I. Surname & I. Surname (Eds) Title of the book Place of Publication:

Publisher pp.1 - 18

Journal articles (print/ online)

Surname, I. (Year) ‘The Title of the Article’ The Name of the Journal 1 (1), pp. 1- 18

Reports / articles online

Surname, I. (Year) ‘The Title of the Article or Report’ [Online] The Name of the Organisation or website. Available at:

url [Last Accessed 23.07.19]

Conde, D. A., Flesness, N., Colchero, F., Jones, O. R., & Scheuerlein, A. (2011) ‘An emerging role of zoos to conserve

biodiversity’. Science, 331(6023), 1390-1391

Conway, W. G. (2011) ‘Buying time for wild animals with zoos’ Zoo Biology, 30(1), 1-8

Fernandez, E.J., Tamborski, M.A., Pickens, S.R. and Timberlake, W. (2009) ‘Animal–visitor interactions in the modern

zoo: Conflicts and interventions’, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 120 (1-2), pp.1-8

Hosey, G., Melfi, V. and Pankhurst, S. (2009) Zoo animals: Behaviour, Management and Welfare. Oxford University

Press, New York (USA)

Melfi, V. A. (2009) ‘There are big gaps in our knowledge, and thus approach, to zoo animal welfare: a case for

evidence‐based zoo animal management’, Zoo Biology: Published in affiliation with the American Zoo and

Aquarium Association, 28 (6), pp.574-588.

Paul-Murphy, J., & Molter, C. (2019) ‘Overview of Animal Welfare in Zoos’, In: R. Miller & P.Calle (Eds) Fowler's Zoo

and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy Volume 9, Elsevier: Missouri, pp. 64-72

Quadros et.al. (2014) ‘Zoo visitor effect on mammal behaviour: Does noise matter?’ Applied Animal Behaviour

Science, 156, pp.78-84.

Salas, M. & Manteca, X. (2017) ‘Visitor Effect on Zoo Animals’ Zoo Animal Welfare Education Centre Factsheet.

[Online] Available at: https://www.zawec.org/en/fact-sheets/111-visitor-effect-on-zoo-animals [Last Accessed

7.06.20]

Source (Surname, YEAR)

This source is relevant for my essay because…

Hosey, Melfi and Pankhurst (2009)

it offers a comprehensive overview of the topic. The books has chapters on several aspects of zoo management in terms of their housing, breeding, feeding, etc. from both welfare and regulation perspectives. Chapter 13 looks at the effects of human visitors on zoo animals, Chapter 10 focusses on the value of zoos in conservation and chapter 14 outlines areas where further research is needed. The book is aimed at those studying or working in the field, so is accessible but research-based.

I found this source by…

using the online University library with the search terms ‘zoo + welfare’. I could see from the chapter headings that there was useful information on the effect of captivity on animal behaviour and new approaches being taken by zoos to improve animal welfare.

Conde, D. A., Flesness, N., Colchero, F., Jones, O. R., & Scheuerlein, A. (2011)

it presents the argument that today’s zoos are now the lifeline of a number of species. The article explains that due to human interference and the resulting loss of land and biodiversity, zoos and parks are becoming the only viable way to protect animals. The article presents research from the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums that suggests that greater resource should be invested in the conservation work carried out by zoos and parks. Conway presents and an interesting perspective that while zoos may not be ideal, they may be essential in stopping significant numbers of animal species going extinct due to human activity and climate change.

I found this source by…

following up on a reference. This article was cited extensively in the Paul-Murphy and Molter (2019) book, so I located the full article in the university online library using the full reference in the bibliography.

Conway (2011)

it presents the argument that today’s zoos are now the lifeline of a number of species. The article explains that due to human interference and the resulting loss of land and biodiversity, zoos and parks are becoming the only viable way to protect animals. The article presents research from the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums that suggests that greater resource should be invested in the conservation work carried out by zoos and parks. Conway presents and an interesting perspective that while zoos may not be ideal, they may be essential in stopping significant numbers of animal species going extinct due to human activity and climate change.

I found this source by…

using the University online library with the search terms ‘endangered species + conservation’. As this article focussed specifically on the role of zoos in conservation it is useful as evidence that zoos play a vital role, which I plan to cover in the second part of my essay.

Type of source:

Journal

Reference:

Fernandez, E.J., Tamborski, M.A., Pickens, S.R. and Timberlake, W. (2009) ‘Animal–visitor interactions in the modern zoo: Conflicts and interventions’, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 120 (1-2), pp.1-8

I have identified this source is reliable and appropriate for academic use because…

Criteria

Tick all statements which apply and provide an example or evidence where required

Currency

The timeliness of the information

☐The article is current

☐Research in the area has not been updated

☒My essay requires reference to older research

REASON: This article provides a comprehensive review of research on zoo exhibits, animal behaviour, and the impact of humans on animals in zoos. The article highlights how thinking and approaches to animal welfare have changed over time, and also outlines suggestions for improvements which have been implemented in recent years.

Authority

The source of the information

☒The authors have the appropriate level of expertise in the field

EVIDENCE: Four researchers contributed to this paper; all have worked in various Departments of Psychology or Psychological and Brain Sciences, working with animal behaviour, in both Indiana and Oklahoma Universities. The lead researcher, Eduardo Fernandez, is currently (as of 2020) an animal welfare scientist linked with Florida Institute of Technology.

Accuracy

The reliability and correctness of the information

☒The information has been peer-reviewed

☒The source uses academic conventions throughout

☒The arguments are supported by sound evidence

EVIDENCE: The article references academic and scientific research throughout, including previous research from the article’s authors and also studies in animal behaviour which is also cited in other sources.

Purpose

The reason the information exists

☒This source has not been commissioned by a company or organisation

☒The purpose of this source is to inform / educate

☒The information contained in this source is presented without bias

EVIDENCE: The article is objective and evaluates both the positive and negative effects of human visitors on animal behaviour.

Your source may be useful for one part of your essay, or several. Note the relevant paragraph from your essay plan and indicate why / how the information is useful.

Use of source Note three points from the source which will be useful for your essay and how you will use them

Relevant key point from the text

Supporting evidence / example/ data for the key point

This point is useful for paragraph…

Modern zoos have five primary goals: animal welfare, conservation, education of the public and entertainment.

Add the page numbers for your evidence as it will help you find it when you are writing your essay. Make sure you note any secondary citations so that you can reference accurately later.

- p2 -The majority of visitors come for entertainment (Altman, 1998; Reade & Waren, 1996) but without the element of entertainment, zoos would be unable to achieve their other goals. The entertainment factor is essential in generating income and raising awareness of conservation.

- p4 - Anderson et al. (2003); Hosey (2005) – entertainment ensures that visitors visit zoos repeatedly – this generates revenue for conservation and animal care.

- p2 - Anderson et al. (2003); Hosey (2005) – study shows time people spend with animals leads to positive perceptions of animals, which leads to an increased support for conservation projects.

P1. Background: The aims / purpose of zoos

This information is useful as it highlights that while welfare is a goal of zoos, entertainment is essential in making sure zoos have the money to support this.

Visitor effects on animals: Noisy crowds negatively affect animal behaviour: measured by changes in behaviour and physiology.

Changes in behaviour:

· p5 - Mallapur & Chellam (2002) - Leopards increased ‘pacing’ when the zoo was extremely busy. Interpreted as an attempt to maintain distance from visitors, possible attempt to escape.

· p5 - Birke (2002) - Orangutans covered their heads with paper sacks and infants held onto their mothers significantly more with large group of visitors

· p5 - Chamove et al. (1988) - Tamarins, Diana monkeys, ring-tailed lemurs and mandrills - increase in aggression and a decrease in grooming, inactivity when visitors were present.

Changes in physiology:

Note if the source is useful for supporting an argument / presenting a counter-argument / providing data or examples.

· p5 - Davis et al, (2005) Spider Monkeys - measure stress by via urinary cortisol levels indicates positive correlation between cortisol levels and visitor numbers

P4. The effect of human visitors on animal behaviour – effect on animal welfare / behaviour and if negative effects can be mitigated

This information is useful as it provides specific examples of how animal behaviour changes in zoos.

Modifying animals’ living space / interaction with visitors can mitigate some of the negative effects of human presence.

- Most studies suggest that zoo visitors produce stress, but Margulis et al. (2003); Nimon & Dalziel (1992) suggest that animals may adjust and become accustomed to zoo visitors.as expected.p6- Anderson et al. (2002); Davis et al. (2005) - Exhibits design to be ‘naturalistic’ and provide retreats to give the animals some control in stressful situations.

- p5 - Anderson et al. (2002) - African pygmy goats and Romanov sheep - an increase in ‘petting zoo’ visitors led to aggressive and escape behaviour as the animals found it difficult to form distance from humans. When a retreat space was provided, undesirable behaviours were reduced.

- p6 - Blaney Wells (2004); Wells (2005) - Gorillas - less aggressive and less abnormal behaviour when camouflage netting was installed.

P5. Physical Space and Exhibits – effect on animal welfare / behaviour and if negative effects can be mitigated

This information is useful as it provides evidence through examples that changes to physical space can help improve animal behaviour.

Type of source:

Book

Reference:

Paul-Murphy, J., & Molter, C. (2019) ‘Overview of Animal Welfare in Zoos’, In: R. Miller & P.Calle (Eds) Fowler's Zoo

and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy Volume 9, Elsevier: Missouri, pp. 64-72.

I have identified this source is reliable and appropriate for academic use because…

Criteria

Tick all statements which apply and provide an example or evidence where required

Currency

The timeliness of the information

☒The article is current

☐Research in the area has not been updated

☐My essay requires reference to older research

REASON: The article was published in 2019 and refers to many changes in zoo and conservation management that have happened very recently. All the data used in the source is from within the past 10 years.

Authority

The source of the information

☒The authors have the appropriate level of expertise in the field

EVIDENCE: The authors are reputable researchers and professors at the University of California working in the field of veterinary medicine.

Accuracy

The reliability and correctness of the information

☐The information has been peer-reviewed

☒The source uses academic conventions throughout

☒The arguments are supported by sound evidence

EVIDENCE: The article cites a sources and data throughout to support its claims. It also refers to government guidelines and regulations from around the world which can be verified on government websites.

Purpose

The reason the information exists

☒This source has not been commissioned by a company or organisation

☒The purpose of this source is to inform / educate

☒The information contained in this source is presented without bias

EVIDENCE: The purpose of the article is to give an overview of what animal welfare means. It also discusses how this is assessed in zoos along with the principles and guidelines that those who work in zoos follow.

Use of source Note three points from the source which will be useful for your essay and how you will use them

Relevant key point from the text

Supporting evidence / example/ data for the key point

Use of source

A key issue around the discussion of animal welfare is the lack of an international standard, and also disparity between the needs of different animals; this makes the establishment of a ‘standard’ problematic.

- Duncan (1981) – A new perspective of animal welfare is that welfare refers to a characteristic of the individual animal.

- Hill & Broom (2009); Koene (2013) - Animals in zoos come from a variety of backgrounds, with differing life experiences and ability to reaction to challenges. For example, an animal that stays in zoos its whole life and one that is temporarily resident until reintroduced to the wild require different skills or another example of an animal brought into an urban zoo from a semi-free-ranging facility or vice versa.

P3. Key issues and concerns related to animal welfare – overview of complexity of the issue

This information is useful as it provides reasons why the issue is complex.

Efforts have been made to establish a system of measuring animal welfare in captivity: ‘animal-based’ and ‘resource-based’ (Blokhuis 2008).

- p3 - Blokhuis (2008) - ‘Animal-based welfare’ focuses on the physical, behavioural, and mental state of the animals and is measured from the animals’ perspectives, which can be scientifically challenging i.e. mental state.

‘Resource-based welfare’ focuses on natural history such as the amount of space, temperature, diet, and veterinary care.

- Maslow’s hierarchy addressed Animal Rights and results in an animal retaining and encouraging natural abilities. The foundations for survival include physiologic needs for shelter, water, and hygiene. Followed by the animals’ physical health and safety needs. Finally, welfare-related activities, such as social needs, mental stimulation, and choice. www.waza.org/en/site/home p.4

P3. Key issues and concerns related to animal welfare – overview of complexity of the issue

This information is useful as it explains what is being done to address the issue.

One approach to addressing animal welfare is designing animals spaces based on species.

· p3 - Kagan & Veasey (2010) – ‘Exhibit design’ must be species-specific, incorporate appropriate space; environmental enrichment, natural exercise and social interactions with other animals in the location. As outlined in Blokhuis (2008) resource based welfare.

· p5 - Kagan & Veasey (2010) – A priority for the welfare of an animal in captivity is that the animal should be able to perform and behave as they would in a natural environment / the wild.

· p1 - Mench & Kreger (1996) - It is the responsibility of the zoo to demonstrate a current and up to date knowledge of animals’ needs by providing a suitable environment.

P5. Physical Space and Exhibits – effect on animal welfare / behaviour and if negative effects can be mitigated

This information is useful as outlines a possible solution to welfare concerns.

Conclusions drawn from your reading

· There are valid criticisms of zoos – particularly in countries where regulation is weak or unclear, but there is evidence that many zoos have invested research and resources into mitigating against welfare issues.

· Research suggests that there are significant benefits to animal conservation through being kept in captivity.

· The scientific community are very aware of the challenges presented by keeping animals in captivity and are working collaboratively to find solutions.

There is evidence that the situation it is improving all the time due to growing awareness of animal needs and support for conservation projects.

Mark

Source Selection

a) Number and credibility of sources

b) Relevance of sources to title

Source Evaluation and Use of Sources

a) Evaluation of sources

b) Use of sources

Processing text

a) Identification of key relevant points in the text.

b) Identification of relevant supporting evidence provided in the text.

Research and Understanding

a) Evidence of ability to research

b) Evidence of subject knowledge

8 – 10

Distinction

a) All five sources included are reliable and appropriate for academic purposes.

b) Relevance of all texts to the research topic and title is made explicit and is clear.

a) Clear and sound evaluation of the reliability of all sources provided.

b) Clear indication of how all sources will be used in the essay; sources appropriate to support points outlined in essay plan.

a) Demonstrates ability to identify relevant main lines of argument in all three academic texts.

b) Produces effective notes on relevant supporting ideas and details.

a) Clear evidence of ability to find relevant and reliable sources demonstrated; effective search methods used and fully outlined.

b) Demonstrates thorough understanding and coverage of the relevant material and issues.

6 – 7

Merit

a) Reliable sources selected overall; one source may be of lower quality.

b) The relevance of the texts to the research topic and title is made clear.

a) Sound evaluation of the reliability of sources; reasoning and detail may be clearer for some sources than others.

b) Clear indication of how most of the sources will be used in the essay; sources appropriate to support points.

a) Demonstrates ability to identify relevant main lines of argument in academic texts with the majority of points selected.

b) Provides mostly clear supporting information relevant to the main points in a text.

a) Evidence of ability to find relevant and reliable sources demonstrated; effective search methods used and outlined.

b) Demonstrates good understanding and coverage of the relevant material and issues.

4 – 5

Pass

a) Acceptable sources selected; two sources may be of lower quality / lack currency.

b) Texts are relevant to the research topic and title, though link may be less clear in places.

a) Evaluation of the reliability of the sources present, but provides minimal detail which is weak, faulty or repetitive in some areas.

b) Indication of how sources will be used in the essay is generally clear, but may lack detail or relevance in places.

a) Demonstrates some ability to identify main lines of argument in an academic text; a number of points are less clear and/or less relevant than others. May lack detail.

b) Distinguishes supporting details from main points although some supporting evidence may be less clear or relevant.

a) Some evidence of ability to find relevant and reliable sources demonstrated; more than one search method has been used.

b) Demonstrates general knowledge and coverage of some areas but need development.

2 – 3

Below pass

a) Predominantly poor and/or inappropriate material selected with selection appearing to be random.

b) Texts are only generally linked to the topic; the relevance to the title is unclear.

a) Weak / faulty evaluation of the reliability of the sources.

b) Largely unclear how sources will be used to support points in the research essay.

a) Demonstrates limited ability to identify main lines of argument in an academic text; main points are missing, unclear, repetitive or lifted.

b) Attempt to provide supporting information for main points, but largely unclear or repetitive; points are lifted from texts.

a) Lacking evidence of ability to find relevant and reliable source; search method is unclear, inappropriate or repetitive.

b) Demonstrates little or confused understanding of content; student has simply lifted text and / or has only covered one aspect of the title.

0 – 1

Fail

a) Poor and/or inappropriate literature/material selected; required number of sources not included.

b) Texts are unconnected – no obvious focus for the reading.

a) No attempt to evaluate the reliability of sources.

b) Unclear why sources have been selected, and how they will be used in the essay.

a) Does not demonstrate the ability to identify main ideas from an academic text – either academic texts are not used, points are unclear, or are completely lifted.

b) No attempt to provide supporting information; information is missing, irrelevant or inappropriate.

a) No evidence of ability to find relevant and reliable sources demonstrated.

b) Demonstrates no discernible knowledge or understanding.

Raw score

40

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

32

31

30

29

28

27

26

25

24

23

Mark

100%

98%

95%

93%

90%

88%

85%

83%

80%

78%

75%

73%

70%

68%

65%

63%

60%

58%

Raw Score

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

<4

Mark

55%

53%

50%

48%

45%

43%

40%

38%

35%

33%

30%

28%

25%

23%

20%

18%

15%

13%

0