Advertising 7

The IUP Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. XIV, No. 4, 201534

Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context

Cultural Perspective

© 2015 IUP. All Rights Reserved.

* Lecturer, Department of Marketing, Central Business School, Central University College, P O Box DS 2310, Dansoman-Accra, Ghana; and is the corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

* * National Service Personnel, Department of Marketing, Central Business School, Central University College, P O Box DS 2310, Dansoman-Accra, Ghana. E-mail: [email protected]

** * Civil Servant, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General, Prosecution Division, P O Box 60, Accra, Ghana. E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction There is no doubt that advertising is a very critical topic in marketing in today’s highly competitive marketplace. In recent times, advertisements have become predominant in Ghana’s media landscape spanning various media platforms such as television, radio, magazines, newspapers, handbills, posters, billboards, and on the Internet. Advertisements are literally everywhere. “We are besieged with commercials at airport baggage carousels, on corporate telephone lines, on flashing screens at the local market” (Cohan, 2001). In fact, media clutter is a big challenge that marketers are facing today. Firms seek to overcome this obstacle by being extra creative in their marketing campaigns, while employing a variety of techniques to attract consumers’ attention, build brand

Consumers today are bombarded by commercial messages from a broad range of sources. As advertisers seek out ways to break through the clutter and draw attention to their messages, the use of sex-oriented appeals has emerged as a major communication technique. The main objective of the study is to assess the role of sex appeals in advertising and its effect on target audience response. The study employed a quantitative method based on a survey design using a structured questionnaire which covered 300 respondents using convenience sampling technique. Data obtained for this study was analyzed using descriptive statistical methods. The descriptive analysis involved the use of percentages, tabulation and graphical presentation. The study finds that sex appeal advertising is widespread in Ghana, consumers are generally tolerant of sex appeal ads, and that sex appeal has a positive influence on consumer purchase intentions. Additionally, males are relatively more positively influenced by sex appeal ads as compared to their female counterparts. The study recommends that sex appeal adverts must strive to provide a sound fit between the advert and the product while using a reasonable degree of sex content.

Peter Anabila*, Clement Tagoe** and Sylvester Asare***

35Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

equity and make their products more successful. One of those approaches is sex appeal advertising which since the 1960s has become more and more patronized (Dianoux and Linhart, 2010).

Sex appeals have been an element of marketing ever since the introduction of modern advertising. Throughout the years, advertisers have utilized a variety of advertising appeals involving fear, humor, sex, music, rationality, emotions and scarcity (Clow and Baack, 2007). The use of sex appeals is becoming an increasingly popular technique to sell products, especially those that are image-based, such as candy, liquor, cigarettes, jewelry, fragrance, cosmetics and fashion goods.

Sex appeal also features prominently in the standardization/adaptation debate with specific reference to international advertising strategy (Liu et al., 2009). In recent times, there has been a growing concern about media inflation and the need to reduce cost while at the same time being effective and efficient by taking account of the cultural nuances of particular regions. Culture is very much an integral component of a successful advertising strategy and a good understanding of the dynamics of a particular cultural system serves as the bedrock for developing effective advertising strategy. Culture is the homogeneity of characteristics that separates one human group from another (Griffith et al., 2000, p. 304). According to Hsieh et al. (2004), national culture is a critical factor that determines consumer behavior. In low context cultures such as the US, people prefer to receive explicit and direct marketing communications, while in high context culture such as Ghana, people prefer to receive implicit and indirect marketing communications (Hall, 1976; and Choi et al., 2005). A good understanding of sex appeal in the Ghanaian context will guide both local as well as international firms about the potential viability of this advertising approach. Scholars such as Mitchell (1986) and Reichart (2002) have cautioned that in determining the level of sex appeal to use, it is necessary to take into account the society’s view and their level of acceptance or tolerance.

Ghana today is a big market with many multinational players operating in the Ghanaian market. With a middle income status and a stable political climate, Ghana is home to many businesses of foreign origin. Competition in many industries in Ghana has reached an all-time high. Business organizations have had to grapple with the ever increasing challenge of breaking through the clutter by exploring various communication strategies to gain consumer attention, and sex appeal advertising features prominently in this mix. The use of sex appeal in advertising in Ghana today appears to be more widespread than it ever was in the past. Advertisers were formerly accustomed to the use of rational, humor and emotional appeals in their advertisements. However, due to the rapid proliferation of adverts on television, radio, magazines, newspapers, billboards and on the Internet, advertisers are now employing sex appeal in an attempt to be more ‘creative’ and attract consumers’ attention better than their competitors. Whatever the medium of delivery, sex is the message whether one is selling cosmetics, clothing, healthcare, entertainment, or vacations. For instance, if one spends a few moments

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watching any of the TV stations in Ghana, one is bound to come across one form of sex appeal advertisement or another. Product categories with dominant sex appeal ad exposures include music videos, alcoholic beverages, condoms, cosmetics, toilet soaps, aphrodisiacs and so on. Some of the adverts exhibit various degrees of nudity and explicit images which is indicative of how fast the Ghanaian culture is evolving.

Sex appeal advertising is a legitimate tactic used by many companies with the goal of making the cut in the media landscape. According to Clow and Baack (2007), sex appeal is a legitimate tactic if used in a manner that is interesting, germane to the products and within the ethical standards of the region. While its increasing deployment suggests its possible efficacy as a marketing communication tool, there is no gainsaying the fact that sex appeal advertising is one of the most controversial topics in the marketing parlance today. Believed to grab attention easily, it is assumed to be effective at generating sales—one of the main objectives of commercial marketing activities (Harrel, 2002). However, this technique has gained notoriety for being controversial as many perceive it as unethical and inappropriate and doubt its effectiveness, especially in a high context cultural setting like Ghana. In some cases, adverts of sex appeal nature have been banned by regulatory authorities and the legal system for being objectionable and offensive to public morality. This implies that the use of sex appeal could be a risky adventure or an exercise in futility if not grounded or predicated on sound empirical research. This study is therefore conducted to settle this controversy in the Ghanaian context. To the best of our knowledge, there has not been any prior scientific research on this topic in the Ghanaian context. The dearth of research in this area has occasioned the need for this research to fill the knowledge void.

The study therefore examines the role of sex appeal in advertising and its effect on target audience response. The study focuses on consumer perception of sex appeal advertising in Ghana, examines the extent of its use as a marketing communication tool and its effect on target audience response. Finally, the study assesses gender-specific responses to sex appeal as an advertising strategy.

Literature Review Sex Appeal and Advertising Sex appeal advertising has witnessed spectacular growth in recent times (Dianoux and Linhart, 2010). According to Reichert (2003), the use of sex appeal dates as far back as 1800s with a view to attracting, shocking and eventually influencing consumers to purchase products. Since the 1960s, the deployment of sex appeal as an advertising technique has been on the ascendancy in western countries and is becoming more overt as advertisers constantly explore creative ways to break through the clutter (LaTour and Henthorne, 1994). Another phenomenon probably reinforcing the use of sex appeals in advertising on a wider scale is the trend towards homogenization of cultures due to globalization, thus making cultures more open to things prevailing in other cultures. Improvement in modern information technology and the Internet revolution together

37Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

with the advent of social media platforms are touching lives and cultures across the globe in an unprecedented way, thus spawning vestiges of varying degrees of sexual permissiveness along. A cross-cultural study by Liu et al. (2009) found no significant differences in the attitude towards sex appeal in a high context cultural setting (China) and low context cultural settings (USA and Australia). They argued that sex appeal is a major advertising technique that is widespread and typically used in mainstream consumer advertising in most countries across the world.

Sex appeal can be defined as messages, whether as brand information in advertising contexts or persuasive appeals in marketing contexts, which are associated with sexual information (Reichert et al., 2001). Sex appeal can also be viewed as the use of sexual or erotic imagery in advertising to draw interest or attract target audience and to help sell a particular product. Furthermore, Reichert et al. (2001) define sexual appeals as messages that are associated with sexual information and that evoke sexual thoughts or feelings. Sex appeal revolves around the display of nudity and sexual attractiveness and suggestiveness (Bello et al., 1983). “Sex appeal advertising has the tendency to attract not only the initial attention but also retain the impact for longer periods of time than an ad without such appeal” (Liu et al., 2009). The potential of sex appeal to elicit attention from the target audience benefits from the fact that sex is the second strongest of all psychological drives coming right after self-preservation (Taflinger, 1996). Sexually suggestive imagery is a powerful tool employed by advertisers to create an irresistible attraction between the product and targeted consumers.

The attention-grabbing power of sex appeal advertising has long been acknowledged (Baker, 1961; and Reid and Soley, 1983), and this view assumes added significance in the 21st century characterized by hyper-competition and media saturation (Reichert and Lambiase, 2003). ‘Sex Sells’, is a very well-known cliché used in advertising parlance. In line with this, many advertisers are tempted to feature heavy doses of erotic content ranging from subtle hints to blatant show of skin (Solomon, 1994). The buzz surrounding this advertising approach has assumed such momentum that sex appeal has in recent times developed to assume a mark of prestige and a symbol of modernity. This view is so pervasive that the word ‘sexy’ has become synonymous with positive attributes such as ‘beauty’, ‘smartness’, ‘trendy’, and ‘modern’. Schiffman and Kanuk (2007, p. 300) posit that “Advertisers are increasingly tr ying to provoke attention with suggestive illustrations, crude language, and nudity in an effort to appear ‘hip’ and contemporary”. They argue that in today’s advertising, there is a lot of explicit and daring sexual imagery, extending far beyond the traditional product categories of fashion and fragrance into such categories as shampoo, beer, cars, and home construction.

Lambiase and Reichert (2003) conceptualize five types of sexual information in advertising, namely, nudity, sexual behavior, physical attractiveness, sexual referents and sexual embeds. The case for nudity presents an obvious scenario of sexually appealing stimuli. In the case of sexual behavior, models can behave sexually in advertisements by making eye contact, using different facial expression and inviting smiles with the viewer,

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flirting, and moving provocatively. The use of demonstrative models exhibiting varying degrees of sexual expression has become very much a common feature of sex appeal advertising strategy in contemporary marketing practice. This phenomenon is aptly accentuated in a recent study by Jones and Reid (2010), which indicated the rise in ‘raunchy culture’ where a new female stereotype has emerged in advertising—“the lusty, busty, exhibitionist” who exudes sexual power and confidence. In the case of physical attractiveness, features of physical appearance, including facial beauty and complexion, play a great role in evoking sexual interest. Lambiase and Reichert (2003) contend that images and words that refer to sex or activate sexual thoughts can be considered examples of sex appeal in advertising. Another sex-related appeal that Lambiase and Reichert (2003) propose is sexual referents. Sexual referents in advertising can be defined as message elements, visual or verbal, that serve to bring forth or develop sexual thoughts. Sexual embeds are defined as referents or forms of sexual representation designed to be perceived subconsciously. Common types of embeds include objects that are shaped or positioned like genitalia and small hidden messages of naked people and body parts. Ramirez and Reichert (2000) also identified sexual characteristics as consisting of physical characteristics, movement and contextual features. Physical characteristics include such things as clothing such as half naked and tight dresses, attractiveness, and body parts such as cleavage and chest. Movement in this context includes behavior such as flirting, dancing and shaving, demeanor such as provocative, sassiness and fun-loving, and voices such as singing, moans and groans.

Effectiveness of Sex Appeal Advertising The increasing use of sex appeal as an advertising technique suggests that it holds a number of potential advantages when used in an acceptable way (Courtney and Whipple, 1983). Various studies have touted the efficacy of sex appeal advertising in view of its ability and potential to help achieve marketing communication objectives. These include attracting the initial attention (Baker, 1961; and Reid and Soley, 1983), enhancing message recall (Steadman, 1969), evoking emotional responses (Courtney and Whipple, 1983; and Hoyer and MacInnis, 2001), increasing persuasion (La Tour et al., 1990; and Saunders, 1996) and buying intention (Grazer and Kesling, 1995). Taflinger (1996) explains that the attention-grabbing power of sex appeal derives from the fact that sex is the second strongest of the psychological appeals ranking only behind self-preservation. In a similar vein, Reichert et al. (2001) posit that, the use of sex appeal in advertising has the potential to grab attention, increase recognition, bolster brand image, increase receivers’ interest, and enhance persuasion. Again, Shimp (2007) argues that using sex appeal in advertising increases brand and memory recall because sex content is easy to relate to and is also memorable. Regarding the potential of sex appeal ads to crave emotional responses in favor of a brand, Taflinger (1996) expounds the process involved in sex appeal as consisting of arousal, excitement, or even lust, which in turn create stimulation and desire for the product. It is patently clear from the various empirical perspectives on sex appeal that notwithstanding the negatives associated with it, there is a lot more going for it—a possible explanation as to why it is so prevalent in this era

39Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

(Dianoux and Linhart, 2010). It stands to reason therefore that the question of the suitability or otherwise of sex appeal is a matter of degree and not of direction.

Owing to the beneficial roles that sex appeal plays in advertising, researchers like Saunders (1996) boldly proclaim that ads with sex appeal are more persuasive than their non-sex appeal counterparts. Again, Hoyer and MacInnis (2001) reinforce this notion by arguing that sex appeal increases the persuasive impact of advertising message because they direct the audience through favorable processing of the ad. Due to the perception that sex appeal has enormous influence on target audience response, Grazer and Keesling (1995) hold that sex appeal ads have the potential to produce higher buying intentions than non-sex appeal ones. This position was given a further boost by Moyer (2003) who contends that sex appeal can be used to sell anything from toothpaste to aluminum. Lombardot (2007) suggests that sex appeal is an emotional response that triggers first before any cognitive processing of the ad occurs. This means that the nature and volume of sex content are critical success factors, if any, in sex appeal ad execution. It is our view that the ‘attention grabbing’ prowess of sex appeal most touted in extant literature can be operationalized to mean initial attraction that provides the ‘Midas Touch’ or a total eclipse of the core message underpinning the marketing communication. This notion exemplifies two polar opposite views of sex appeal in that it touches on both the positive and the negative arguments relating to sex appeal, thus reinforcing the ‘grabbing’ power in a positive light as well as the ‘shading’ power in the negative direction. Putrevu (2008) argues that sex appeal ads are more appropriate to low involvement consumers as they generate high recall and recognition, more cognitive response, positive attitude and purchase intentions. High involvement consumers on the other hand, have higher purchase intent and more positive attitudes towards non-sexual appeal.

In spite of the glowing tributes paid to sex appeal by scholars (Grazer and Keesling, 1995; Hoyer and MacInnis, 2001; and Moyer, 2003) as an effective ad campaign tactic, opponents to the approach have equally advanced cogent reasons against the proposition that sexually related ad content is relatively more effective. In fact, research results relating to the effectiveness of sex appeal ads are as varied and multitudinous as they are inconsistent and contradictory. While the various perspectives may differ for various reasons ranging from methodological approaches, the nature of the product involved, the characteristics of respondents or the broad environmental context in which the ad was deployed, it is plausible to argue that one can only take a firm position on the issue with some degree of caution. This means that there are always some levels of uncertainties associated with the use of sex appeal ads (Judd and Alexander, 1983; and Severn et al., 1990), signalling the need for a more tailored and discerning approach to its use. The uncertainties border on critical sociological and personal issues such as personality, gender, religion, legal, public morality and individual values. “ The appropriateness of sex appeal also depends on its appropriateness to advertised message” (Liu et al., 2009, p. 504). Again Richmond and Hartman (1982) posit that sex appeal may succeed in increasing brand recall only if a suitable relationship exists between the product category and the ad execution. Also, Schiffman and Kanuk (2007) argue that

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notwithstanding the uncertainties surrounding sex appeal ads, sex appeal can be an extremely potent devise for promoting a product when the product, the ad, the target audience, and the use of sexual themes and elements all work in harmony.

Studies have established that the issue of intolerance for sex appeal ads relates largely to a degree of profligacy of sex-related scenes displayed in the ad rather than the presence of sex attraction per se (Belch and Belch, 2007; and Liu et al., 2009). This implies that public outcry to a particular sex appeal ad is likely to emanate from the level of obscenity displayed in the ad rather than the mere presence of sex stimuli. The result is that adverts that are highly explicit with overt show of nudity may prove offensive and end up being counterproductive. Belch and Belch (2007) argue that adverts with extreme sexual content can decrease the sales of an organization and undermine corporate reputation.

Another uncertainty about the use of sex appeal relates to gender differences in processing sex appeal. Studies have shown that men and women react differently to different forms of sex appeal due to their own implicit sexual and personal motivations and desires (LaTour, 1990; and Price, 2002). This is due to the fact that women have different perceptions about what is sexually attractive (Garrett, 1993), thus making the relevance of sex appeal gender-sensitive (Reichert et al., 2001). According to Taflinger (1996), using partial or complete female nudity may produce two conflicting results, that is by attracting men’s attention and offending women generally. Hence, the mode of evaluation of sex appeal differs significantly from gender perspective. Men tend to focus on a woman’s physical appearance, while women tend to focus on a man’s intellect and personality (Zarchkoff, 2000). This is because the biological and psychological needs of men and women are different (Grazer and Keesling, 1995). However, it has been argued that the preponderance of sex content in the public media landscape has rendered females less squeamish to sex appeal than before.

Data and Methodology The study uses a descriptive cross-sectional survey design. This method was used to enable the researcher to explore perspective of interest to this study. The study population from which the study sample is drawn is also defined in the methodology. As a broad based study, the method allowed individuals from varied backgrounds to give their perception of sex appeal advertising as an advertising tactic. The study therefore uses quantitative approach to data analysis as this approach often employs quantitative method. A questionnaire was used as a data collection instrument (see Appendix), and data analysis was performed through numerical or statistical data presented in tables and a graph.

For the purpose of the study, the term ‘study population’ refers to all individuals who patronize consumer products. A cross section of consumers in the Greater Accra Region participated in the study. A sample size of 300 consumers was selected from the population using convenience sampling technique. This represents a high response rate

41Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

of 91% from 330 questionnaires issued. The rationale was that in a broad marketing research of this kind, it may not be feasible to pinpoint the last consumer much as it is extremely difficult to know all consumers. The convenience sampling allows the researcher to engage individuals who are readily available and willing to provide usable data for the study.

The instrument used in this study was a self-administered questionnaire because of its capability to obtain huge amount of data that can be analyzed quantitatively. It is a simple and easy-to-use instrument that expedites data collection. Its major demerit lies in the fact that it may not be able to obtain the fullest subjective feelings, instincts, opinions and other inhibitions that a respondent may have. It can however, provide a large amount of data that can be used to explain very complex phenomena. The questions followed logical steps to ascertain the role of sex appeal in advertising and its impact on target audience’s response. The questionnaire contained 19 questions which were a mixture of open-ended and close-ended questions. The Likert scale system was used to determine the level or degree of agreement or disagreement to each question. This questionnaire was designed by the researchers on the basis of the objectives of the study and the literature review. For the purposes of reliability and accuracy of data collected in this study, all questionnaires were administered to respondents by the researchers. Almost all the respondents were able to read and write; therefore all questions were answered independently. Data was obtained on the field through administering of questionnaires to the sample population selected from the total population. This field research gave an in-depth solution on the field as regards this study. Data collection lasted for three weeks, from August 4-23, 2014.

Data captured for this study was analyzed through descriptive statistical methods. The descriptive analysis involved percentages, cross-tabulation and graphical presentation. Response to sex appeal adverts was assessed including its effects on gender. Hence, the chi-square test of independence was employed on various occasions to explain how sex appeal plays on gender. The quantitative data gathered contained lots of different views from respondents.

Results and Discussion The analysis is an attempt to examine consumer perception of sex appeal in advertising in Ghana, to determine the extent of use of sex appeal in advertising and assess its effectiveness. Data was elicited from a cross section of consumers in the Greater Accra Region, out of which 300 respondents were covered.

Demographic data about the respondents was obtained to be able to profile respondents to gain a fair idea about the kind of consumers being dealt with in this study. The background data comprised the gender distribution of the respondents, age distribution, educational background, and marital status as presented in Table 1. Table 1 indicates that females, representing 57%, constituted the majority of consumers used in this study. Males constituted less than half of the respondents (43%). Females

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are seen on the streets and market centers in Ghana engaging in trading. Thus, many of these females would be exposed to various marketing practices.

The respondents had a minimum age of 18 years and some were aged over 50 years. Nonetheless, a majority of the respondents were relatively younger (not more than 35 years) as against the elderly ones. Specifically, 57.4% ranged from 18 to 25 years and 23.3% ranged from 26 to 35 years, whereas 15.3% ranged from 36 to 50 years, and about 4% were aged above 50 years (Table 1). The findings in this study can be said to largely represent youthful consumers not more than 35 years of age.

The consumers engaged in the study were mostly highly educated. Specifically, more than half of them (65.7%) had as high as a tertiary education. About two-fifth of them (21.3%) had been educated up to Senior High School (SHS) level. Additionally there was about 10.7% having other forms of educational background which include vocational

training or apprenticeship, with just 2.3% having the Junior High School (JHS) level of education. A majority of the respondents were single (66.3%) in terms of marital status, with 30.6% married. A few respondents, representing 1.7% and 1.4%, were divorced and widowed respectively as can be seen from Table 1. A greater part of the findings would mirror the conditions of consumers who are not married.

The background findings show that the respondents were relatively young and comprised more females. They also were mostly not married but had fairly high educational background. These characteristics would suggest that most of the respondents had taste for modernity and were predisposed to exploit various consumer options to satisfy their needs.

Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal in Advertising In line with the first objective of assessing the perception of sex appeal advertisements, the study enquired about characteristics which when present in advertising would give the advertisement a description of sex appeal. The characteristics identified were physical attractiveness, nudity, sexual behavior, sexual referents, and sexual

Demographic Data Frequency Percent

Female 171 57

Male 129 43

Total 300 100

Age Distribution (years)

18-25 172 57.4

26-35 70 23.3

36-50 46 15.3

Above 50 12 4.0

Total 300 100.0

Educational Background

JHS 7 2.3

Others 32 10.7

SHS 64 21.3

Tertiary 197 65.7

Total 300 100.0

Marital Status

Married 88 30.6

Divorced 5 1.7

Widowed 4 1.4

Single 191 66.3

Total 288 100.0

Table 1: Demographic Data of Respondents

43Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

embeds. A precursor to this enquiry however emerged when the question of whether the consumers have seen sexually-oriented appeal in advertisement revealed that a majority of the consumers, representing 82.7%, admitted to have seen sexually-oriented advertisements. Visual perception of sexually-oriented advertisement was found to be significantly dependant on the sex of the perceiver (p < 0.05). Table 2 gives a cross- tabulation of the results relating to characteristics that describe sex appeal in advertisements.

The findings show that the respondents, in general, perceived ‘nudity’ as the overarching characteristic of sexually appealing advertisements (83%). Following that was the perception that ‘sexual behavior’ is an attribute of sexually appealing advertisements as indicated by 72.3% of the respondents. About two-thirds of the respondents (61%) perceived physical attraction as sexually appealing in advertisements, with sexual referents and sexual embeds following suit at 51.3% and 50.3%, respectively. Some respondents indicated more than one descriptor of sex appeal adverts. Nonetheless, ‘nudity’ emerged as the highest level at which many respondents described sexually appealing advertisements. It is discernible that, generally, the highest point in terms of perceiving sexually suggestive gestures is nude appearance, and thus the respondents ascribed the same to sexually appealing advertisements. Scholars like Lambiase and Reichert (2003) show that people impute characteristics such as short skirts, tight tops, muscular arms, bikini and lingeries to nudity. This and the like appear to be the significant elements of sex appeal.

Notably, the tendency to perceive nudity as a characteristic of sexually appealing advertisements is dependent on the sex of the consumer (2 = 12.23; df = 4; and p < 0.05). Males recorded a percentage of 86.8 as against 80.1% for females. Males were more easily disposed to perceive nudity as a characteristic of sexually appealing advertisement (Table 2).

Further to the previous findings, the study shows that a majority, constituting about one quarter of the respondents (26%), ‘agree’ with the view that sex appeal advertising

Table 2: Describing Sex Appeal in Advertising

Note: Chi-square test with respect to Nudity: 2 = 12.23; df = 4; and p = 0.02 (total percentages are more than 100% due to multiple responses).

Sexual Embeds 54 41.9 97 56.7 151 50.3

Sexual Referents 75 58.1 79 46.2 154 51.3

Physical Attractiveness 92 71.3 91 53.2 183 61.0

Sexual Behavior 81 62.8 136 79.5 217 72.3

Nudity 112 86.8 137 80.1 249 83.0

Total

Frequency Percent

Female

Frequency Percent

Male

Frequency Percent Descriptors of Sex

Appeal Adverts

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is an appropriate approach to promote products and services. While 24.3% expressed neutral feelings on the matter, 17.5% strongly agreed with the same. As much as 23.6% of the respondents, however, disagreed, with 8.6% indicating strong disagreement (Table 3). The results suggest that about 44% of the consumers strongly agree or agree with the view that sex appeal advertising is appropriate to promote products and services.

In terms of how widespread sexually appealing advertisements have been, the findings provide evidence that such adverts are widespread. More than half of the respondents (57.4%) agreed with the statement that sexually appealing adverts are widespread. Additionally, 18.1% of the respondents strongly agreed with that notion. This overshadows the view that sexually appealing adverts are not widespread. Only 14.3% had neutral feelings about the prevalence of such adverts and 9.7% disagreed or strongly disagreed with the notion that sex appeal adverts were widespread. Table 3 gives an overview of respondents’ views on prevalence of sexually appealing adverts.

Table 3: Prevalence of Sex Appeal Adverts

Strongly Disagree 8.6 2.0

Disagree 23.6 7.7

Neutral 24.3 14.3

Agree 26.0 57.4

Strongly Agree 17.5 18.1

N 292 298

Sex Appeal Adverts Are Widespread (%)

Sex Appeal Advert Is Appropriate (%)

Level of Ranking

The Extent of Use of Sex Appeal in Advertising The study draws from the previous findings that sexually appealing adverts were widespread. Further to that, specific instances show that more than half of the respondents (54%) have ‘quite often’ seen adverts with sex connotations or suggestions. In fact, 29.5% of the respondents have seen adverts of this nature ‘very often’. Only 6.7% of respondents claimed that they had ‘not at all’ seen adverts with such tendencies, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Similarly, most of the respondents (54.8%) ‘agree’ that they are accustomed to seeing sex appeal adverts in various forms, with just about 14.3% either feeling neutral or showing their disagreement with the same. The results, as given in Table 4, point to the direction in contemporary times where sex is gaining prevalence in social life; that sex appeals are manifest in adverts (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). Most of the respondents, thus, have seen adverts with sex appeal.

A chi-square test of independence between gender and encounter with sexually appealing adverts discloses that females had significantly been more accustomed to sex

45Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

Table 4: Encounter with Sexually Appealing Adverts in Relation to Sex

Strongly Disagree 8 6.2 4 2.4 12 4.0

Disagree 18 13.8 24 14.6 42 14.3

Neutral 22 16.9 20 12.2 42 14.3

Agree 73 56.2 88 53.7 161 54.8

Strongly Agree 9 6.9 28 17.1 37 12.6

Total 130 100.0 164 100.0 294 100.0

Total

Frequency Percent

Female

Frequency Percent

Male

Frequency Percent

Used to Sex Appeal Adverts in Various

Forms

Note: Chi-square: 2 = 9.64, df = 4 and p = 0.03.

appeal adverts than it had been with males (2 = 9.64, df = 4 and p < 0.05) as indicated by Table 4. This means that for females, sex appeal adverts are common. Arguably, this could have implications on the value females accord to sex appeal adverts. In this case, where these kinds of adverts are viewed by females to be more common, they would seem to lose their punch line until some interesting twist is added.

Figure 1: Frequency of Adverts with Sexual Connotations

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

N = 298

Not at All Quite Often Very Often Always

6.7%

54.0%

29.5%

9.7%

Sexually appealing advertisements have been encountered largely via the television medium. As shown in Table 5, the respondents adding up to 82.3% had encountered sexually appealing advertisements through the television as compared to billboards (6.8%), radio (5.1%), point-of-sale displays (5.1%) or other promotional merchandise like T-shirt, cups, key holders, etc. Television combines both the audio and visual experiences to bring to the viewers those sexually appealing advertisements. A chi-square test of independence conducted between gender and sex appeal advertisement in the media revealed there is a high probability that females have significantly encountered sexually appealing advertisements on the television rather than males (2 = 14.18, df = 4 and

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Table 6: Awareness and Recognition of Sex Appeal in Adverts

Sexually Appealing 14.7% 27.3% 16.1% 28.7% 13.2% 100.0% Adverts Grab Attention

Sex Appeal Adverts 9.7% 24.3% 16.3% 41.7% 8.0% 100.0% Influence Perception About the Product

Variable Total Strongly

Agree AgreeNeutralDisagree

Strongly Disagree

Table 5: Medium of Encounter of Sex Appeal Adverts

Television 97 75.8 145 87.3 242 82.3

Radio 8 6.3 7 4.2 15 5.1

Billboards 16 12.5 4 2.5 20 6.8

Point of Sale Displays 7 5.4 8 4.8 15 5.1

Other Promotional 0 0.0 2 1.2 2 0.7 Merchandise

Total 128 100.0 166 100.0 294 100.0

Total

Frequency Percent

Female

Frequency Percent

Male

Frequency Percent Media

Note: Chi-square: 2 = 14.18, df = 4, p < 0.05.

p < 0.05 as indicated in Table 5). Table 5 presents the cross-tabulation between gender and media in which sexually appealing adverts are encountered.

Effectiveness of Sex Appeal in Advertising In order to ascertain the effectiveness of sex appeal in advertising, the study examined the effectiveness of the approach to sex appeal which looked at how this kind of advertising creates awareness and knowledge and leads to purchase of a product.

Awareness and Recognition Awareness and recognition associated with products due to sex appeal presented in adverts is assessed on how strongly sex appeal adverts attract attention. The second point is to coordinate the strengths to which the awareness and knowledge gained from sexually appealing adverts influence consumer perception about a product.

The results show that 28.7% of respondents ‘agree’ with the view that sex appeal grabs their attention more as compared to other kinds of adverts, while 13.2% ‘strongly agree’ with the same (Table 6). This represents 41.9% of consumers who agree or strongly agree with the view that sex appeal grabs attention. However, there is, approximately, a tie between the fact that sex appeal grabs attention and that it does not, given that 27.3% and 14.7% of respondents also respectively ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree’

47Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

with the notion that sex appeal grabs attention. This amounts to approximately 42% of the respondents apiece agreeing and disagreeing with the fact that sexually appealing adverts grab attention.

The results further reveal that sex appeal in adverts influences perception about products. Specifically, a majority of respondents (41.7%) ‘agree’ and 8% ‘strongly agree’ with the fact that sex appeal in adverts influences their perception about the product (Table 6). Only 24.3% of respondents ‘disagree’ with this notion, while 16.3% felt neutral about it. A notable aspect of the findings is that perception of about two in five consumers is influenced by sexually appealing adverts.

Putting the results above together, the central issue brought to light is that on the one hand, sexually appealing adverts grab consumer attention, and on the other, it really does not. The result slightly subtracts from Reid and Soley (1983) who argue that advertisements containing sexually attractive individuals attract the attention of the respondents. The results suggest that sex appeal may grab consumer attention in the event that this attention is positive (leading to brand awareness, patronage, etc.). But when the attention is negative (not culminating into purchase or favorable association with the brand), then attention may be distracted. Concerning the negative side of this issue, Reichert et al. (2001) claim that when sexual stimulus is used in advertising, viewers’ perceptual processing are directed towards the sexual information in the ad rather than towards the brand. In this study, sex appeal is found to more likely influence consumers’ perception about the products than not. As it were, this should help to create awareness of the product, be it good or bad.

Purchase Decision Purchase decision gained from sex appeal adverts was explored to round up the effectiveness of sex appeal in advertising. The specific findings obtained in relation to the decision to purchase products advertised with sex appeal were that a majority of respondents (35.3%) were ‘likely’ to make purchases as a result of sex appeal advertising and an additional 12.9% are ‘ver y likely’ to make purchases of those products (Table 7). About 11.9% and 26.1% respectively were ‘very unlikely’ and ‘unlikely’ to purchase those products. The cumulative effect of these results is that 38% of consumers are unlikely or very unlikely to purchase products advertised by sexual appeal, while 48.2% are likely or very likely to purchase those products. Males are more easily disposed to purchase products advertised by sexually appealing adverts than females (2 = 10.45, df = 3, p < 0.05).

The findings that males are more favorably disposed to sex appeal is consistent with Reichert et al. (2007) who argue that viewers respond much more favorably to opposite- sex sexual images than to the same-sex images. Much of the sex appeal in advertising on the television sets and audio-visual media incorporate a lot of feminine features. Males are attracted much more to the nudity aspects of these images than females who would have to contend more with demonstrations that feature the same sex as themselves.

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Additionally, the respondents expressed the view that they would not be offended or discouraged from purchasing a product with sex appeal advertising. The results show that a majority of respondents (44.3%) would not be discouraged or offended by sexually appealing adverts to the extent of discouraging them from purchasing those products. This is depicted graphically in Figure 2.

Implications for Marketing In the first place, sex appeal adverts must strive to provide a perfect link between the advert and the product while using a very reasonable degree of sex expressions. It is important to bear in mind that unreasonable use of sex elements could easily put some audiences off and lead to a flop. Care should be taken by advertisers not to use sexually explicit scenes which would not only corrupt children and the youth, but offend adults. The advert should not insinuate lewdness as that would reduce the moral standards of society at large.

Figure 2: Decision and Purchase of Products Advertised by Sex Appeal

50

40

30

20

10

0

(N = 296)

Strongly Agree

Disagree Neutral Agree

P er

ce n

t

Strongly Agree

Not offended by or discouraged from purchasing a product advertised by sex appeal

6.1 13.5

29.4

44.3

6.8

Note: Pearson’s Chi-square: 2 = 10.45, df = 3, p < 0.05.

Table 7: Purchase of Products with Sex Appeal Adverts

Very Unlikely 12 9.4 23 13.5 35 11.9

Unlikely 26 20.3 51 30.0 77 26.1

Neutral 14 10.9 30 17.7 44 14.9

Likely 53 41.4 51 30.0 104 35.3

Very Likely 23 18.0 15 8.8 38 12.9

Total 128 100.0 170 100.0 298 101.0

Total

Frequency Percent

Female

Frequency Percent

Male

Frequency Percent

Purchasing Products with Sexual

Suggestions in Advert

49Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

The study reveals that sex appeal advertising is already a predominant advertising approach in Ghana, and that the society is already accustomed to sex appeal and therefore will not be offended by its use in advertisements. This implies that international businesses seeking to do business in Ghana can replicate or vary slightly successful sex appeal advertisement used in other contexts to achieve success at a minimal cost.

The study also shows that sex appeal generally, significantly influences purchase intentions, and males are more likely to be influenced by sex appeal adverts than females. This means that organizations that sell products used by males can effectively target them using sex appeal adverts and increase sales. The study also shows that females were less likely to be influenced to purchase products because of the sex appeal ad accompanying it. This is in part because adverts using sex appeal are often dominated by the use of female models and that sex appeal adverts have more favorable influence on the opposite gender (Clow and Baack, 2007).

Conclusion The study revealed that nudity is an overarching characteristic of sexually appealing advertisements as per respondents’ perception. Sexually appealing adverts seem to be predominantly described in terms of the level of nudity that people have seen in those adverts. This is consistent with the current trend in sex appeal advertising dominated with female nudity and the use of demonstrative model in our media landscape (Clow and Baack, 2007). The findings further suggest that these sex appeals have been incorporated in advertisement and many people have likely seen them. This seems to be just a reflection of a larger picture in contemporary times that depicts aspects of mass media communication as sexually inducing. Against all reservations, a majority of respondents in this study viewed sex appeal advertising as an appropriate approach to promote products and services. Scholars like Lambiase and Reichert (2003) show that people impute characteristics such as short skirts, tight tops, muscular arms, bikini and lingeries to nudity. This view further goes to suggest that ‘nudity’ is not necessarily perceived in the sense of ‘nakedness’ but it has a lot to do with suggestive dressing as in, for example, open blouses with partially exposed cleavage or tight fitting clothing that highlights the body. This and the like appear to be the significant elements of sex appeal.

The study also revealed from specific instances that people have quite often seen adverts with sex connotations or suggestions. The finding basically projects the view that adverts with sexual connotations or suggestions are widespread. Sexually appealing adverts were found to be prevalent which supports Dianoux and Linhart’s (2010) assertion that sex appeal advertising has witnessed a spectacular growth in recent times. Most of the respondents in the study admitted to seeing sexually appealing adverts in various forms. Most respondents had encountered sexually appealing advertisements through the television. Television combines both the audio and visual experiences to bring to the viewers (particularly females) those sexually appealing advertisements in an unparalleled way. Females were significantly more accustomed to sex appeal adverts

The IUP Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. XIV, No. 4, 201550

and this result may have implications on females’ evaluation of sex appeal ad which is likely to be viewed as ordinary or unimpressive because excessive exposure could tamper with the level of appeal. Since, consumers are so used to these kinds of adverts, the adverts would lose their punch line unless something extra is added. This result may also be due to the preponderance of female features in a lot of sex appeal adverts.

The study assessed the effectiveness of sex appeal adverts based on awareness and recognition and purchase made thereof. The study discovered a tie between the fact that sex appeal grabs attention and the fact that it does not. This suggests that respondents were fairly aware or knowledgeable of sex appeals in adverts.

In terms of decision and purchase, the study showed that a majority of respondents were more likely to make purchases as a result of sex appeal advertising. In a similar vein, Dudley (1999) supports the notion of greater likeliness of sexual ads to influence purchase intention. Furthermore, the respondents expressed the view that they would not be offended by or discouraged from purchasing a product subject to sex appeal advertising. The results indicate that people are more likely to be influenced by sex appeal advertising stimuli but that may not constitute it as the only reason for making a purchase.

Limitations and Scope for Future Research: Since data for the study was obtained entirely from the national capital (Greater Accra Region), it limits the extent of the generalizability of the findings to the entire population, and most likely represents an urban viewpoint. Future studies may extend it to cover the other regions as well. Also, the use of convenience sampling approach of data collection further limits the representativeness of the findings in terms of its use for statistical inferences. Also as a broad based study, the researchers only sought to gauge respondent’s general perspective without subjecting them to any specimen of sex appeal ad which would have had a direct effect. Future studies can therefore experiment with real-time ads or a simulation with sex stimuli in the ads to provide more realistic findings that can highlight the effect of sex appeal and gender-related attitudes in the Ghanaian context.J

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Appendix

Research Questionaire

This questionnaire is designed to solicit views on the topic ‘consumer perception of sex appeal advertising’. This study is strictly for academic purposes hence any information given would be treated with utmost confidentiality. Your anonymity is also assured. Kindly respond to the questions as sincerely as possible and where necessary write down your answers to the questions in the spaces provided or tick [4].

1. Background Information

1. Gender: Male Female

2. Age: 18-25 yrs. 26-35 yrs. 36-50 yrs. 50 yrs. and above

3. Education Background: JHS SHS Tertiary Others

4. Marital Status:

Married Divorced Widowed Single

B. Consumer’s Perception of Sex Appeal in Advertisements

a. Which of these characteristics when used, does one describe the advertisement as sexy or having sex appeal?

Physical Attractiveness Nudity

Sexual Behavior Sexual Referents

Sexual Embeds [You can tick more than one]

b. Have you seen an advertisement using a sex-oriented appeal?

Yes No

c. Sex appeal advertising is an appropriate approach to promote products and services.

Strongly disagree Disagree

Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

2. The Extent of the Use of Sex Appeal in Advertising

a. How often do you see adverts with sex connotations or suggestions?

Not at all Quite often Very often Always

b. Sex appeal adverts are common or widespread these days.

Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral

Agree Strongly Agree

55Consumer Perception of Sex Appeal Advertising: A High Context Cultural Perspective

Appendix (Cont.)

c. Through which of these mediums do you often encounter sex appeal advertisement?

Television Radio Billboards Point of Sale Displays

Other Promotional Merchandise (i.e., T-shirts, cups, key holders, etc.)

d. I am used to seeing sex appeal adverts in various forms of adverts nowadays.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

3. The Effectiveness of Sex Appeal in Advertising

Awareness and Recognition

a. Advertisements that use sex appeal grab my attention more as compared to other adverts without such appeal.

Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

b. Advertisements that use sex appeal influence my perception about the product advertised.

Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Purchase Decision

a. Would people consider purchasing a product because it has sexual suggestions in its advertisement?

Very unlikely Unlikely Neutral Likely Very likely

b. I would not be offended or discouraged from purchasing a product with sex appeal.

Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

What other views or opinions do you have about sex appeal in advertising that is worth noting?

Reference # 03J-2015-11-03-01

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