Nutrition

CAS aches can he consider to assess the reasons why high-school students

What approaches

eating nutritiously? wnat intormation should he collect? aNe not

Developing Pertormance Objectives Developing pertormance objectives means writing precise statements about what will be learned. They define the purpose of instruction and Are helpful tools in planning, implementing, and evaluating learning. The educator needs to decide what is to be learned before selecting the Optimal methods, techniques, and tools to accomplish it. The term "performance objectives is used in this chapter, but the educational

literature also interchangeably uses the terms "behavioral" and "mea-

surable" objectives. A well-stated performance objective communicates the intended out-

come of instruction for the learner. It specifies the desired behavior or level of competence to be attained after instruction is complete. Writing performance objectives has many advantages. It results in less ambiguity regarding what is to be learned. Also, clear performance objectives make it possible to design and implement instruction, select appropriate instruc- tional materials, and assess or evaluate whether or not the objectives are achieved. Both the teacher and the learner benefit from clearer instructions. When people know what they are supposed to learn, it does not come as a

surprise. They should not be kept guessing about what should be learned

or about what is important.

Objectives should focus on the person learning, not on the educator.

The following objective is poorly stated: "The dietitian will teach the client about his diet. " Note that this statement focuses on what the practitioner

will do and not on what the client or learner will do. The following is pre-

ferred because it focuses on the client: "After instruction |when], the client

who will be able to plan appropriate menus using the sodium-restricted

diet as a reference [what."

Mager wrote one of the most useful

guides for writing performance objec-

tives. A key to writing measurabie

performance objectives is the selection

One should create an environment

conducive to learning.

Source: US Department of Agriculture.

of the verb that describes the desired outcome. Some

Sttbiect to misinterpretation,

as in the following objectivee.

e. Some verbs are vague an

3/EDUCATION SKILLS

282 and

. To know (is able to know which foods contain potassiumi

To understand (is able to understand that foods high in notan.

the

potassium should be consumed daily when certain medications are prescribed)

. To appreciate (is able to appreciate the importance of followin

dietary instructions)

client will purchase foods high in potassium, be able to tell a f nat the

foods are high in potassium, or recognize them on a list. "Underenic

It is not clear when using "to know" whether "knowing" means that the

standins could mean being able to recall reasons, being: able to read an article abe ar heing able to apply knowledge to one s own Situation. The meanin

of "know" "understand," and "appreciate" are vague and unclear Instead, select verbs that describe what the person is able to do afia

learning has taken place. Note that the phrase "after learning [whenl th individual [who| is able to |do what|" is understood to precede the phrase since one is describing what the person will be capable of doing. Another method involves starting with the action verb. The first two examples are rewritten from the unsatisfactory objectives in the previous list. Better verbs to use are summarized in Box 11-1 and include the following:

t,

To recall (is able to name five good food sources of potassium) To explain (is able to explain why foods high in potassium should be consumed) To write (is able to list the groups in the USDA myPlate) To compare (is able to compare the nutrient needs of an adult woman with those of a pregnant woman) To identify (is able to identify on the menu those foods that are permitted) 10 sOve or use (is able to plan menus that include five servings or and vegetables daily)

ts

aemonstrate (is able to demonstrate the use of the mixer or S doi

to select low-fat foods at the grocery store) To operate (is able to slice meat on the meat slicer)

e

Mager noted that three characteristics improve writtenODc mance, (2) conditions, and (3) criterion. The "pertormance haractet

learner will be able to do after an instruction is given. The seo

istic describes under what "conditions" the performance is t

a "criterion" tells how good the individual's performance ceptable. Table 11-1 summarizes the three-part system tor wi

S improve written objectives: (1) perfor- criterion. The "performand tells hat the

an instruction is given. The seca cter

to occur. Finally be a summarizes the three-part s

Conditions and criterion may not be included in a

detailed information is important. The more thatt

the objective and the more likely that the learner wi

Titerion may not be included in all objectv art system for writing objec

general ant. The more that can be specit tied, the better 20 Y at the learner will learn what was pla was planned

CA al nutrition problems do you think he may have identified from what he

what tential nutrition

erved and gathered? has obser

Verbs to Use

Discuss Analyze

Apply Prepare Distinguish Produce

Assemble Evaluate Recall Explain Identify

Calculate Recite Cite Recognize Classify llustrate Recommend

Interpret Compare Complete

Repair List Select

Construct Measure Solve Contrast Name State Define Operate Summarize Demonstrate Plan Use Describe Practice Write

Vague Verbs to Avoid

Appreciate Feel Learn Believe Grasp Like

Comprehend Discern

Hope Realize

Know Understand

Box 11-1 Verbs Describing Performance

Part Employee Example Question Client Example

Learner behavior Measures sanitizer in a

Do what? Plans a menu for bucket

a day

Conditions When cleaning the work

Under what Given a list of

area conditions?

permitted foods

Criterion Using the exact

How well? With no errors

concentration

recommended

3/EDUCATION SKILLS

284 Performance Component

ective describes the

individual will be doing. The performance may be visible or in.Ythat the

ng, reciting,

that the may be visible or invisib The performance

component of an objective describes th.

ble. An

explaining, or operating

equipment. . A covert or invisible performa rmance Cting

hether the objective is satistied and learning has taken nla ace.

or heard such as listir

overt or visible

performance may be seen or heard such a

explaining reauires that the individual be asked to do something visible or audible

. Is able to identify the parts of the meat slicer (on a diagram or sn

ls able to plan a day's menu based on the USDA myPlate

In invisible performance, an "ndicator behavior" is added to tho en

jective place

rbally)

Identifving is invisible until the learner is asked to identify the no

The on

a diagram or to recite them verbally, which are indicator behauioro maior intent or performance should be stated using an active verb. and

an indicator should be added if the pertormance cannot be seen or heard

Conditions Component

Once the performance is clearly stated, it may be necessary to state whether there are specific circumstances or conditions under which the performance will be observed. The conditions describe the setting, equipment, or aids associated with the behavior. With what resources will the individual be provided? What will be withheld? Conditions are in parentheses in the following examples

(Given the disassembled parts of a meat slicer) is able to reassemoie the parts in correct sequence. (Given a standard menu) is able to calculate the appropriate carbony drate in the foods. (Given a list of foods including both good and poor sources or pola sium) is able to identify the good sources. aiven a standard menu) is able to select low-sodium foods for a co plete day. wIhout looking at the diet instruction form) is able t desci propriate dinner menu. an ap (without the assistance of the practitioner) is able to eXPIa pregnant woman should eat on a daily basis.

oods a

Athough every objective mav not have conditions, there snou Oauon to make it clear exactly what performance 1s Exp

nough

Criterion Component cted.

A criterion may be added oncet the end performance any, under which it will be alh

s, if end performance and the condit rihe

11/PLANNING LEARNING 285 of achievement meeasuring how well the individual should be able

a farm. Possible standards for measuring performance include speed, accur 1uraCV, quality, and percentage of correct answers. A time limit can be

. Is able to set a table (in 8 minutes or less) l able to reassemble the meat slicer (in 5 minutes or less)

used to describe the speed criterion. The following are examples:

. Is able to complete a diet history (in 20 minutes)

Eor obiectives that require the development of skill overa period of time, one m11st determine how much time is reasonable in the initial learning period aS Opposed to the time when the skill is well developed. A new emplovee cannot be expected to pertorm a task as rapidly as an experienced person.

When the person is expected to perform with a degree of accuracy,

include this in the objective. Accuracy should communicate how well the person needs to perform for his or her performance to be considered competent. Examples include the following:

Is able to set five tables (with no errors)

Is able to identify good sources of potassium (with 80% accuracy), when

given a list of foods including both good and poor sources

Is able to plan a menu for a complete day (with no errors) when given a

copy of a sodium-restricted diet

Is able to calculate the carbohydrate in the diabetic diet (within 5 g)

Performance objectives should also indicate a quality indicator to assess

what constitutes an acceptable performance. It is easier to communicate

quality when objective standards are available to both the individual and

the practitioner. Any acceptable deviation from the standards can then be

determined. The following are examples of such standards:

Is able to reassemble the meat slicer (according to the steps in the task

analysis) s able to measure the amount of sanitizer (according to the directions

on the label of the container)

IS able to substitute foods on a diabetic menu (using carbohydrate

counting) IS able to pass the Commission on Dietetics Registration's credentialing

AGmination (by attaining at or above the set criterion score)

CA

286 3/EDUCATION SKILLS

surable when they include Performance objectives are clear and measurable wh.

the essential component of pertormance and optional components

includ of

condition and criterion to clarity quantity and quality,

SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 Plan several perfornmance objectives for clients or employees.

including some with conditions and criteria.

Domains of Learning

Learning can be organized into domains, taxonomies, or classificati systems to focus on precision in writin8. There are three basic domainsof objectives: (1) cognitive (knowledge), (2) atfective (attitudes and values and (3) psychomotor (skills). Each is a hierarchy from the simple to the complex. Figure 11-1 shows their interrelationship.

n

Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain involves the acquisition and utilization of knowledge or information and the development of intellectual skills and abilities. A taxonomy of educational performance objectives in the cognitive domain,

COGNITIVE

Knowledge

Informatioon

AFFECTIVE PSYCHOMOTOR

Attitudes Manual skills

Values Performance

Figure 11-1 The interrelationship of objectives.

Pub ablished by

porics and a a number of subcategories:

11/PLANNING LEARNING 287 Bloom and colleagues,"-2 includes six major levels or cat- 1.0 KNOVWLEDGE

1.1 Knowledge of specifics 1.2 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics 1.3 Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field 2.0 COMPREHENSION

2.1 Translation

2.2 Interpretation

2.3 Extrapolation

3.0 APPLICATION

4.0 ANALYSIS

4.1 Analysis of elements

4.2 Analysis of relationships

4.3 Analysis of organizational principles 5.0 SYNTHESIS

5.1 Production of a unique communication

5.2 Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations

5.3 Derivation of a set of abstract relations

6.0 EVALUATION

6.1 Judgments in terms of internal evidence

6.2 Judgments in terms of external criteria

Ihe levels or categories are arranged in a hierarchy from simple to com-

plex, from concrete to more abstract. The objectives in any one level are

likely to be built on the behaviors in the previous level. The subcategories

nelp to further define the major headings and make them more specitic.

The educator needs to think beyond the simplest levels of knowledge

ald strive to write objectives at higher, more complex levels. Without ex

amining the possibility of writing higher-level objectives, educators may

Lend to think only in terms of knowledge and comprehension, which are

e easiest objectives to write (and learn). The learner may then be denied

e opportunity ofapplying knowledge or using it in problem solving and

Wll be reduced to memorizing facts. In nutrition

education, for example,

A1oWing facts is necessary at the lowest level (knowledge).

Higher-level

ODjectives will include the ability to analyze food labels, to synthesize all

Omation learned so knowledge

can be shared, and to evaluate nutrition

Ormation in making wise food choices. In the following discussion of

SIX Tevels in the taxonomy, examples

of objectives are given.

At the lowest

levet inn ihe cognitive doma

hering

information

ithout n

3/EDUCATION SKIl LS

ation without necessarily understandine This o.

inue ime, prOCCSSCS cceclassification systems, criteria, principles, of inah, and

288

owledge involv tive domain, kr Knowledgge

terminology, and facts, such as recall of specilic bits of information,

ends nauiry, e in the cognitive dnm

Cvents, and places,

chronologic sequences, methods of Such

Table 11-2 suggests vei)s (describing

performa.

EXAMPLE Is able to list foods high in sodium

Comprehension

erstanti It involves knowing what is communicated by another h an

ation

The second level, comprehension, is the lowest levol.o

and e include restatement or paraphrase, interpretation, summarizati. atio rangement of the information, and extrapolation or nsion ofthe

able to use the information communicated. The use of info

ation or information to determine implications or consequences.

EXAMPLE Is able to explain (verbally or in writing) why certain foons are not recommended on the diabetic diet.

Level Verbs to Use

Cites, defines, describes, identifies, labels, lists, matches memorizes, names, outlines, recalls, recites, repeats, reprou selects, states

Knowledge

Comprehension Converts, defends, discusses, distinguishes, estimdie ognizEs, Eeneralizes, gives examples, paraphrases, predicts, I rewrites, selects, summarizes, translateS

Applies, assembles, calculates, changes, computes, dem

prepares, produces, show: solves, ranslates, uses

identifies, illustrates, interprets, investigates, outlines, te

Application

Analyzes, ompares, differentiates, discriminates, distinguiSIe

composes, creates, designs, diagnoses, explains,

mulates

Ices, e'signs, manipulates, modifies, operates, plati Analysis

researches, separates, solves, Synthesis studies les, ASSembles, categorizes, classifies, comD

ages, organizes, plans, ecommends,

revist

mpares, concludes, Contrasts,

criltieue

generates, manage Evaluation rewrites, summarizes, writes

Appraises, assesseS, critiques, discrimi Table 112u Verbs Desqrihint minates, evaluates, judges, Ju

11/PLANNING LEARNING 289

atio At the levcl of application, a person is able to use information, principles, Application

afs Or ideas in concrete situations. Knowledge is understood suffi-concepts, or id

cicntly to be. able to apply it to solve a problem.

EXAMPLE Is able to plan a sodium-restricted menu for the day.

Analysis

Analvsis entails the breakdown of information into its parts to identify the

olements, the interaction between elements, and the organizing principles

or structure. Relationships may be nmade among ideas.

EXAMPLE Is able to analyze the nutrition labeling on a food product

for fat content.

Synthesis Synthesis requires the reassembling of elements or parts to form something

new. You may assemble a unique verbal or written communication, a plan

of operation, or a set of abstract relations to explain data.

EXAMPLE Is able to explain the low-cholesterol diet accurately to a

friend.

Evaluation the highest level in the cognitive taxonomy,

evaluation is the ability

age the value of materials or methods in a particular situation. Such

ugment requires the use of criteria, which may be internal criteria, such

8Cal accuracy or consistency, or external criteria, such as external

standards.

EXAMPLE Is able to evaluate a nutrition article from the daily

newspaper.

290 3/EDUCATION SKILLS

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2 Plan several performance objectives in the cognitive domain on a similar topic.

Affective Domain

The affective domain deals with changes in attitudes, feelings. liefs, appreciation, and interests. Often, the educator wants the learne be. only to comprehend what to o do but also to value it, accept it, and find not

,be not important. Attitudes and beliets about food are widely recognized as in s im-portant determinants of a person's food choices. We want people to value

g00d nutrition and select healthful foods. When imparting informatio ation fails to bring about behavior change, the common response is to redouble efforts to teach facts and explain why something should be done. Instead an examination of the person's attitudes and values should be pursued. The affective domain involves a process of internalization from least committed to most committed. It categorizes the inner growth that occurs as people become aware of, and later adopt, the attitudes and principles that assist in forming the value judgments that guide their conduct. A leaning goal for a pregnant woman would be to attain a level of basic knowledge (cognitive domain) about the proper foods to eat during pregnancy, but also to value the knowledge so much (affective domain) that she eats nu-tritious foods and practices good nutrition. Note that an objective in one domain may have a component in another. Cognitive objectives may have an afective component, and affective obijectives may have a cognitive one Affective objectives are more nebulous and resist precise definindu therefore, evaluation of their achievement is more difficult. The pracuu may find it a formidable task to describe affective behaviors invoivu nternal feelings and emotions, but they are as important as behav-

written 1Ors. Because affective objectives are more difficult to express, mo objectives express cognitive behaviors. Krathwohl and colleagues have published a taxonomy of educa

with s with ODjectives in the affective domain. It includes five major e subcategories: 1.0 RECEIVING (ATTENDING)

1.1 Awareness

1.2 Willingness to receive 1.3 Controlled or selected attention 2.0 RESPONDING

2.1 Acquiescence in resnanding

11/PLANNING LEARNING 291 2.2 Willingness to respond

2.3 Satisfaction in response

3.0 VALUING

3.1 Acceptance of a value

3.2 Preference for a value

3.3 Commitment

4.0 ORGANIZATION

4.1 Conceptualization

4.2 Organization of a value system

5.0 CHARACTERIZATION BY A VALUE OR VALUE COMPLEX

5.1 Generalized set

5.2 Characterization

The ordering of levels describes a process by which a value progresses from

a state of mere awareness or perception to the status of greater complexity

until it becomes an internal part of one's outlook on life that guides or

controls behavior. This internalization may occur in varying degrees and

may involve conformity and high

commitment or nonconformity. At

higher levels, behavior may be so ingrained that it is unconscious rather

than a conscious response. Responses may be produced consistently in

the absence of external authorities and in spite of barriers. Thus, a client

may eventually select healthful foods or an employee may wash his or her

hands without thinking about it at the conscious level. Table 11-3 suggests

verbs describing performance in the affective domain.

Level Verbs to Use

Asks, attends, chooses,

describes, follows, gives,

identifies,

listens, replies, selects, uses Receiving

Answers, assists,

complies, conforms,

cooperates, discusses,

helps, participates,

performs, practices,

presents, reads,

recites,

reports, responds,

selects, tells, writes Responding

Completes, describes,

differentiates,

explains, follows,

imitates,

JOins, justifies, participates,

proposes,

reads, selects,

shares,

supportsS

Valuing

ACCepts, adheres,

alters, arranges,

combines,

compares,

defends,

discusses, explains,

generalizes,

identifies, integrates,

modifies,

organizes, prefers,

relates, synthesizes

Organization

ACtS, advocates,

communicates,

discriminates,

displays,

exemplifies,

influences,

performs, practices,

proposes,

questions,

elects, serves,

supports, uses,

verifies Characterization

Table 11-3 Verbs Describing Performance-Affective

292 3/EDUCATION SKILLS

At the lowest level of the affective domain, the learner is ..

certain phenomena or stimuli. Receiving represents a wiing to

to what the teacher is presenting. The person may move fr lO atten.

Receivin9

lling to rece

level of awareness or consciousness to a neutral willin

situation rather than to avoid it and then to an active levol illingness to tolerate

te the level of control or selected attention despite distractions.

EXAMPLE Is able to focus attention on instructions on a diahe etic diet

Responding The second level is responding, which indicates a desire on the Dart of th

learner to become involved in, or committed to, a subject or activity. At the lowest level of responding, the client or employee may passively acquiesce or at least comply, in response to the professional or manager. At a higher level, a willingness to respond or voluntarily make a commitment to a chosen response is evident. Finally, a feeling of satistaction or pleasure in response involves internalization on the part of the learner.

EXAMPLE Is willing to read diet materials with interest and ask questions.

Valuing At the third level, valuing, the learner believes that the intormato behavior has worth. The person values it based on a personal a r Wnen the value has been slowly internalized or accepted, the dient

Sment.

employee displays a behavior consistent with the value. wneoire ething

t is valued, motivation is not based on external authorities o

demonstrate obey, but on an internal commitment. The learner will then demonstrate acceptance of a value, preference for a value, or commitmenta and conviction.

EXAMPLE Is able to select a nutritious meal from tne eteria line.

total network of values, and at the level of ues

con

are s

New val

inwhich

moe

Organization

than one value is appropriate. Individual values are incorpor porated

intd

At the level of organization, the learner disSCe ner discovers situ n which moe

relates new values to those he or she already hold eptualization

holds. New values

mus

eIson

11/PLANNING LEARNING 293 ized into an ordered relationship with the current value system

orga

Perhaps a client has previously valued cating whatever he or she wants

Now ar thc clicnt has to learn a new value (different foods) and change an

old one (some of the current eating choices)

EXAMPLE Is able to discuss plans for making different, healthful food

choices

Characterization

The highest level, characterization, indicates that the learner has internalized

the values for a sufticient time to control behavior and acts consistently

Over time. A general1zed set is a predisposition to act or perceive events in

a certain way. At the highest level of internalization, beliefs or ideas are

integrated with internal consistency.

EXAMPLE Is able to select only those foods permitted on the diet at

almost all times.

Behavioral change in the affective domain takes place gradually over a

period of time, whereas cognitive change may occur more rapidly. Affective

change may take days, weeks, months, or years at the higher levels.

SELF-ASSESSMENT 3

d a performance objective for each level in the affective

domain on a similar topic.

Psychomotor Domain ne psychomotor

domain involves the development of physical

abilities

SKIlls. Knowledge

and attitudes are interrelated

and may be necessary

pertorm these skills. For example, a person cannot

drive a car or operate

Eat slicer (tasks requiring

manual skills) without some

basic knowledge

e equipment. Table 11-4 suggests verbs describing

pertormance at the

various levels of the psy sychomotor domain. The performance

of physical

proceeds to increasingly

complex steps. Following

are Simpson's

Verbs to Use

Level

Attends, observes, perceives, recognizae

watches Perception Demonstrates, sitions, prepares, enses, touche

uses ates, pertorms, practices Calculates, computes, cuts, imitates, pe repeats, replicates, tries

Set

Guided response

Assembles, calibrates, cleans, disassembles. perates, Mechanism performs, practices, prepares, repairs, uses

sters, Cooks, demonstrates, executes, interviews, ma Complex Overt response

performsS

Adapts, changes, develops, modifies, organizes, pro-Adaptation duces, solves

Instructs, operates, originates, uses Origination

Table 11-4 Verbs Describing Performance-Psychomotor

seven levels and selected subcategories; there are other similar psychomotor domain category systems,20:

1.0 PERCEPTION

1.1 Sensory stimulation

1.1.1 Auditory

1.1.2 Visual

1.1.3 Tactile

1.1.4 Taste

1.1.5 Smell

1.1.6 Kinesthetic 1.2 Cue selection

1.3 Translation 2.0 SET

2.1 Mental set

2.2 Physical set

2.3 Emotional set 3.0 GUIDED RESPONSE

3.1 Imitation

3.2 Trial and error 4.0 MECHANISM

11/PLANNING LEARNING 295 5.0 COMPLEX OVERT RESPONSE

5.1 Resolution of uncertainty

5.2 Automatic performance

6.0 ADAPTATION

7.0 ORIGINATION

Perception

The lowest level of the psychomotor domain is perception. It involves be-

elling-and by muscle sensations or activation. The learne ner

must select which cues to respond to in order to perform a task and then

coming avWare of objects by means of the senses-hearing, seeing, touching,

tasting, and smel

must mentally translate the cues received for action.

EXAMPLE Is able to recognize a need to learn how to use the meat

slicer.

Set

Set is the second level and suggests a readiness for performinga task. This

may involve mental readiness to start the task, physical readiness to cor rect body positioning to accomplish the task, and emotional readiness by

having a favorable attitude or willingness to learn the task.

EXAMPLE Is able to position oneself to use the meat slicer.

Guided Response The third level of the psychomotor domain is guided response. The professional or

trainer guides the employee during the

activity by emphasizing the individual

Components of a more complex skill.

The subcategories include imitation

of the practitioner, trial and error, and

feedback until the task can be performed

accurately. Performance at this level may

initially be crude and imperfect.

www

ODjectives for learning should be planned around what

he employee needs to know and do.

Source: US Department of Agriculture.

296 3/EDUCATION SKILLS

using the meat slicer unde EXAMPLE Is able to practice the steps in using the mea

supervision.

. At this stage, Mechanism, the fourth level, refers to habitual response. At thi

Mechanism

learner demonstrates an initial degree of oficiency in performing task, which results from some practice.

EXAMPLE Is able to use the meat slicer properly.

Complex Overt Response

The fifth level, complex overt response, suggests that a level of skill has ber attained over time in pertorming the task. Work is pertormed smoothly an-efficiently without error. Two subcategories are resolution of uncertainty, i. which a task is performed without hesitation, and automatic performance Performance is characterized by accuracy, control, and speed.

EXAMPLE Is able to demonstrate considerable skill in using the meat slicer with a variety of foods.

Adaptation and Origination Adaptation requires altering manual skills in new but similar situations, such as in adapting slicing procedures to a variety of different toous the meat slicer. The final level, origination, refers to the creation old 2 physical act, such as slicing something that has not been done bero An understanding of the psychomotor domain, which may be n to

pful

the to recall the process of learning to drive an automobile: resp redy

the physical and visual stimulation, feeling mentally and emotionauy anceof to drive, learning parallel parking by trial and error under the gu an instructor, developing a degree of s Vng without havina8ugree of skill, and finally starting the car anu driving without having to think of the ste

and

developed so tha"8 O think of the steps. With time, sufficient skill is developed so that the person can adapt quickly to new si road and create new responses automatically.

situations on the

SELF-ASSESSMENT 4 Plan a performance objective for each level in the psychomo domain in a similar subject area.