assignment 8

Workplace spirituality, employee wellbeing and intention to stay

A multi-group analysis of teachers’ career choice

Nimitha Aboobaker, Manoj Edward and Zakkariya K.A. School of Management Studies, Cochin University of Science and Technology,

Kochi, India

Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of workplace spirituality on employee well-being and intention to stay with the organization among teachers in technical higher education institutions. Furthermore, the study endeavors to test the difference in model estimates across two groups of teachers who differ in their intentional career choice. Design/methodology/approach – This descriptive study was conducted amongst a sample of 523 teachers working in technical educational institutions in India. Self-reporting questionnaires were administered among the respondents, who were selected through purposive sampling method. Structural equation modeling and multi-group analysis were done to test the hypotheses. Findings – Analysis revealed that workplace spirituality enhanced employee well-being and intention to stay. Differences were observed on the effects of different dimensions of workplace spirituality on job outcomes. Also, teachers’ intentional career choice was found to moderate these relationships. Originality/value – This study is pioneering in conceptualizing and testing a theoretical model linking workplace spirituality, employee well-being and intention to stay, particularly in the context of teachers who differ in their intentional career choice. Implications with regard to the experience of workplace spirituality and job outcomes in the specific context of teaching are elaborated, thus striving to fill a gap in existing literature. Keywords Teachers, Workplace spirituality, Higher education sector, Career choice, Intention to stay, Well-being at work Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction Ever since the Academy of Management launched the special interest group “Management, Spirituality and Religion” in 2000, the concept of workplace spirituality has gained the attention of both academicians and practitioners as a salient area of inquiry. Workplace spirituality is essentially an employee’s experience of spirituality in the context of the workplace. It is conceptualized at three levels: having a deep sense of meaning and purpose in one’s work, experiencing connectedness with co-workers and experiencing a strong sense of alignment between one’s personal values and their organization’s mission and purpose (Milliman et al., 2003). Experience of spirituality at the workplace has been found to be positively associated with employee work attitudes such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, OCB and organizational performance (Rego and Cunha, 2008; Crawford et al., 2009; Petchsawang and Duchon, 2012; Houghton et al., 2016). In recent times, employee well-being has emerged as one of the greatest challenges faced by managers (Boddy, 2014) and they are inquiring into strategies aimed at improving the same. Experience of more positive emotions at work has significant influences on both individual outcomes and organizational performance and productivity (Illies et al., 2015). In line with the theory of job demands-resources model (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017, 2014; Schaufeli and Taris, 2014), we conceptualize that workplace spirituality is a psychological job resource that will help employees in realizing enhanced well-being at work. Also, drawing from the Broaden and Build theory of Positive Emotions (Fredrickson, 2013), we propose

International Journal of Educational Management Vol. 33 No. 1, 2019 pp. 28-44 © Emerald Publishing Limited 0951-354X DOI 10.1108/IJEM-02-2018-0049

Received 5 February 2018 Revised 24 March 2018 17 April 2018 Accepted 5 May 2018

Aboobaker, N., Manoj, E., & Zakkariya, K. A. (2019). Workplace spirituality, employee wellbeing and intention to stay. The International Journal of Educational Management, 33(1), 28-44. doi:8080/10.1108/IJEM-02-2018-0049

28

IJEM 33,1

that when employees experience positive emotions at work, higher will be their intention to stay with the organization. Research in these areas are still emerging, and our study attempts to fill this gap in the literature and examines the role of workplace spirituality in influencing well-being at work and intention to stay with the organization.

This study, being conducted among teachers, gains more relevance as teaching is a stressful occupation (Kidger et al., 2016) and teachers in general seek to discover meaning and purpose in what they do at the workplace (Khasawneh, 2011). Lowered well-being and resultant unfavorable individual and job outcomes like attrition costs profoundly to the organizations, and managers seek to develop policies aimed at improving the well-being of their employees (Amzat et al., 2017; Imran et al., 2017). In this context, the concept of career choice is of particular concern, as literature reveals that an individual’s career decision has a significant influence on both individual and work attitudes (AlDhaheri et al., 2017; Zaidi and Iqbal, 2012). Only if teachers are able to experience connectedness with their work and workplace, can they identify themselves with the profession and the organization as a whole. No study, to the best of our knowledge, has examined the relevance of intentional career choice in the context of the experience of workplace spirituality, well-being and intention to stay with the organization.

1.1 Indian context India has one of the largest higher education systems in the world, with 25.9 million students enrolled in more than 45,000 degree and diploma institutions in the country. Over the past decade, enrollments of students and institutions have escalated at a rapid rate (MHRD, 2016). Alongside, reports reveal that universities and other higher education institutions in India continue to be overwhelmed by more than 30 percent faculty shortage (Pushkar, 2016). It becomes critical to retain the talented educators, especially in the context of entry of foreign universities and lucrative offers from the corporate world. Recent studies have identified that factors like improved job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational culture, and perceived supervisor support have a positive influence on an employee’s well-being and intention to stay with the organization (AbuAlRub and Nasrallah, 2017; Cao et al., 2014; Chew and Chan, 2008; Sarooghi et al., 2015). Since private educational institutions have commercialized most of their services, they heavily rely on their staff for quality services and outcomes, thus making their retention more imperative (Hanselman et al., 2016). To the best of our knowledge, no study till date has investigated the inter-connectedness between the aforementioned constructs among educators. An attempt is made to extend the body of knowledge by exploring the relationships between workplace spirituality, well-being at work and intention to stay with the organization, among teachers in technical higher education institutions in India.

2. Literature review 2.1 Workplace spirituality People spend a huge portion of their life at work and increasingly place demands on the workplace for a sense of wholeness and connectedness. As a result, there has been a paradigm shift in the consciousness of workers and managers at all levels of organizations to find more meaning, purpose and fulfillment in their work, rather than just materialistic outcomes. Workplace spirituality has thus emerged as a significant focus for contemporary business organizations who strive hard toward sustainability. Workplace spirituality is “the lived experiences and expressions of one’s spirituality in the context of the work” (Sheep, 2006). Inclusive of the transcendent aspect, the pioneering survey on workplace spirituality (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000) extracted seven different dimensions of workplace spirituality and studies have proposed values framework for measuring workplace spirituality ( Jurkiewicz and Giacalone, 2004). However, as proposed by

29

Analysis of teachers’

career choice

Milliman et al. (2003), only three dimensions have been found to be significantly associated with organizational and job outcomes. The transcendence aspect of spirituality has been more related to individual outcomes like life satisfaction (Zullig et al., 2006). Since the focus of this study was on job outcomes, we adopted the conceptual definition that workplace spirituality is “the effort to find one’s ultimate purpose in life through the work one does, to develop a strong connection to co-workers and other people associated with work, and to have consistency (or alignment) between one’s core beliefs and the values of their organization” (Mitroff and Denton, 1999; Milliman et al., 2003).

As reflected from existing literature, workplace spirituality is conceptualized to be comprised of three dimensions: meaningful work, sense of community and alignment with organizational values. Meaningful work is the quest to find a deep sense of meaning and purpose in one’s work (Gatling et al., 2016) and represents how employees interact with their day-to-day work at the individual level (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000). The sense of community relates to having a deep connection to, or relationship with others (Milliman et al., 2003). Alignment with organizational values encompasses the notion that employees yearn to work in an organization whose goal is not merely wealth maximization, but also seeks to have a high sense of ethics or integrity and make a larger contribution to the welfare of employees, customers and society (Alas and Mousa, 2016; Biggs et al., 2014; Milliman et al., 2003). Experience of spirituality at the workplace has been found to be positively associated with employee work attitudes such as intuition, creativity, honesty, trust, personal fulfillment, organizational commitment, organizational performance, customer orientation, adaptability, service orientation, ethical selling behavior, job satisfaction, reduced intentions to quit, organizational citizenship behavior and job involvement (Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002; Kolodinsky et al., 2008; Rego and Cunha, 2008; Petchsawang and Duchon, 2012; Gupta et al., 2014; Pradhan et al., 2016). Though few studies have lately attempted to examine the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee well-being, these studies were either focused on experience of individual spirituality, which included transcendental aspects (Arnetz et al., 2013) or had measured well-being in a loosely defined manner; either in terms of positive emotions alone (Pawar, 2016) or on a broader level of subjective well-being (Zou and Dahling, 2017) or as a collective experience of employee commitment, job satisfaction and work-life balance satisfaction (Garg, 2017). Lack of studies relating to different dimensions of workplace spirituality and affective well-being at work (comprehensively measured in terms of experiencing both positive and negative emotions at work) signifies the relevance of this current research endeavor.

2.2 Well-being at work The “happy worker–productive worker” thesis suggests that workers, who experience high levels of well-being, perform well. However, organizations need to know how to nurture and sustain such happy and productive workers (Illies et al., 2015; Wright and Staw, 1999). Within the academic literature, there are many definitions of well-being (Warr, 2003). Dodge et al. (2012) propose a simple definition: “[…] wellbeing is the balance point between an individual’s resource pool and the challenges faced.” In this study, we conceptualize and measure employee well-being via job-related affective well-being, as experiencing more positive emotions than negative emotions (Van Katwyk et al., 2000; Warr, 2003). Studies across the globe have ascertained that employee well-being is rapidly decreasing in academia (Boyd et al., 2011; Kidger et al., 2016; Vesely et al., 2014). More than 50 percent of all teachers report teaching to be “stressful” or “extremely stressful” (Collie et al., 2012; De Nobile and McCormick, 2010). Lowered well-being results in diminished individual and work outcomes like absenteeism, job turnover and lack of motivation (Brunetto et al., 2012; McCormick and Barnett, 2011; Scanlan et al., 2013).

30

IJEM 33,1

The well-being of academic faculty is considered to have a remarkable impact on student accomplishment and hence important for the attainment of educational goals (Capone and Petrillo, 2016; Gonzalez-Rico et al., 2018). Earlier studies in this context have focused on faculty and administrator job satisfaction, faculty turnover and intention to leave (Ryan et al., 2012; Smerek and Peterson, 2007). Therefore, the psychological integration of employees toward their work and workplace needs to be deliberated within the higher education settings. In the context of Indian higher education sector, there is an increased level of absenteeism and turnover intention in the academic profession which are potential indicators of their lowered level of well-being (Raina and Khatri, 2015) and the lack of existence and focus on such studies compounds the obstacles toward formulation of policies and strategies aimed at improving well-being at work. However, the relevance of workplace spirituality as a precursor to well-being at work has not been previously examined in the organizational literature.

2.3 Intention to stay Intention to stay refers to an employee’s conscious and deliberate willingness to stay with the organization, hence the likelihood of him or her staying in his or her present job (Tett and Meyer, 1993). Higher education institutions are more dependent on the intellectual capital, creativity and commitment of their academicians than most other organizations, therefore making it critically significant to retain them (Pienaar and Bester, 2008). The costs of academic staff turnover have a significant impact on quality of services and the image of the institution (Zhou and Volkwein, 2004). With abundant career opportunities presented, it is important for private educational institutions to recognize why academic staff stays in their organizations. Govaerts et al. (2011) notes that appropriate retention strategies are grounded on the understanding of the influences that affect whether or not employees leave or stay, particularly noting that working climate has a positive influence on the retention of talented employees. Teachers’ intention to stay with the organization depends on both personal and contextual factors and no study has examined the role of workplace spirituality as a contextual psychological job resource that would facilitate improved well-being and intention to stay and hence the relevance of our current study.

2.4 Career choice as a moderator The decision of choosing to remain in a deep-rooted profession has a significant and long-term effect on both individual and organizational outcomes (Preston and Biddle, 1994). Generally, human beings take part in a profession as it helps them to fulfill their life desires like gaining a living, maintain enthusiasm, make a difference to the mankind, proliferation of social status, self-esteem and respectability (Kyriacou and Coulthard, 2000; Padhy et al., 2015). Moreover, one’s profession is an instrument of seeking for self-actualization and fulfillment in life (Watt and Richardson, 2007; Wrzesniewski, 2003). Studies have reported that employees stay with the organization when they enjoy doing their work and see work as a calling, as the case with most of the teachers (Bullough and Hall-Kenyon, 2012; Dik and Duffy, 2009). People are attracted to teaching because of various intrinsic (teaching as a calling and intellectual fulfillment) and extrinsic reasons (job security, high remuneration and long holidays) (Azman, 2013; Butt et al., 2010; Kyriacou, 2011; Mee et al., 2012). Studies report that an individual’s career decision has a significant influence on both individual and work attitudes and outcomes (AlDhaheri et al., 2017; Zaidi and Iqbal, 2012). Nevertheless, no study has examined the role of career choice in the context of constructs under the focus of our study. To address the existing gap in the literature, we seek to examine whether career choice would influence the relationship between a teacher’s workplace spirituality, well-being at work and intention to stay with the organization.

31

Analysis of teachers’

career choice

3. Theoretical framework and hypothesis development One of the basic premises of the Job Demands-Resources model (Bakker et al., 2014; Demerouti et al., 2001) – employed in this study – is that the job resources are critical for employee well-being. Job resources are those physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that help the person to cope with job demands, increase learning and development as an employee and are useful in accomplishing work-related goals (Bakker et al., 2014; Demerouti et al., 2001). Numerous studies have examined how different job characteristics like supervisory support, autonomy, feedback and task significance act as resources, resulting in improved job outcomes (Crawford et al., 2010). Studies have identified that centrality of work is pivotal to an individual’s well-being (Burack, 1999; Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002; Warr, 2003). Employees experience meaningful work through work designs that will facilitate enjoyment and purpose in what they do at workplace. Managers help experience meaningfulness by providing challenges, clarity and authenticity associated with each work, so that employees will enjoy their work and finds it connected to the larger good of the society. The dimension of meaningful work in workplace spirituality is thus conceptualized as a job resource, as the same is facilitated by managers, in the work environment. Sense of community is the togetherness experienced by co-workers, and managers play a great role on facilitating a work climate that nurtures and nourishes team-spirit and good personal relationships. Managerial practices aimed at improving the social and organizational context have been proved to add value to employee well-being at work (Bakke, 2005; Tehrani et al., 2007). Sense of community is thus conceptualized as an organizationally determined job characteristic and thus a job resource. Accordingly, workplace spirituality is conceptualized as a job resource that will help employees in realizing enhanced well-being at work and we put forward the following hypothesis:

H1a. There is a significant positive relationship between meaningful work and well-being at work.

H1b. There is a significant positive relationship between sense of community and well-being at work.

H1c. There is a significant positive relationship between alignment with organizational values and well-being at work.

The Broaden and Build theory (Fredrickson, 2013) posits that positive emotions broaden peoples’ momentary thought–actions (the broaden effect), which in turn prompts growth in personal and social resources, reflected through improved outcomes like job satisfaction and lowered turnover intentions (the build effect). Experience of positive emotions “expand the obtainable array of potential thoughts and actions that come readily to mind” (Fredrickson and Branigan, 2001) and has an enduring effects on employee job attitudes and outcomes like lower turnover intentions, higher organizational performance and productivity (Cotton and Hart, 2003; Siu et al., 2015). The role of economic, social and emotional resources as predictors of employees’ intention to leave or stay with the organization have been reported in many studies (Blau, 1964; Aryee et al., 2002; Bambacas and Kulik, 2013). Based on such findings, we presume a relationship between well-being at work and intention to stay with the organization, as well-being at work reflects one’s emotional resource. Hence we propose that when employees’ experience higher levels of well-being at work it would be reflected in improved intention to stay with the organization. Accordingly, it is hypothesized that:

H2. There is a significant positive relationship between well-being at work and intention to stay with the organization.

32

IJEM 33,1

The present study also aims to uncover the underlying mechanism through with workplace spirituality would influence job outcomes, as the case with “intention to stay” in this study and it is henceforth hypothesized that:

H3. Workplace spirituality will have an indirect effect on intention to stay, through well-being at work.

Based on the review of literature on career choice as a moderator, it can be inferred that teaching as a career can be internalized by individuals in different ways and those choices will have significant influence on their work outcomes (Azman, 2013; AlDhaheri et al., 2017). It is thus proposed that (Figure 1):

H4. The relationship between workplace spirituality and well-being will vary among teachers for whom teaching was an intentional career choice and otherwise.

H5. The relationship between well-being and intention to stay will vary among teachers for whom teaching was an intentional career choice and otherwise.

4. Research methodology 4.1 Overview of sample and procedures This descriptive study was conducted among a sample of 523 teachers working in government-approved technical educational institutions located in three Indian states, operating in private sector. Only teachers with a minimum of one year experience with the current employer were selected, as many aspects measured in the study required a sufficient period of experience at the workplace thus ensuring an effective measure of the constructs. The data were collected by administering self-reporting questionnaires among the respondents, who were selected through the non-probabilistic purposive sampling method. The sample consisted of 51 percent males and 49 percent females. The majority of them belonged to the age group of 25 years – 35 years (59 percent), with work experience of 5 to 12 years (51 percent) and 64 percent of them had a post-graduate degree. Of the total respondents, 56 percent reported that teaching is their intentional career choice.

4.2 Measures Workplace spiritualty was measured using the scale adapted from Milliman et al. (2003), consisting of three dimensions: meaningful work ( α ¼ 0.857), sense of community ( α ¼ 0.957) and alignment with organizational values ( α ¼ 0.945), and it consisted of 21 items. Intention to stay is conceptualized and measured as a single order construct and was

Meaningful Work

Sense of Community

Wellbeing at Work

Career Choice

Alignment with O.Values

Intention to Stay

Figure 1. Proposed conceptual

framework of the study

33

Analysis of teachers’

career choice

measured using three items ( α ¼ 0.918), adapted from Bloemer and Odekerken-Schröder (2006) and Curry et al. (1986). Responses for both constructs were rated on a five-point Likert scale (1¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ strongly agree). Well-being at work was operationalized using the Job-Related Affective Well-being scale (originally developed by Van Katwyk et al. (2000) and a short version developed by Basińska et al. (2014)). It consisted of two dimensions (positive affect ( α ¼ 0.913) and negative affect ( α ¼ 0.890)), measured using eight items, on a five-point scale (1 ¼ never and 5 ¼ always). All scales complied with the internal reliability of minimum 0.7 criterions (Table I) (Hair et al., 2010). Career choice of teachers was assessed using a single item “Was teaching your intentional career choice?” and responses were either a “Yes” or “No.”

5. Results Table I reveals the means, standard deviations, and correlations between the different constructs under focus. The mean values ranged between 4.22 (meaningful work), 3.38 (sense of community), 3.52 (alignment with organizational values), 3.66 (positive affect), 2.27 (negative affect) and 3.54 (intention to stay). All variables under the focus of study had significant positive correlations with each other (Table I).

5.1 Measurement model testing Structural equation modeling using IBM AMOS 21.0 was used to validate the proposed hypotheses for the underlying relationships (Arbuckle, 2010). All measurement items had loadings greater than 0.70 and the hypothesized five-factor measurement models had a satisfactory fit ( χ2 ¼ 1,090.50, po0.001; χ2/df ¼ 2.42; SRMR ¼ 0.03, TLI ¼ 0.951, CFI ¼ 0.955, RMSEA ¼ 0.052). The average variance extracted for each construct was above 0.50, ensuring convergent validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Table I provides the square roots of the average variance extracted values for each construct along the diagonal (Field, 2013; Hair et al., 2010), confirming discriminant validity. Overall, there is satisfactory support for the model, which permits us to advance with an estimation of the structural model and thorough hypotheses testing.

5.2 Structural model hypothesis testing Our hypothesized model showed a good fit to the observed data ( χ2 ¼ 704.676, po0.001; χ2/df ¼ 2.230; SRMR ¼ 0.05, TLI ¼ 0.907, CFI ¼ 0.916, GFI ¼ 0.850; RMSEA ¼ 0.065) (Field, 2013; Hair et al., 2010). The results of regression coefficients of each path and their statistical significance are summarized in Table II. Of the proposed four hypotheses, meaningful work has the strongest effect on well-being at work (H1a – supported), followed by a sense of community (H1b – supported). Alignment with organizational values did not emerge as a significant predictor of well-being among the entire sample under study (H1c – not supported). Employee well-being has a significant positive relationship with intention to stay (H2 – supported) (see Table II).

The mediation analysis was done using bootstrapping method in SEM (using IBM AMOS 21.0), at 95% confidence interval and bootstrap resamples of 5,000 (Preacher and Hayes, 2008); see Table III. In Baron and Kenny (1986) approach, we employ a series of regression equations to identify the mediating effect of the intervening variable, with respect to one independent variable and one dependent variable at a time. But in the context of our study, we adopted bootstrapping method so as to understand how well-being at work mediates the relationship between workplace spirituality and intention to stay, incorporating together the direct and indirect effects of each of the dimensions of workplace spirituality. The standardized direct and indirect effects between hypothesized paths were scrutinized and it was found that well-being at work mediated the relationship

34

IJEM 33,1

M ea n

SD C R

A V E

M SV

W S_

SO C

W S_

M W

W S_

A O V

P E W B

IS N E W B

W S_

SO C

3. 38

1. 03

0. 94 3

0. 70 3

0. 31 1

0. 83

9 W S_

M W

4. 22

0. 53

0. 85 7

0. 50 2

0. 44 5

0. 51 0

0. 70

9 W S_

A O V

3. 52

0. 84

0. 94 5

0. 68 5

0. 47 1

0. 55 8

0. 47 6

0. 82

7 P E W B

3. 66

0. 84

0. 91 4

0. 72 7

0. 50 8

0. 35 5

0. 66 7

0. 45 8

0. 85

3 IS

3. 54

1. 04

0. 95 3

0. 87 0

0. 32 8

0. 24 9

0. 41 4

0. 47 2

0. 55 8

0. 93

3 N E W B

2. 27

0. 88

0. 89 1

0. 67 2

0. 50 8

0. 44 5

0. 53 5

0. 43 4

0. 71 3

0. 45 8

0. 82

0 N o te : T he

va lu es

on th e di ag on al

(in it al ic ) re pr es en t th e sq ua re

ro ot

of av er ag e va ri an ce

ex tr ac te d (A V E ) fo r ea ch

fa ct or , w hi le

th e va ri ab le s be lo w

th e di ag on al

re pr es en t th e co rr el at io ns

be tw

ee n ea ch

pa ir of

fa ct or s

Table I. Reliability and

validity measures of constructs

35

Analysis of teachers’

career choice

between meaningful work→ intention to stay ( β ¼ 0.362, po0.05) and sense of community→ intention to stay ( β ¼ 0.168, po0.05). However, well-being at work did not mediate the relationship between alignment with organizational values→ intention to stay ( β ¼ 0.080, p ¼ 0.163) and hence H3 was partially supported.

5.3 Testing for factor invariance Multi-group invariance analysis was done to examine the difference in causal path estimates, among the two groups of teachers who reported teaching as their intentional career choice and otherwise. A multi-group measurement model was executed with AMOS 21.0 using ML estimation method (unintentional choice ¼ 0 and intentional choice ¼ 1), and the data were split alongside. The resultant model fit indices were adequate ( χ2 ¼ 1,914.90, po0.001; χ2/df ¼ 2.072; SRMR ¼ 0.05, TLI ¼ 0.918, CFI ¼ 0.923, RMSEA ¼ 0.045) (Hair et al., 2010), confirming configural invariance of measurement model. Upon confirmation of configural invariance, metric invariance was tested using multi-group moderation test using critical ratios for differences, with the help of Stats Tools Package. Value of z-score greater than 1.96 indicates a difference ( p-valueo0.05) between the two groups (Bryne, 2010). Of the four paths in the model, two paths showed significant difference among the two groups of teachers (H4 – partially supported and H5 – supported) (Table IV).

6. Discussion In accordance with Mitroff and Denton’s (1999) initial assessment of workplace spirituality as a competitive advantage for organizations, findings of our study document the significant role of workplace spirituality in fostering well-being at work. Consistent with the job demand-resource model (Bakker et al., 2014; Demerouti et al., 2001) and our hypothesized theoretical framework, meaningful work and sense of community were found to be positively related well-being at work, whereas the proposition between alignment with organizational values and well-being was not supported. In line with existing literature (Amabile and Kramer, 2012; Arnold et al., 2007; Meyers and Van Woerkom, 2014), our study emphasized the strong association between meaningful work and well-being at work (H1a supported). Experiences of meaningful work, positive emotions and stronger intrinsic motivation at work are strong driving forces that would influence employee attitudes and outcomes which in turn act as the vital source of competitive advantage for organizations (Steger et al., 2012).

Path Estimate SE CR p

H1 Meaningful work→ Well-being at work 0.680 0.097 4.883 *** H2 Sense of community→ Well-being at work 0.316 0.024 3.258 0.001 H3 Alignment with org. values→ Well-being at work 0.150 0.032 1.526 0.127 H4 Well-being at work→Intention to stay 0.532 0.384 5.238 *** Notes: n ¼ 523. ***po0.001

Table II. Hypotheses testing

Path Direct effect SE (p-value) Indirect effect SE (p-value)

H3a Meaningful work→ Intention to stay 0.526 (0.008) 0.362 (0.000) H3b Sense of community→ Intention to stay 0.359 (0.000) 0.168 (0.050) H3c Alignment with org. values→ Intention to stay 0.127 (0.062) 0.080 (0.163)

Table III. Mediating effects of well-being at work

36

IJEM 33,1

Our study identified a strong association between sense of community and employee well-being (H1b supported). The wider research literature has shown that social support is associated with better psychological well-being in general (Diener and Seligman, 2004; Kossek et al., 2011; Siedlecki et al., 2014). Indhira and Shani (2016) proposed that employees look forward to staying in those organizations which provide opportunities for experimentation of ideas, taking initiatives, autonomy, and freedom to express opinions, all of which were well reflected in the construct “sense of community.” Accordingly, sense of community can be a valuable resource to both the employee and the employer alike. Consistent with the Broaden and Build theory of positive emotions, our study revealed that well-being at work (higher positive emotions) was positively associated with higher intention to stay with the organization (H2 supported). However, contrary to existing studies, alignment with organizational values had no influence employee well-being (H1c not supported). though they were positively correlated with each other (Table I). Though the sample has good scores on alignment with organizational values (Table I), it was not effectively translated into well-being at work. Employees might have perceived the organization to be an ethical one with a value system, which was as expected from an institute of the stature that fulfilled the inclusion criteria of sample selection, and is not a particular organizational resource in itself. Also, limitations in terms of the chosen sample and the sample size could have led to smaller effect size, thus revealing no significant relationship between alignment with organizational values and well-being at work.

Well-being mediated the relationships between meaningful work→ intention to stay and sense of community→ intention to stay, but had no mediating effect in the relationship between alignment with organizational values→ intention to stay (H3 partially supported; see Table III). Additional managerial efforts like spiritual leadership styles and organizational support and interventions might be required to translate the same into a favorable job outcome. Multi-group analysis of the hypothesized model revealed that few paths significantly varied across the two groups of teachers. The relationships between meaningful work → well-being and alignment with organizational values → well-being did not significantly differ among the two. However, the path coefficients between sense of community → well-being at work groups (H4 partially supported). The relationship between well-being at work → intention to stay varied among the two groups (H5 supported) and the relationships were stronger among those for whom teaching as a career choice was unintentional (Table IV). The stronger relationship between sense of community and well-being among this group of teachers could be attributed to the improved socialization experienced by them at the workplace (sense of community), which may be a stimulating factor leading to higher well-being.

Employment decisions and pathways are impacted by different contextual personal, financial, family and job-related constraints (Dill et al., 2012). Acknowledging the fact that this study did not probe further into teachers’ career preferences, the emerging relationships could in a way be attributed to their preference to remain in the current organization, as a result of

Intentional Career_ Choicea

Non-intentional Career_ Choiceb

Estimate (std) Estimate (std) z-score

Meaningful work→ Well-being at work 0.680*** 0.301*** −1.044 Sense of community→ Well-being at work 0.316*** 0.615*** 5.992*** Alignment with org. values→ Well-being at work 0.150 0.151** 1.148 Well-being at work→Intention to stay 0.532*** 0.706*** −2.342** Notes: a ¼ 295; b ¼ 228. **p-valueo0.05; ***p-valueo0.01

Table IV. Multi-group analysis

across teachers’ career choices

37

Analysis of teachers’

career choice

opportunities for affiliation, influence and social-connection needs. Teachers, who have opted for the career unintentionally, might have apprehensions about their skills and competencies required for the profession and have a feel of insecurity, which they might have probably compensated through hard work and high involvement in community activities. Ultimately it would have resulted in a high sense of community and intention to stay with the organization. Different maintenance and environmental reasons like experiencing togetherness with co-workers could be the reason why teachers exhibit higher intention to stay with the organization (Kossek et al., 2011). Studies have suggested that factors like organizational socialization, external career opportunities and individual internal career anchors have a significant influence on an employee’s intention to stay/quit the organization (Bigliardi et al., 2005; Siedlecki et al., 2014). The findings of our study suggest that reinforcement environmental factors like sense of community at workplace build resources among employees, leading to favorable individual and organizational outcomes.

7. Theoretical and practical implications The findings of our study are illuminative with respect to many theoretical and practical implications. The validation of the workplace spirituality-employee outcomes framework delivers a significant contribution to organizational literature, in its efforts to understand the role of workplace spirituality in organizational settings. Designing a work environment where employees have the opportunity to experience meaning and purpose in their work, sense of community through positive relationships, and alignment of personal and organizational values may be one of the most important managerial tasks of the twenty-first century of meaningful work had the utmost influence on well-being at work. This finding implies that utmost care should be taken while designing jobs, so as to enable employees’ experience meaning and purpose in what they do at the workplace. Promotion of an organizational climate that nurtures interpersonal bonding among department members would help build much more well-being and intention to stay. The present work also signifies that managerial efforts should be focused toward making the workplace a community that enriches employee’s social and psychological needs for inclusion and social affiliation. Socialization programs that are designed to foster employee adjustment in the context of the workplace will prove fruitful for both the individuals and the organization alike. Since alignment with organizational values didn’t emerge as a predictor of well-being at work, additional efforts and interventions like instilling more person-environment fit and spiritual leadership styles need to be taken up by managers, as to translate alignment with organizational values into higher well-being amongst their employees. The focus should be on developing personnel programs, policies and procedures that are responsive to the disparate values of employees, and thus enabling their experience of alignment with organization.

Reflecting on the results of multi-group analysis, since teachers with non-intentional career choice had lowered effect of meaningful work to well-being, managers should conduct training programs that will enable experience of self-discovery and help teachers realize their potential and develop a passion for teaching, which in turn will be reflected in enriched well-being and intention to stay amongst them (Low et al., 2017). At the same time, since the effects of sense of community on well-being and the effects of well-being at work on intention to stay were lower among teachers with intentional career choice, managerial efforts should be focused on providing them community-building programs and training programs aimed at building enhanced constructive relationships with colleagues. Also, it is very evident that additional efforts are required to translate well-being at work into intention to stay with the organization, amongst the above mentioned group of teachers. Managers must make authentic connections with employees, help them find meaning and purpose in what they do at workplace, support them cultivate team spirit and good

38

IJEM 33,1

inter-personal relationships in the context of workplace and align individual’s deeply held values of ethics and integrity with that of the organization. Such practices can have an impact on how employees feel about their work and workplace and consequently influence how long they will choose to stay with the organization.

8. Limitations and recommendations for future research Our study was conducted among teachers in private sector and it is recommended for future researchers to consider testing the conceptual model among a larger and more representative sample of teachers, inclusive of teachers in public sector institutions. Also, the role of various demographic factors in influencing the relationships was not taken into consideration and future studies may investigate the role of gender, age-group, years of teaching, etc., as moderating factors that could further explain intention to stay. Career choice was measured using a single item, which could pose potential limits to generalizability. Studies should attempt to identify the possible moderating and mediating influence of organizational variables in the relationship between alignment with organizational values and well-being at work. Finally, it is recommended for future studies to look into organizational antecedents that would stimulate experience of workplace spirituality and well-being at work.

References

AbuAlRub, R.F. and Nasrallah, M.A. (2017), “Leadership behaviors, organizational culture and intention to stay amongst Jordanian nurses”, International Nursing Review, Vol. 64 No. 4, pp. 520-527.

Alas, R. and Mousa, M. (2016), “Organizational culture and workplace spirituality”, International Journal of Emerging Research in Management and Technology, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 285-314.

AlDhaheri, R., Jabeen, F., Hussain, M. and Abu-Rahma, A. (2017), “Career choice of females in the private sector: empirical evidence from the United Arab Emirates”, Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 179-197.

Amabile, T. and Kramer, S. (2012), “How leaders kill meaning at work”, McKinsey Quarterly, Vol. 1 No. 2012, pp. 124-131.

Amzat, I.H., Don, Y., Fauzee, S.O., Hussin, F. and Raman, A. (2017), “Determining motivators and hygiene factors among excellent teachers in Malaysia: an experience of confirmatory factor analysis”, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 78-97.

Arbuckle, J.L. (2010), IBM SPSS Amos 19 User’s Guide, Amos Development Corporation, Crawfordville, FL, p. 635.

Arnetz, B.B., Ventimiglia, M., Beech, P., DeMarinis, V., Lökk, J. and Arnetz, J.E. (2013), “Spiritual values and practices in the workplace and employee stress and mental well-being”, Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 271-281.

Arnold, K.A., Turner, N., Barling, J., Kelloway, E.K. and McKee, M.C. (2007), “Transformational leadership and psychological well-being: the mediating role of meaningful work”, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 193-203.

Aryee, S., Budhwar, P.S. and Chen, Z.X. (2002), “Trust as a mediator of the relationship between organisational justice and work outcomes: test of a social exchange model”, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 267-285.

Ashmos, D.P. and Duchon, D. (2000), “Spirituality at work: a conceptualization and measure”, Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 134-145.

Azman, N. (2013), “Choosing teaching as a career: perspectives of male and female Malaysian student teachers in training”, European Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 36 No. 1, pp. 113-130.

Bakke, D.W. (2005), Joy at Work: A Revolutionary Approach to Fun on the Job, Penguin Group (USA), New York, NY.

39

Analysis of teachers’

career choice

Bakker, A., Demerouti, E. and Sanz-Vergel, A.I. (2014), “Burnout and work engagement: the JD–R approach”, Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Vol. 1, pp. 389-411.

Bakker, A.B. and Demerouti, E. (2014), “Job demands–resources theory”, Wellbeing, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 1-28.

Bakker, A.B. and Demerouti, E. (2017), “Job demands–resources theory: taking stock and looking forward”, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 273-285.

Bambacas, M. and Kulik, C.T. (2013), “Job embeddedness in China: how HR practices impact turnover intentions”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 24 No. 10, pp. 1933-1952.

Baron, R.M. and Kenny, D.A. (1986), “The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 51 No. 6, pp. 1173-1182.

Basińska, B., Gruszczyńska, E. and Schaufeli, W. (2014), “Psychometric properties of the polish version of the job-related affective well-being scale”, International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, Vol. 27 No. 6, pp. 993-1004.

Biggs, A., Brough, P. and Barbour, J.P. (2014), “Strategic alignment with organizational priorities and work engagement: a multi-wave analysis”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 35 No. 3, pp. 301-317.

Bigliardi, B., Petroni, A. and Ivo Dormio, A. (2005), “Organizational socialization, career aspirations and turnover intentions among design engineers”, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 26 No. 6, pp. 424-441.

Blau, P.M. (1964), Exchange and Power in Social Life, John Wiley, New York, NY.

Bloemer, J. and Odekerken-Schröder, G. (2006), “The role of employee relationship proneness in creating employee loyalty”, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 252-264.

Boddy, C.R. (2014), “Corporate psychopaths, conflict, employee affective well-being and counterproductive work behaviour”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 121 No. 1, pp. 107-121.

Boyd, C.M., Bakker, A.B., Pignata, S., Winefield, A.H., Gillespie, N. and Stough, C. (2011), “A longitudinal test of the job demands-resources model among Australian university academics”, Applied Psychology, Vol. 60 No. 1, pp. 112-140.

Brunetto, Y., Teo, S.T., Shacklock, K. and Farr-Wharton, R. (2012), “Emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, well-being and engagement: explaining organisational commitment and turnover intentions in policing”, Human Resource Management Journal, Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 428-441.

Bryne, B.M. (2010), Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Concepts, Applications, and Programming, 2nd ed., Routledge, New York, NY.

Bullough, R.V. Jr and Hall-Kenyon, K.M. (2012), “On teacher hope, sense of calling, and commitment to teaching”, Teacher Education Quarterly, Vol. 39 No. 2, pp. 7-27.

Burack, E.H. (1999), “Spirituality in the workplace”, Journal of Organizational Change, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 280-291.

Butt, G., MacKenzie, L. and Manning, R. (2010), “Influences on British South Asian women’s choice of teaching as a career: ‘You’re either a career person or a family person; teaching kind of fits in the middle’ ”, Educational Review, Vol. 62 No. 1, pp. 69-83.

Cao, L., Hirschi, A. and Deller, J. (2014), “Perceived organizational support and intention to stay in host countries among self-initiated expatriates: the role of career satisfaction and networks”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 25 No. 14, pp. 2013-2032.

Capone, V. and Petrillo, G. (2016), “Teachers’ perceptions of fairness, well-being and burnout: a contribution to the validation of the organizational justice index by Hoy and Tarter”, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 30 No. 6, pp. 864-880.

Chew, J. and Chan, C.C. (2008), “Human resource practices, organizational commitment and intention to stay”, International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 29 No. 6, pp. 503-522.

40

IJEM 33,1

Collie, R.J., Shapka, J.D. and Perry, N.E. (2012), “School climate and social–emotional learning: predicting teacher stress, job satisfaction, and teaching efficacy”, Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 104 No. 4, pp. 1189-1204.

Cotton, P. and Hart, P.M. (2003), “Occupational wellbeing and performance: a review of organisational health research”, Australian Psychologist, Vol. 38 No. 2, pp. 118-127.

Crawford, A., Hubbard, S.S., Lonis-Shumate, S.R. and Lonis-Shumate, M. (2009), “Workplace spirituality and employee attitudes within the lodging environment”, Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 64-81.

Crawford, E.R., LePine, J.A. and Rich, B.L. (2010), “Linking job demands and resources to employee engagement and burnout: a theoretical extension and meta-analytic test”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 95 No. 5, pp. 834-848.

Curry, J.P., Wakefield, D.S., Price, J.L. and Mueller, C.W. (1986), “On the causal ordering of job satisfaction and organizational commitment”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 847-858.

De Nobile, J.J. and McCormick, J. (2010), “Occupational stress of Catholic primary school staff: a study of biographical differences”, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 24 No. 6, pp. 492-506.

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A.B., Nachreiner, F. and Schaufeli, W.B. (2001), “The job demands-resources model of burnout”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 86 No. 3, pp. 499-512.

Diener, E. and Seligman, M.E. (2004), “Beyond money: toward an economy of well-being”, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1-31.

Dik, B.J. and Duffy, R.D. (2009), “Calling and vocation at work: definitions and prospects for research and practice”, The Counseling Psychologist, Vol. 37 No. 3, pp. 424-450.

Dill, J.S., Morgan, J.C. and Marshall, V.W. (2012), “Contingency, employment intentions, and retention of vulnerable low-wage workers: an examination of nursing assistants in nursing homes”, The Gerontologist, Vol. 53 No. 2, pp. 222-234.

Dodge, R., Daly, A., Huyton, J. and Sanders, L. (2012), “The challenge of defining wellbeing”, International Journal of Wellbeing, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 222-235.

Field, A. (2013), Discovering Statistics Using SPSS, 4th ed., Sage, London.

Fornell, C. and Larcker, D.F. (1981), “Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 382-388.

Fredrickson, B.L. (2013), “Positive emotions broaden and build”, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 47 No. 1, pp. 1-53.

Fredrickson, B.L. and Branigan, C.A. (2001), “Positive emotions”, in Mayne, T.J. and Bonnano, G.A. (Eds), Emotion: Current Issues and Future Directions, Guilford, New York, NY, pp. 123-151.

Garg, N. (2017), “Workplace spirituality and employee well-being: an empirical exploration”, Journal of Human Values, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 129-147.

Gatling, A., Kim, J. and Milliman, J. (2016), “The relationship between workplace spirituality and hospitality supervisors’ work attitudes: a self-determination theory perspective”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 28 No. 3, pp. 471-489.

Gonzalez-Rico, P., Carvalho, V.S., Chambel, M.J. and Guerrero, E. (2018), “Be well at work, be well outside work: a study with university workers”, Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 43 No. 6, pp. 1034-1044.

Govaerts, N., Kyndt, E., Dochy, F. and Baert, H. (2011), “Influence of learning and working climate on the retention of talented employees”, Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 35-55.

Gupta, M., Kumar, V. and Singh, M. (2014), “Creating satisfied employees through workplace spirituality: a study of the private insurance sector in Punjab (India)”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 122 No. 1, pp. 79-88.

Hair, J., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J. and Anderson, R.E. (2010), Multivariate Data Analysis, 7th ed., Pearson Education International, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

41

Analysis of teachers’

career choice

Hanselman, P., Grigg, J., Bruch, S.K. and Gamoran, A. (2016), “The consequences of principal and teacher turnover for school social resources”, Family Environments, School Resources, and Educational Outcomes, Emerald Publishing Limited, pp. 49-89.

Houghton, J.D., Neck, C.P. and Krishnakumar, S. (2016), “The what, why and how of spirituality in the workplace revisited: a 14-year update and extension”, Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 177-205.

Illies, R., Plutt, H. and Aw, S.S.Y. (2015), “Studying employee well-being: moving forward”, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 24 No. 6, pp. 848-852.

Imran, R., Allil, K. and Mahmoud, A.B. (2017), “Teacher’s turnover intentions: examining the impact of motivation and organizational commitment”, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 31 No. 6, pp. 828-842.

Indhira, N. and Shani, N. (2016), “Happiness and fatigue among millennials in selected information technology organizations in India”, Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 6 No. 7, pp. 390-399.

Jurkiewicz, C.L. and Giacalone, R.A. (2004), “A values framework for measuring the impact of workplace spirituality on organizational performance”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 49 No. 2, pp. 129-142.

Khasawneh, S. (2011), “Cutting-edge panacea of the twenty-first century: workplace spirituality for higher education human resources”, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 687-700.

Kidger, J., Brockman, R., Tilling, K., Campbell, R., Ford, T., Araya, R. and Gunnell, D. (2016), “Teachers’ wellbeing and depressive symptoms, and associated risk factors: a large cross sectional study in English secondary schools”, Journal of Affective Disorders, Vol. 192, pp. 76-82.

Kolodinsky, R.W., Giacalone, R.A. and Jurkiewicz, C.L. (2008), “Workplace values and outcomes: exploring personal, organizational, and interactive workplace spirituality”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 81 No. 2, pp. 465-480.

Kossek, E.E., Pichler, S., Bodner, T. and Hammer, L.B. (2011), “Workplace social support and work–family conflict: a meta-analysis clarifying the influence of general and work–family-specific supervisor and organizational support”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 64 No. 2, pp. 289-313.

Krishnakumar, S. and Neck, C.P. (2002), “The ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ of spirituality in the workplace”, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 153-164.

Kyriacou, C. (2011), “Teacher stress: from prevalence to resilience”, in Langan-Fox, J. and Cooper, C.L. (Eds), Handbook of Stress in the Occupations, Edward Elgar Publishing, Northampton, MA, pp. 161-176.

Kyriacou, C. and Coulthard, M. (2000), “Undergraduates’ views of teaching as a career choice”, Journal of Education for Teaching: International Research and Pedagogy, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 117-126.

Low, E., Ng, P.T., Hui, C. and Cai, L. (2017), “Teaching as a career choice: triggers and drivers. Australian”, Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 42 No. 2, pp. 28-46.

McCormick, J. and Barnett, K. (2011), “Teachers’ attributions for stress and their relationships with burnout”, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 278-293.

Mee, M., Rogers Haverback, H. and Passe, J. (2012), “For the love of the middle: a glimpse into why one group of preservice teachers chose middle grades education”, Middle Grades Research Journal, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 1-14.

Meyers, M.C. and Van Woerkom, M. (2014), “The influence of underlying philosophies on talent management: Theory, implications for practice, and research agenda”, Journal of World Business, Vol. 49 No. 2, pp. 192-203.

MHRD (2016), “All India survey on higher education”, available at: http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_ files/mhrd/files/statistics/PilotReport_1.pdf (accessed January 3, 2018).

Milliman, J., Andrew, J. and Ferguson, C.J. (2003), “Workplace spirituality and employee work attitudes”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 426-447.

42

IJEM 33,1

Mitroff, I.I. and Denton, E.A. (1999), “A study of spirituality in the workplace”, MIT Sloan Management Review, Vol. 40 No. 4, pp. 83-93.

Padhy, B., Emo, K., Djira, G. and Deokar, A. (2015), “Analyzing factors influencing teaching as a career choice using structural equation modeling”, SAGE Open, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1-12.

Pawar, B.S. (2016), “Workplace spirituality and employee well-being: an empirical examination”, Employee Relations, Vol. 38 No. 6, pp. 975-994.

Petchsawang, P. and Duchon, D. (2012), “Workplace spirituality, meditation, and work performance”, Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 189-208.

Pienaar, C. and Bester, C.L. (2008), “Retention of academics in the early career phase”, SA Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 32-41.

Pradhan, R.K., Singh, S.K. and Jena, L.K. (2016), “Workplace spirituality, organizational commitment and job satisfaction: a study”, Academy of Management Proceedings, Vol. 2016 No. 1, p. 16259.

Preacher, K.J. and Hayes, A.F. (2008), “Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models”, Behavior Research Methods, Vol. 40 No. 3, pp. 879-891.

Preston, A.P. and Biddle, G. (1994), “To be or not to be?: Making a professional career choice”, International Journal of Career Management, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 28-32.

Pushkar (2016), “Why do India’s universities experience faculty shortages at all?”, available at: https:// thewire.in/60577/understanding-faculty-shortages-at-indias-universities/ (accessed January 3, 2018).

Raina, K. and Khatri, P. (2015), “Faculty engagement in higher education: prospects and areas of research”, On the Horizon, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 285-308.

Rego, A. and Cunha, M.P.E. (2008), “Workplace spirituality and organizational commitment: an empirical study”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 53-75.

Ryan, J.F., Healy, R. and Sullivan, J. (2012), “Oh, won’t you stay? Predictors of faculty intent to leave a public research university”, Higher Education, Vol. 63 No. 4, pp. 421-437.

Sarooghi, H., Libaers, D. and Burkemper, A. (2015), “Examining the relationship between creativity and innovation: a meta-analysis of organizational, cultural, and environmental factors”, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 30 No. 5, pp. 714-731.

Scanlan, J.N., Meredith, P. and Poulsen, A.A. (2013), “Enhancing retention of occupational therapists working in mental health: relationships between wellbeing at work and turnover intention”, Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, Vol. 60 No. 6, pp. 395-403.

Schaufeli, W.B. and Taris, T.W. (2014), “A critical review of the job demands-resources model: implications for improving work and health”, in Bauer, G.F. and Hämmig, O. (Eds), Bridging Occupational, Organizational and Public Health, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 43-68.

Sheep, M.L. (2006), “Nurturing the whole person: the effects of workplace spirituality in a society of organizations”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 66 No. 4, pp. 357-375.

Siedlecki, K.L., Salthouse, T.A., Oishi, S. and Jeswani, S. (2014), “The relationship between social support and subjective well-being across age”, Social Indicators Research, Vol. 117 No. 2, pp. 561-576.

Siu, O.L., Cheung, F. and Lui, S. (2015), “Linking positive emotions to work well-being and turnover intention among Hong Kong police officers: the role of psychological capital”, Journal of Happiness Studies, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 367-380.

Smerek, R.E. and Peterson, M. (2007), “Examining Herzberg’s theory: improving job satisfaction among non-academic employees at a university”, Research in Higher Education, Vol. 48 No. 2, pp. 229-250.

Steger, M.F., Dik, B.J. and Duffy, R.D. (2012), “Measuring meaningful work: the work and meaning inventory (WAMI)”, Journal of Career Assessment, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 322-337.

Tehrani, N., Humpage, S., Willmott, B. and Haslam, I. (2007), Change Agenda: What’s Happening with Well-Being at Work?, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, London.

43

Analysis of teachers’

career choice

Tett, R.P. and Meyer, J.P. (1993), “Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, and turnover, path analysis based on meta-analytical findings”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 46 No. 2, pp. 259-293.

Van Katwyk, P., Spector, P., Fox, S. and Kelloway, E. (2000), “Using the job-related affective well-being scale (JAWS) to investigate affective responses to work stressors”, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 5, pp. 219-230.

Vesely, A.K., Saklofske, D.H. and Nordstokke, D.W. (2014), “EI training and pre-service teacher wellbeing”, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. 65, pp. 81-85.

Warr, P. (2003), “Well-being and the workplace”, in Kahneman, D., Diener, E. and Schwarz, N. (Eds), Well-Being: Foundations of Hedonic Psychology, Russel Sage Foundation, New York, NY, pp. 392-412.

Watt, H.M. and Richardson, P.W. (2007), “Motivational factors influencing teaching as a career choice: development and validation of the FIT-Choice scale”, The Journal of Experimental Education, Vol. 75 No. 3, pp. 167-202.

Wright, T.A. and Staw, B.M. (1999), “Affect and favorable work outcomes: two longitudinal tests of the happy-productive worker thesis”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 20 No. 1 pp. 1-23.

Wrzesniewski, A. (2003), “Finding positive meaning in work”, in Cameron, K.S., Dutton, J.E. and Quinn, R.E. (Eds), Positive Organizational Scholarship: Foundations of a New Discipline, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, pp. 296-308.

Zaidi, F.B. and Iqbal, S. (2012), “Impact of career selection on job satisfaction in the service industry of Pakistan”, African Journal of Business Management, Vol. 6 No. 9, pp. 3384-3401.

Zhou, Y. and Volkwein, J. (2004), “Examining the influences on faculty departure intentions: a comparison of tenured versus non-tenured faculty at research universities”, Research in Higher Education, Vol. 45 No. 2, pp. 139-176.

Zou, W.-C. and Dahling, J. (2017), “Workplace spirituality buffers the effects of emotional labour on employee well-being”, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 26 No. 5, pp. 768-777.

Zullig, K.J., Ward, R.M. and Horn, T. (2006), “The association between perceived spirituality, religiosity, and life satisfaction: the mediating role of self-rated health”, Social Indicators Research, Vol. 79 No. 2, pp. 255-274.

Corresponding author Nimitha Aboobaker can be contacted at: [email protected]

For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website: www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm Or contact us for further details: [email protected]

44

IJEM 33,1