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EdPsych Modules Third Edition

Cheryl Cisero Durwin Southern Connecticut State University

Marla Reese-Weber Illinois State University, USA

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Brief Contents Introduction

Module 1: Using Science to Inform Classroom Practices Unit 1: Personal Development

Unit 1: Case Studies Module 2: Contexts of Development Module 3: Social-Emotional Development Module 4: Moral Development

Unit 2: The Developing Learner Unit 2: Case Studies Module 5: Brain Development Module 6: Cognitive Development Module 7: Language Development

Unit 3: Learning Theories Unit 3: Case Studies Module 8: Behavioral Learning Theories Module 9: Social Cognitive Theory Module 10: Information Processing

Unit 4: Cognitive Processes Unit 4: Case Studies Module 11: Metacognition Module 12: Transfer of Skills and Knowledge Module 13: Higher Order Thinking

Unit 5: Motivation Unit 5: Case Studies Module 14: Behavioral Theory Module 15: Cognitive Theories Module 16: Self Theories

Unit 6: Classroom Management and Instruction Unit 6: Case Studies Module 17: Classroom Management Module 18: Instruction: Applying Behavioral, Cognitive, and Constructivist Approaches Module 19: Grouping Practices

Unit 7: Learner Differences

Unit 7: Case Studies Module 20: Intelligence and Giftedness Module 21: Cognitive Disabilities Module 22: Emotional, Social, and Behavioral Disorders

Unit 8: Assessment Unit 8: Case Studies Module 23: Assessing Student Learning Module 24: Test Construction and Use Module 25: Standardized Tests and Scores

Detailed Contents Preface

Acknowledgments Digital Resources About the Authors Introduction

Case STUDY Module 1: Using Science to Inform Classroom Practices

Outline and Learning Goals Educational Psychology: A Resource for Teachers Educational Psychology: The Science

Research Designs Samples Measures

Educational Psychology: Classroom Practices Best Practices Addressing Diversity Using a Case Study Approach

Summary Key Concepts Case Study: Reflect and Evaluate

Unit 1: Personal Development Unit 1: Case Studies Module 2: Contexts of Development

Outline and Learning Goals Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory Family Context

Parenting Practices Divorce and Remarriage

Peer Context Friendships and Peer Groups Peer Statuses

Broader Contexts Parental Employment Cultural Factors

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 3: Social-Emotional Development Outline and Learning Goals Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Aspects of Identity

Identity Statuses Ethnic Identity Gender Identity

Understanding the Self Self-Concept Self-Esteem

Social Competence Applications: Fostering Social Competence

Fostering Social Skills Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) Programs

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 4: Moral Development Outline and Learning Goals Cognitive-Developmental Moral Reasoning

Piaget’s Theory Kohlberg’s Theory Gilligan’s Criticism

Prosocial Behavior Eisenberg’s Theory Perspective Taking Empathy

Aggressive Behavior Social-Cognitive Domains Social-Information Processing

Applications: Advancing Moral Development Family Context Peer Context School Context

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Unit 2: The Developing Learner Unit: Case Studies Module 5: Brain Development

Outline and Learning Goals Influence of Neuroscience on Education Neuroscience 101

Brain Structures and Functions Factors Affecting Brain Development

Brain Mechanisms During Learning Executive Functioning Reading Math

Applications: How Neuroscience Informs Best Practices Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 6: Cognitive Development Outline and Learning Goals Constructivist Theories of Cognitive Development

Individual and Social Constructivism Piaget’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory

Issues in Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky What Comes First: Development or Learning? Role of Language in Cognitive Development Role of Play in Cognitive Development

Applications: Constructivist Principles for Effective Teaching Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 7: Language Development Outline and Learning Goals Understanding Language Acquisition

Biological Basis of Language

Imitation and Reinforcement Social Interactions

Development of Language Skills Language Acquisition Through Early Childhood Language Acquisition Through Adolescence Bilingual Language Acquisition Individual Differences in Language Acquisition

Applications: Encouraging Language Development in the Classroom Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Unit 3: Learning Theories Unit 3: Case Studies Module 8: Behavioral Learning Theories

Outline and Learning Goals Assumptions of Behavioral Learning Theories Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Basic Tenets of the Theory Using Consequences Effectively

Applications: Applied Behavior Analysis Strategies for Increasing Appropriate Behaviors Strategies for Decreasing Inappropriate Behaviors

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 9: Social Cognitive Theory Outline and Learning Goals Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory Observational Learning

Model Characteristics Imitator Characteristics Environmental Characteristics

Personal Factors in Learning Self-Efficacy Self-Regulation

Applications: Improving Students’ Self-Efficacy and Self- Regulation Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 10: Information Processing Outline and Learning Goals Assumptions of the Information Processing Approach Perception and Attention Memory

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval Sensory Memory Working (Short-Term) Memory Long-Term Memory

Applications: Teaching Effective Processing Increase Attention Enhance Memory

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Unit 4: Cognitive Processes Unit 4 Case Studies Module 11: Metacognition

Outline and Learning Goals What Is Metacognition and Why Is It Important? Special Cases of Metacognition

Theory of Mind in Childhood Egocentrism in Adolescence

Factors Affecting the Development and Use of Metacognition Applications: Learning Strategies

Reading Comprehension Writing Skills Note Taking Studying

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 12: Transfer of Skills and Knowledge Outline and Learning Goals What Is Transfer and Why Is It Important?

Specific Versus General Transfer Low-Road Versus High-Road Transfer

Do We Readily Transfer What We Learn? The Success of Low-Road Transfer The Problem of High-Road Transfer

Applications: How to Facilitate Transfer Develop Automaticity of Skills Promote Meaningful Learning Teach Metacognitive Strategies Motivate Students to Value Learning

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 13: Higher Order Thinking Outline and Learning Goals What Is Higher Order Thinking and Why Is It Important? Critical Thinking

What Is Critical Thinking? Applications: Fostering Critical Thinking Problem Solving

What Is Problem Solving? Applications: Fostering Problem-Solving Strategies Creativity

What Is Creativity? Applications: Fostering Creativity Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Unit 5: Motivation Unit 5: Case Studies Module 14: Behavioral Theory

Outline and Learning Goals A Developmental View of Motivation

Defining Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Factors Influencing Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Rewarding Students for Learning

Task-Contingent and Performance-Contingent Rewards Applications: Using Rewards Effectively Praising Students for Learning

Process, Performance, and Person Praise Applications: Using Praise Effectively When the Reward Is the Activity Itself

Flow Theory Applications: Creating an Intrinsically Motivating Learning Environment Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 15: Cognitive Theories Outline and Learning Goals Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Expectancy-Value Theory Goal Theory Attribution Theory

Developmental and Cultural Differences in Motivation Developmental Changes in Motivation

Serious Motivational Problems Learned Helplessness Anxiety

Applications: Enhancing Students’ Motivation Student-Level Techniques Classroom-Level Techniques

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 16: Self Theories Outline and Learning Goals Self-Efficacy Theory

Self-Efficacy and Motivation Teacher Efficacy

Self-Worth Theory

Self-Worth and Motivation Types of Students

Self-Determination Theory Self-Determination and Motivation Becoming Self-Determined

Integrating the Self Theories Self Theories Compared

Applications: Fostering Self-Efficacy, Self-Worth, and Self- Determination Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Unit 6: Classroom Management and Instruction Unit 6: Case Studies Module 17: Classroom Management

Outline and Learning Goals Importance of Classroom Management

Preparing for the First Day Establishing Rules and Procedures

Time Management Increasing Academic Learning Time Increasing Student Engagement

Relationship Building Teacher-Student Relationships Parental Involvement

Applications: Addressing Discipline Problems Providing Consequences Bullying

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 18: Instruction: Applying Behavioral, Cognitive, and Constructivist Approaches

Outline and Learning Goals Meeting the Needs of Diverse Learners Teaching Methods Based on Behaviorism

Direct Instruction

Mastery Learning Teaching Methods Based on Cognitive Learning Theory

Discovery Learning and Guided Discovery Expository Teaching

Teaching Methods Based on Constructivism Inquiry Learning Cooperative Learning Methods of Fostering Comprehension

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 19: Grouping Practices Outline and Learning Goals Grouping by Ability

Within-Class Ability Grouping Between-Class Ability Grouping Flexible Grouping Methods

Cooperative Learning Characteristics of Cooperative Learning Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning

Applications: Best Practices Elementary School: Using Within-Class Ability Grouping Effectively Middle School and High School: To Track or Not to Track Using Cooperative Learning Effectively

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Unit 7: Learner Differences Unit 7: Case Studies Module 20: Intelligence and Giftedness

Outline and Learning Goals Intelligence and Giftedness: More Than “Being Smart”

Theories of Intelligence Theories of Giftedness

Assessing Intelligence and Giftedness

Intelligence Measured as IQ Interpreting IQ Scores Assessing Giftedness

Biological, Social, and Cultural Issues Heredity or Environment? Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors

Applications: Intelligence and Giftedness in the Classroom Teaching for Multiple Intelligences Teaching for Successful Intelligence Teaching Students Who Are Gifted

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 21: Cognitive Disabilities Outline and Learning Goals Cognitive Disabilities in Today’s Classrooms

Special Education Referral and Eligibility Planning and Placement

Intellectual Disabilities Identification of Intellectual Disabilities

Applications: Guidelines for Teachers in the General Education Classroom Specific Learning Disabilities

Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities Reading Disability Mathematics Disability

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 22: Emotional, Social, and Behavioral Disorders Outline and Learning Goals Emotional, Social, and Behavioral Disorders in Today’s Classrooms

Special Education Referral and Eligibility Planning and Placement

Characteristics of Disorders Anxiety and Depression

ADHD and Conduct Disorder Autism Spectrum Disorders

Applications: Interventions Types of Interventions Effectiveness of Interventions

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Unit 8: Assessment Unit 8: Case Studies Module 23: Assessing Student Learning

Outline and Learning Goals What is Assessment?

Purposes of Assessment in Education Types of Assessments

Planning Assessments Choice of Assessments Objective and Performance Assessments

Evaluating Student Performance Procedures for Performance Assessments Grading Procedures

Communicating Assessment Information Report Cards Parent-Teacher Communication

Applications: Implementing Valid and Meaningful Assessments Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 24: Test Construction and Use Outline and Learning Goals Characteristics of High-Quality Classroom Tests

Validity Reliability Fairness and Practicality

Test Preparation Developing a Test Blueprint

Creating Selected-Response Items Creating Constructed-Response Items

Applications: Improving Your Test Test Administration Considerations Item and Distractor Analyses

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Module 25: Standardized Tests and Scores Outline and Learning Goals Types of Standardized Tests

Categories of Standardized Tests Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Tests

Understanding Test Scores Central Tendency and Variability Normal Distribution Types of Test Scores

Characteristics of Good Tests Validity Reliability

Applications: Accommodating Students at Risk Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

How Does EdPsych Help You Prepare for the Praxis Exam? Glossary References Index

Preface

Teaching is about making instructional decisions. To be highly effective, teachers need to understand the science underlying all aspects of education and know how to apply concepts, principles, and conclusions from educational and psychological theories and research to particular situations they encounter. Students in education certification programs are often taught the “what” and the “how” of teaching. For example, they may be taught what to do when students are fighting or how to develop and deliver a lesson. Educational psychology is about the why. For example, why are teacher education students told to use a particular conflict resolution strategy or a particular teaching method in a certain situation? The effectiveness of these approaches can be determined only by evaluating what we know from psychological research. Teachers need to understand why particular approaches, strategies, and methods work under various circumstances to make effective decisions. We wrote this book to help students of educational psychology learn how to make better instructional decisions. This third edition of EdPsych Modules helps students to

Understand the importance of learning evidence-based, best practices that guide how they will make informed decisions, Apply educational psychology theory and research findings to diverse instructional situations, and Understand student differences and learn ways to adapt instruction to individual student needs.

Our Approach

FLEXIBLE: A book that adapts to your course. • EdPsych Modules is the first and only text written with a modular approach rather than modified from a conventional chapter text. This intentionally designed format allows you flexibility in preparing and teaching your course. Our modules are succinct (about half the length of a typical chapter), stand- alone topics that represent every subject found in a traditional chapter textbook. The modules are organized into themed units that correspond to chapters found in conventional textbooks. With this modular approach, instructors can arrange the topics in any order, and even skip entire modules or units if they choose.

• Our inclusion of case studies that span K-12 grade levels also allows you flexibility in designing your course. Each unit begins with four full-length case studies, one from each certification level: early childhood, elementary, middle school, and high school. Instructors can choose one particular educational level (only early childhood), several (elementary and high school), all levels, or may choose to skip the cases altogether.

Our stand-alone modules and cases allow you to tailor content to your particular course and student audience.

APPLIED: Opportunities for practical application of theories and concepts In each module, our coverage of educational psychology theories and concepts includes examples that illustrate application and critical thinking about individual differences and instructional contexts.

In every module, Applications sections help students tie theory and research to educational practice. Coverage is focused on evidence-based teaching methods and principles that are linked to research.

Case studies – 33 in all – provide opportunities for students to apply theories and concepts. Our case studies are rich, detailed glimpses into classroom and school settings. Each unit begins with four case studies: early childhood, elementary school, middle school, and high school that are relevant to all modules in that unit.

At the end of each case study ASSESS questions prompt students to assess their existing knowledge and to identify assumptions, preconceptions, and personal beliefs prior to reading a particular module. Each module ends with REFLECT AND EVALUATE questions based on the case studies at the beginning of each unit. These questions encourage students to check their comprehension of important concepts, to apply what they have learned about the research presented in the modules, and to evaluate the situations and instructional decisions presented in the case. Our developmental approach of presenting cases at various certification levels enables students to meaningfully apply the concepts they are learning to the grade levels they intend to teach. Whether you use the cases studies out of class as homework or writing assignments or for in-class discussions, students will have the opportunity to practice applying what they’ve learned.

Extensive Coverage

Balance of classical and contemporary topics We present research on traditional topics, such as cognitive development, learning, information-processing, and motivation, as well as more contemporary educational topics such as the role of the brain in learning, social-emotional learning, differentiated instruction, response-to-intervention, and underserved populations.

Depth of coverage The scope of each module provides a deeper examination of core topics than the survey approach in traditional chapter textbooks. For example, while typical chapter textbooks combine behavioral and social cognitive learning theories into a single chapter, we treat each of these topics as separate modules to allow more meaningful discussion of the theory, research, and practice. We also offer more in-depth coverage of topics that may be only minimally covered in chapter textbooks such as constructivist teaching approaches, intelligence, grouping practices, and metacognition.

Integrated issues of diversity Our book treats diversity—characteristics such as ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status, gender, and disabilities—not as a separate topic but as a facet of most instructional situations.

DIVERSITY

A marginal icon (see at left) indicates where pertinent coverage of diversity appears in the modules. We have chosen to emphasize information as a diversity issue only if it is supported by sufficient research or theoretically relevant. Within the modules, we integrate diversity by covering research findings that

indicate important similarities or differences among individuals of various diversity groups on psychological constructs such as intelligence, motivation, or language; reveal differences among individuals of various groups in values, practices, or social interactions; suggest differential responses to treatments, interventions, or teaching methods for individuals of varying diversity groups; and highlight differential treatment of individuals from various diversity groups within the classroom.

These findings are relevant because they provide essential information to help teachers make informed decisions that affect the success and well-being of their students.

You will also find diversity in the case studies. We include students and teachers of diverse backgrounds in the case studies, and where appropriate, we present Reflect and Evaluate questions at the end of the modules that probe students to re-evaluate their personal beliefs or assumptions about diversity.

New In This Edition The third edition provides instructors and students with the same content as our previous edition in a more streamlined presentation. Our original motivation for writing a truly modular textbook was to ensure that our students actually read the pages that instructors assigned. Therefore, our intent has always been to provide students with an up-to-date treatment of theory and research on topics in a brief and easy-to-digest format. In our streamlined third edition, we have condensed 30 modules into 25 modules and have reduced the number of themed units from nine to eight. These changes include

efficiently combining modules on “Social Development” and “Emotional Development” into one module called Social-Emotional Development; writing an entirely new module on Brain Development with updated research to replace the previous module called “The Brain and Development”; writing an entirely new module on Information Processing with updated research; moving the topic of creativity with topics on critical thinking and problem solving to create a new module called Higher-Order Thinking, which replaces the old module called “Critical Thinking and Problem Solving;” creating a new module called Classroom Management, which covers many of the topics in the previous modules on “Creating a Productive Learning Environment” and “Understanding and Managing Student Behavior”; combining topics on Intelligence and Giftedness into one module incorporating topics from the module on “Performance Assessment” into the module on Assessing Student Learning; which is also a newly written module, and incorporating topics from the module on “Issues in Standardized Testing” into the module on Standardized Tests and Scores, and moving this module to Unit 8 on Assessment, eliminating the need for a separate Unit 9 covering standardized testing.

Our third edition also features newly written case studies for Units 4, 6, and 8. These case studies provide a fresh new glimpse into classrooms that reflect the changes to modules within these units that we describe above. As in the previous editions of our textbook, the case studies are written based on real- life classroom situations.

In addition to these primary changes, we have ensured that all of our modules contain the most up-to-date research. We have included new research citations and have expanded our coverage of diversity throughout the book.

Acknowledgments The publisher and authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following reviewers:

James A. Bernauer, Robert Morris University Agnes Cave, The Catholic University of America Robert Colesante, Siena College Patricia Corbett, Great Bay Community College Michael G. Curran Jr., Rider University Jeff W. Dennis, Southwestern Michigan College Maryann Dudzinski, Valparaiso University Stella Erbes, Pepperdine University Cynthia Erickson, University of Mobile Donna Farland-Smith, The Ohio State University Joseph D. Green, Pepperdine University Alishia Huntoon, Oregon Institute of Technology Miriam Lipsky, University of Miami Christine Purkiss, Angelo State University Martha Ravola, Alcorn State University Deborah A. Scigliano, Duquesne University Michael F. Shaughnessy, Eastern New Mexico University Pam Tabor, Miami Dade College Dawn N. Hicks Tafari, Winston-Salem State University Katie Tuohey, Ursuline College Kathy Vespia, Salve Regina University Lois J. Willoughby, Miami Dade College–Kendall

In the electronic edition of the book you have purchased, there are several icons that reference links (videos, journal articles) to additional content. Though the electronic edition links are not live, all content referenced may be accessed at http://edge.sagepub.com/durwin3e . This URL is referenced at several points throughout your electronic edition.

Digital Resources

SAGE coursepacks for Instructors makes it easy to import our quality content into your school’s LMS (Blackboard, Canvas, Brightspace by Desire2Learn (D2L), and Moodle). Don’t use an LMS platform? No problem, you can still access many of the online resources for your text via SAGE edge.

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Intuitive, simple format that makes it easy to integrate the material into your course with minimal effort· Pedagogically robust assessment tools including test banks and quizzing/activity options that foster review, practice, and critical thinking, and offer a more complete way to measure student engagement· Chapter-specific discussion questions to help launch engaging classroom interaction while reinforcing important content Assignable SAGE Premium Video (available via the interactive eBook version, linked through SAGE coursepacks) that is tied to learning objectives, and curated and produced exclusively for this text to bring concepts to life and appeal to different learning styles EXCLUSIVE, influential SAGE journal and reference content, built into course materials and assessment tools, that ties important research and scholarship to chapter concepts to strengthen learning Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint® slides that offer flexibility when creating multimedia lectures so you don’t have to start from scratch but you can customize to your exact needs Sample course syllabi with suggested models for structuring your course that give you options to customize your course in a way that is perfect for you Lecture notes that summarize key concepts on a chapter-by-chapter basis to help you with preparation for lectures and class discussions Integrated links to the interactive eBook that make it easy for your students to maximize their study time with this “anywhere, anytime”

mobile-friendly version of the text. It also offers access to more digital tools and resources, including SAGE Premium Video All tables and figures from the textbook

SAGE edge for Students enhances learning in an easy-to-use environment that offers:

Mobile-friendly flashcards that strengthen understanding of key terms and concepts, and make it easy to maximize your study time, anywhere, anytime Mobile-friendly practice quizzes that allow you to assess how much you’ve learned and where you need to focus your attention A customized online action plan that includes tips and feedback on progress through the course and materials Learning objectives that reinforce the most important material Chapter-specific study questions that allow you to engage with the material other content for use in independent or classroom-based explorations of key topics. Video and multimedia resources that bring concepts to life, are tied to learning objectives, and make learning easier.

About the Authors

Cheryl Durwin received her PhD in Educational Psychology at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst in 1996. She is Professor of Psychology at Southern Connecticut State University. She has taught educational psychology for over 20 years in various formats such as graduate level and undergraduate courses ranging from mid-size sections of 40 students to small, writing-intensive sections. Cheryl regularly teaches courses in research design, testing, motivation, cognition and memory, and learning disabilities. Her research interests include the development, assessment, and remediation of reading skills, efficacy of reading interventions in disadvantaged populations, and college-level teaching and learning.

Marla Reese-Weber received her PhD at The Ohio State University in 1998. She is Professor of Psychology and serves as the associate dean in the College of Arts and Sciences at Illinois State University. She has taught educational psychology for over 17 years in sections as small as 25 students and sections as large as 150 students. In addition, her course on educational psychology has included a focus on underserviced populations, particularly in urban areas. Marla also teaches adolescent development at the undergraduate and graduate levels as well as a course on developmental research methods. Her research interests include sibling and dating violence as well as romantic relationship development during emerging adulthood. Though both of us have had varied experiences in teaching educational psychology, we came together because of a singular need. We wanted a textbook that was flexible enough to meet our very different circumstances. Cheryl has taught small, writing-intensive classes with a focus on case studies to help students apply what they are learning, while Marla has taught larger classes of 50 or more students with an emphasis on research design and the science behind educational

psychology. In each of our courses, we select varied topics to emphasize and order the topics very differently, and we have unique teaching styles. We wanted a textbook that would fit each of our needs. EdPsych Modules is the first textbook purposefully and intentionally written from a module approach. Our modules are succinct, stand-alone topics that are organized into themed units representing every subject matter found in a traditional chapter textbook. Because these are stand- alone, our modules can be combined or organized in any order, regardless of the order we decided to use in the table of contents. Instructors can even skip modules or entire units if they choose. For those who teach with case studies, we provide four detailed classroom situations at the beginning of every unit, one for each educational level: early childhood, elementary, middle school, and high school. Again, instructors can choose one particular educational level, several, all levels, or may choose to skip the cases altogether. We believe that if our textbook is flexible enough to meet our very diverse needs, it can meet the needs of any instructor, regardless of the type of teacher education program, class size, or course emphasis.

Introduction Using Science To Inform Classroom Practices

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Case Study Middle School: Achievement Gap, 2

Module 1: Using Science to Inform Classroom Practices Outline and Learning Goals, 4 Educational Psychology: A Resource for Teachers, 5 Educational Psychology: The Science, 6 Educational Psychology: Classroom Practices, 11 Summary, 18 Key Concepts, 18 Case Study: Reflect and Evaluate, 18

CASE STUDIES

Middle School: Achievement Gap

Prepare:

As you read the case, make notes:

1. WHO are the central characters in the case? Describe them. 2. WHAT is taking place? 3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor? 4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

Jarrod and Tamara Patterson met during college and are both teachers in the Chicago area. They live in the suburbs, where Jarrod teaches third grade. Tamara completed her student teaching at an inner-city school. She wanted to continue in a similar school district, so she takes the train into the city each day to teach history in a public middle school.

Over the years, Jarrod and Tamara have had a number of arguments about education. Some of their disagreements stem from the developmental differences in their students—as Jarrod works with younger students—but their liveliest disagreements involve the differences between suburban and urban classrooms. Ninety percent of Tamara’s students are African American and live in households where the median annual income is around $33,000. In contrast, 79% of Jarrod’s students are White, 9% are Latino, 8% are Hispanic, and only 3% are African American. The median annual income for households in Jarrod’s school district is $83,000.

As they begin their drive into the city to run errands on Saturday morning, Tamara reminds Jarrod that she needs to stop by her classroom to pick up

some papers. She forgot them yesterday and needs to finish grading them before Monday morning. Jarrod doesn’t respond—he has taken the opportunity to read the newspaper while Tamara drives.

“Listen to this,” he begins. “A new study examined the ‘achievement gap’— you know, the idea that African Americans perform more poorly compared to Whites. Says here that some researchers found that the differences in achievement levels between African Americans and Whites no longer exist.”

Tamara responds skeptically, “How did they determine that?”

“Well, it says that the researchers found no differences in the GPAs of students from several ethnic backgrounds, including African American and White students,” replies Jarrod.

Tamara pushes the issue. “Who were the students? How did they get information about GPA? Did they use the official records?”

Jarrod replies, “It doesn’t give that many details.”

As they pull into the school parking lot, Tamara announces, “The newspaper shouldn’t print those statements without supplying more details.” She grabs the newspaper out of Jarrod’s hands and says, “Come on. While we are inside getting my papers, we can probably find more information about the study on the web.”

“Do we have to do this today?” moans Jarrod, wishing he had kept his mouth shut.

“Yes,” replies Tamara.

As they enter Tamara’s classroom, Jarrod says, “I still can’t get over how old everything seems in the building. When are they going to update the decor, not to mention your textbooks?”

Tamara ignores his comment. She turns on the only computer in the room and retrieves her papers while she waits for the computer to get up and running. Then she launches her Internet browser and begins to alphabetize her papers, because she knows it will take several minutes before the computer is ready.

Jarrod waits impatiently. “How long is this going to take?”

“Well, if we had new computers with wireless Internet connections like at

your school, we’d be out of here by now. But I don’t have those perks, so just give me a couple of minutes.”

Tamara uses the researchers’ names from the newspaper article to find the original study online. “Good, it was published early this year,” she says, and sends the print job to the printer in the main office. “Come on. I’ll grab the printout. I can read while you drive us.”

As they walk to the office, Tamara can’t help herself. “I suppose you have your own printer in your classroom and don’t have to walk to the main office all the time.”

“As a matter of fact, I do,” replies Jarrod. “You know you could get a job in my school district anytime. Remember, you chose to work here. Don’t give me a hard time because I chose not to.”

As they drive to their next stop, Tamara begins to read and launches into a tirade: “Well, they used college students, not K-12 students. Oh, can you believe this? They didn’t even use official records to find GPAs. They simply asked students to provide their GPA on a survey.”

“Why do you care so much? It’s just one newspaper article in the back of the paper,” replies Jarrod.

Tamara continues her tirade. “Because parents and most other teachers won’t take the time to read the actual study and see that the newspaper article is misleading. People won’t realize that the achievement gap is still present in K-12 classrooms and will expect all teachers to have students with similar achievement levels. That’s unrealistic. If journalists were actually trying to inform the public—instead of spewing out stories on movie stars in rehab— they would explain why the achievement gap exists. It’s not even about ethnicity; it’s about socioeconomic status.”

“Maybe you should write a letter to the editor,” suggests Jarrod.

“Maybe I will,” Tamara says.

Assess:

1. How might the different schools in which Tamara and Jarrod work influence the importance each places on understanding achievement differences?

2. Should teachers be concerned with what type of students participate in research studies like the one reported in the newspaper article? Why or why not?

3. How would you respond to a parent whose child is not achieving as well as others but who believes that all students should perform equally well?

Module 1 Using Science to Inform Classroom Practices

Educational Psychology: A Resource for Teachers 1 Explain why educational psychology is an important resource for teachers.

People who work outside educational settings may assume that good teaching practices are simply common sense. Yet common-sense approaches to classroom management and instruction often are ineffective or even counterproductive. Assume, for example, that an elementary student continues to get out of his seat during a lesson. A common-sense approach would be to politely ask the student to sit down. However, if the student is misbehaving to attract attention from the teacher and classmates, this approach might simply encourage the behavior.

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Research suggests that a more effective approach would be to ignore the unwanted behavior, depending on the individual characteristics of the student. Hence, scientific evidence helps teachers determine the best practices for effective teaching. As a teacher, you will encounter situations for which, despite all your training, you are unprepared. When that happens, research can help you formulate an informed response.

When teachers need help dealing with issues of diversity, motivation, achievement differences, behavioral problems, and other concerns, they turn to the field of educational psychology. Educational psychology links the science of psychology to educational practice and provides teachers with evidence-based knowledge to support their day-to-day decision making in the classroom. Teachers who implement research-based practices have students with more academic engagement and fewer disruptive behaviors (Sanetti, Collier-Meek, Long, Kim, & Kratochwill, 2014). In short, educational psychology can help teachers become better teachers. We are writing this text to provide theories and empirical evidence you can use to develop a repertoire of skills and knowledge on your path to becoming an effective teacher.

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Scientific Approaches Versus Common Sense. Research informs teachers about how best to approach situations in the classroom, such as children playing with one another rather than completing their work, as shown here. The common-sense approach does not always lead to best practices.

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To make the most of educational psychology, teachers need both a basic understanding of scientific principles (the science) and an awareness of how these principles can apply to real situations (classroom practices). In this text, you will be considering the same major challenges that scholars face in this field:

The science: formulating theories and conducting research studies. Classroom practices: developing applications of current theories and research to enhance teaching and learning.

Video Case 1.1 ▴ New Teacher Advice

Educational Psychology: The Science 2 Describe three elements of research studies that help determine which studies are worthy of consideration.

The science of educational psychology involves formulating theories—sets of ideas that are used to explain a phenomenon and make predictions about behavior—and then conducting research to determine how well those theories explain the phenomenon. The relationship between theory and research is reciprocal. Research findings may support a theory, but researchers also may alter theories or develop new ones based on accumulated evidence. This process is ongoing—scientists today are building upon (or tearing down) the work of twentieth-century scientists.

For today’s teachers, the amount and variety of research material available can be intimidating. The first step in evaluating research is to find appropriate resources (see Guidelines 1.1: Finding Reputable Research). After you have located good research articles, you need to determine which studies are worthy of consideration. To evaluate the quality of research, you need to understand three elements of it:

1. Design: What was the purpose of the study (to describe, to show cause and effect)?

2. Sample: Who was being studied (elementary-aged children, college students)?

3. Measures: How were constructs of interest measured (surveys, observations)?

Guidelines 1.1 Finding Reputable Research

Research Designs Researchers must choose a method for investigating variables of interest. Variables are events, characteristics, or behaviors that can be measured, such as age, family divorce, medication, diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), math scores, or aggression. To focus on a specific question about certain variables, researchers choose a particular research design—a method for investigating how and whether the variables selected are related. Table 1.1 describes four designs that are commonly used in educational research.

Video: Research Design

Descriptive designs provide basic information about variables in a population without making connections between behaviors, events, or conditions. For example, a descriptive research study might determine what percentage of school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD.

Two descriptive designs can provide in-depth perspectives:

Case study research examines a single individual and creates a rich picture of that individual’s psychological functioning. Researchers might observe a child diagnosed with autism both at home and at school, interview teachers and parents, and examine test scores, school records, and other sources of information. Ethnographic study research closely examines a particular group through direct participation within the group. For example, a researcher might attend a school of Latino students, taking extensive field notes to capture the unique educational values and social challenges of this ethnic group.

To move beyond simply describing behaviors, researchers use correlational designs, which answer questions about the connections between two variables. For example, in exploring the connection between study time and grades, the researcher might ask whether students who spend more time studying get better grades. These connections are expressed in a statistical computation called a correlation coefficient, a number between –1.0 and +1.0 that indicates the type and strength of the relationship between two variables.

The sign (positive or negative) indicates the type of relationship between the two variables. A positive correlation (+) between study time and grades means that as study time increases, grades also increase. A negative correlation (–) between school absences and grades means that as absences increase, grades decrease. The closer a correlation coefficient is to +1 or –1, the stronger the relationship between the two variables. For example, a correlation coefficient of –.56 indicates a stronger connection than a correlation coefficient of +.43 because the absolute value of the number is larger.

Although correlation studies measure the relationships between different variables, they cannot determine cause and effect. Although we may find that study time and grades are positively correlated, increased study time may or

may not cause better grades. Instead, this positive correlation may suggest several possibilities: (a) more study time causes better grades, (b) better grades cause a person to enjoy academics and therefore to study more, or (c) some other variable, such as parental involvement, accounts for the high levels of study time and grades.

When researchers want to establish whether a cause–effect relationship exists, they turn to experimental and quasi-experimental designs. Experimental designs are used to establish a cause–effect relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. An independent variable is the variable of interest that is presumed to have an effect on the dependent variable, which is the outcome of the study. Researchers conduct experimental studies in two steps:

1. Randomly assign participants to one of two groups: an experimental group and a control group.

2. Manipulate the independent variable (a treatment or intervention) with the experimental group but not the control group.

Suppose researchers want to determine whether using computers in elementary classrooms (independent variable) affects the academic achievement of students (dependent variable). They might give an academic achievement test to students and then randomly assign some to a computer classroom (experimental group) and others to a no-computer classroom (control group). The experimental group would use computers in the classroom over a specified period of time, while the control group would not. At the end of the study, researchers would give the same academic achievement test to each student. If the experimental group showed greater improvement over time than the control group, researchers could make a claim about a cause–effect relationship: that the independent variable (the use of computers in the classroom) affected the dependent variable (academic achievement).

Video: Quasi-experiemental designs

In situations in which researchers cannot randomly assign individuals to groups or manipulate an independent variable, they use quasi-experimental

designs to infer a cause–effect relationship. Obviously, researchers cannot randomly assign children to divorced and nondivorced families, abusive and nonabusive homes, male and female genders, or high and low socioeconomic groups. In other cases, researchers’ actions may be limited by school district rules or by time or expense, making the manipulation of experimental and control groups impossible. As a result, quasi-experimental designs cannot establish that an independent variable directly affects a dependent variable, and therefore they leave open the possibility that the outcome of the study may be due to other variables the researcher could not control. Say, for example, that researchers study an existing group of students in a computer classroom and compare their achievement to that of students enrolled in a no- computer classroom. Changes in the academic achievement of students in the computer classroom (dependent variable) may not depend solely on the presence of computers (independent variable) but may also be affected by variables beyond the researchers’ control: the computer classroom having more high-level readers, fewer behaviorally challenging children, or a teacher with more teaching experience than the teacher in the no-computer classroom. Researchers employ safeguards to account for and control all other possible variables that might affect the experimental and control groups, but their presence and the lack of random group assignment are limiting factors.

Despite these shortcomings, quasi-experimental research does allow researchers to examine questions involving differences between groups or differences over time. Two examples are cross-sectional studies and longitudinal designs, described here:

1. Cross-sectional studies examine two or more groups to compare behaviors. Researchers might examine whether middle school students have more or fewer hours of homework than high school students.

2. Longitudinal designs examine the same group of people repeatedly over time to provide information about how behaviors change or how earlier events can be connected to later events. A longitudinal study might follow children over time to determine whether children whose parents divorce in elementary school have more academic difficulties in adolescence than children whose parents did not divorce.

To use science effectively in decision making, teachers need to be informed

consumers of research. When you encounter scientific evidence presented in the media, in journals, or at workshops, you should be aware of the various inferences that can be made with each research design, as shown in Figure 1.1. Experimental studies are the only type that can answer questions about cause-effect relationships. However, correlational and quasi-experimental designs are more common in educational research because they are more practical than experimental designs for investigating many hypotheses regarding teaching and learning. They also provide more information than descriptive designs. Nevertheless, you must be cautious when interpreting correlational and quasi-experimental designs. You should always question whether other variables not identified in the studies might account for the findings.

Samples Once the research design is determined, researchers must identify the population of interest and select a sample. Suppose researchers want to study how students of different ages respond to the stress of transferring to a new school. Because the researchers cannot observe or survey all transferring students—the population of interest—they rely on a sample, a smaller set of individuals from the population of interest. The sample needs to be representative, meaning that it has gender, ethnicity, and age characteristics similar to the population of interest. The best method for ensuring a representative sample is to use a random sample, meaning every person in the population of interest has an equal chance of being included. Many computer programs can take a large list of individuals (for example, all students registered in a school district) and create a random subset of individuals to be included in a study.

Figure 1.1 A Continuum of Research Designs. Design dictates what inferences we can make from educational research studies.

Research Measures. Observations allow researchers to view the behaviors of teachers and students during instruction, such as whether boys or girls are called on more frequently by teachers.

Even when a random sample of individuals within the population is selected, not all the people selected will agree to participate in the research study. (How many website surveys have you declined?) This is called volunteer bias, the tendency of those who choose to participate in research studies to differ in some way from those who do not participate. Typically, individuals who have strong feelings or opinions, or who are invested in the outcome of a particular research study, are more likely to participate than are those who do not have a vested interest. For example, a college student might be more willing to participate in surveys and interviews regarding opinions on the effectiveness of the university’s financial aid office and less likely to participate in research on the effectiveness of the university president.

Measures Once researchers have chosen a research design and representative sample, they must decide on a method for taking measurements, which will provide a framework for gathering information. If researchers are investigating the amount of time students spend during school hours completing assignments, they must decide whether to ask students verbally, have them complete a paper-and-pencil survey, or observe them within the school setting. Some measures commonly used in educational research are these:

Observations, or watching or viewing the behavior of individuals, might be used to examine how many times a teacher calls on a girl versus a boy in relation to the number of students from each gender who raise their hands. Interviews, or questions presented to participants, can be highly structured lists of simple questions (How many hours do you spend on homework each night?) or can include open-ended questions (How do you study for a test?). Even though open-ended questions allow more information to be gathered, they often result in less consistency across participants. Participants might talk about the number of hours spent studying, the use of a study guide, or strategies they use for reading, note taking, memorizing, and testing themselves. Tests and surveys typically are paper-and-pencil measures that include a number of questions. Test and survey research can be done very easily with large groups of individuals in a relatively short amount of time. One requirement for participation in survey research is the ability to read and write. This might exclude younger children and individuals with language barriers.

When you examine research findings, consider the measurement strategy the researchers chose. Each measurement approach has limitations. In interviews, the researcher must speak the same language as the participant. On a test or survey, the participant must be able to read and write in the same language. Observation research is less valid for measurements of internal states of mind such as self-confidence or sadness.

Consider the research scenarios below and see if you can classify them according to research design.

1. There are two sections of a class. Both sections are taught by the same instructor, cover the same content, and have the same number of students. In one class the teacher uses a $150 textbook, and in the other class the teacher uses no textbook. The final exam scores are compared to determine which practice is a better option.

2. An educational psychologist examines how students’ levels of motivation toward studying compare with their IQ scores.

3. In an effort to decrease obesity and increase movement among students, a superintendent has all the gym teachers in a district record the average number of hours in a week spent doing cardio work in gym class.

4. A researcher goes to an urban school and a rural school to observe differences. After much study, the researcher writes a report comparing and contrasting the two schools.

Educational Psychology: Classroom Practices 3 Define best practices and explain why it is important for teachers to base them on scientific evidence.

4 Describe four diversity characteristics that can define an individual’s group membership, and explain why teachers need to understand differences between groups.

In addition to understanding educational research, teachers must be able to translate practical findings of specific research studies into school settings— diverse school settings. To do this, every teacher needs a systematic process for developing his or her personal educational philosophies.

Video Case 1.2 ▴ Teaching Philosophy

Best Practices Effective teachers develop best practices for instruction, classroom management, and assessment. Best practices are evidence-based strategies determined by science to help inform decisions. They are not a list of specific strategies that one should and should not use. For example, many states are relying on a new set of academic standards, Common Core. However, the Common Core standards do not inform teachers how to teach and what material to te