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A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF EXECUTIVE LEVEL LEADERSHIP

DEVELOPMENT IN PEER MENTORING COHORT MODELS

__________________

A Dissertation

Presented to

The Faculty of

Capital Seminary and Graduate School

__________________

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

__________________

Brian S. Pinzer

May 2017

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APPROVAL SHEET

A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF EXECUTIVE LEVEL LEADERSHIP

DEVELOPMENT IN PEER MENTORING COHORT MODELS

Brian S. Pinzer Read and Approved by:

__________________________________________ Gary J. Bredfeldt (Chairperson)

__________________________________________ Mark D. Eckel

Date: May 12, 2017

To Becky, Samuel, Claire, and Silas:

I am grateful for your love and sacrifice.

Your fun spirit and laughter were helpful to the end.

I love you deeply.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ: By Your grace I live. You have loved me

perfectly, comforted me fully, encouraged me just in time, challenged me beyond what I could

imagine, equipped me for the journey, and sustained me to the end. I owe my life to Your

service.

To my family: You have been an expression of God’s grace to me. This journey has been

long, and difficult at times, but your faithful presence, unending patience, and loving

encouragement have sustained me. Thank you for your love and true support.

To my Dissertation Readers: You have been a true blessing and support. Your wisdom

has permeated this project and your care has been evident. I hold the upmost respect and

gratitude for each of you.

To my Ph.D. cohort: Our academic journey together has resulted in deep friendships,

which I hold dear. I have been blessed by the journey with each of you, and hold hope in a

future in which you continue to lead.

To the pioneers of peer mentoring cohorts: I hold you in great regard for recognizing the

need, envisioning a solution, and having courage to act. My hope is this research brings

credibility and clarity to what you have already believed to be worth pursuing.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................vi

ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................viii

Chapter

1. RESEARCH CONCERN............................................................................................... 1

Research Goal and Methodology............................................................................ 3

Research Goal..............................................................................................5

Research Methodology ...............................................................................6

Research Purpose.................................................................................................... 8

Research Questions................................................................................................. 8

Delimitations of the Study...................................................................................... 9

Terminology.......................................................................................................... 10

Research Assumptions.......................................................................................... 12

Procedural Overview............................................................................................ 13

Chapter Summary................................................................................................. 15

2. PRECEDENT LITERATURE…………....……………….………........................... 17

Development-Oriented Relationships................................................................... 17

Biblical and Theological Overview.......................................................... 18

Vertical Development-Oriented Relationships......................................... 29

Horizontal Development-Oriented Relationships..................................... 36

Adult Learning...................................................................................................... 45

Chapter Page

Biblical and Theological Overview.......................................................... 46

Life-long Learning.................................................................................... 51

Adult Learning Theory............................................................................. 52

Adult Learning Models............................................................................. 59

Adult Learning Contexts........................................................................... 67

Personal Leadership Factors................................................................................. 81

Personal Leadership Factors for Executive Level Leaders....................... 81

Personal Leadership Factors for Pastors................................................... 85

Leadership Development...................................................................................... 91

Two Forms................................................................................................ 92

Practices and Experiences......................................................................... 94

Framework................................................................................................ 96

Personal Mission....................................................................................................97

Personal Mission Statements.....................................................................98

Work..........................................................................................................99

Calling......................................................................................................103

Description of Selected Peer Mentoring Cohort Models.....................................111

Convene...................................................................................................112

X-Core..................................................................................................... 113

Younique................................................................................................. 115

Chapter Summary............................................................................................... 117

3. METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN............................................................................... 119

iii

Chapter Page

Research Purpose................................................................................................ 119

Research Question Synopsis............................................................................... 119

Research Design Overview................................................................................. 120

Population........................................................................................................... 122

Sample and Delimitations................................................................................... 122

Limitations of Generalization............................................................................. 124

Research Method................................................................................................ 124

Instrumentation................................................................................................... 125

Research Procedures........................................................................................... 129

Research Question 1............................................................................... 130

Research Questions 2 and 3.................................................................... 131

Chapter Summary............................................................................................... 132

4. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS...................................................................................... 133

Sources and Procedure of Data Collection......................................................... 133

Research Design Strengths......................................................................134

Research Design Weaknesses..................................................................135

Research Question 1........................................................................................... 135

Summary of Convene..............................................................................136

Summary of X-Core................................................................................142

Summary of Younique............................................................................147

Model Comparison..................................................................................152

Research Question 2 – Data and Descriptive Analysis...................................... 154

Chapter Page

Task Competencies.................................................................................155

Interpersonal Competencies...................................................................165

Change and External-Oriented Competencies........................................180

Competencies (Miscellaneous)...............................................................187

Section Summary...................................................................................195

Research Question 3 – Data and Descriptive Analysis....................................... 196

Question 18............................................................................................197

Question 19............................................................................................200

Question 20............................................................................................202

Question 21............................................................................................204

Question 22............................................................................................206

Question 23............................................................................................208

Section Summary...................................................................................210

Demographic Questions.........................................................................211

Chapter Summary............................................................................................... 215

5. CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................ 216

Research Purpose................................................................................................ 216

Research Questions............................................................................................. 216

Research Conclusions......................................................................................... 216

Research Question 1 Conclusions...........................................................217

Research Question 2 Conclusions...........................................................218

Research Question 3 Conclusions...........................................................221

Chapter Page

Research Implications and Applications............................................................. 223

Purpose...................................................................................................223

Specific Implications and Applications..................................................225

Research Limitations.......................................................................................... 237

Future Research.................................................................................................. 239

Longitudinal Study.................................................................................239

Varied Perspective.................................................................................239

Quantitative Study.................................................................................240

Additional Considerations.....................................................................240

Chapter Summary............................................................................................... 241

APPENDICES

A. Expert Panel Invitation Letter..................................................................................242

B. Model Leader Invitation Letter................................................................................244

C. Pilot Test Instructions and Questions.......................................................................246

D. Interview Questions - Peer Mentoring Model Leaders (Draft)............................... 247

E. Interview Questions - Peer Mentoring Model Leaders (Final)............................... 248

F. Peer Mentoring Cohort Participation Survey (Draft)...............................................249

G. Peer Mentoring Cohort Participation Survey (Final).............................................. 255

H. Interview Transcripts with Model Leaders..............................................................261

REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................272

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Model Comparison Chart ....................................................................................153

2. Leadership Creativity ..........................................................................................156

3. Technical Competencies .....................................................................................158

4. Intuitive Sense .....................................................................................................160

5. Organizational Leadership...................................................................................163

6. Empathy ..............................................................................................................166

7. Emotional Intelligence ........................................................................................168

8. Emotional Intelligence Aspects ..........................................................................170

9. Interpersonal Conflict .........................................................................................172

10. Alignment with Espoused Values .......................................................................174

11. Empowerment .....................................................................................................176

12. Developing Others ..............................................................................................179

13. Initiate Organizational Change ...........................................................................181

14. Networking .........................................................................................................183

15. Learn from Others ...............................................................................................185

16. Life-long Learning ..............................................................................................188

17. Additional Lived Experiences Pertaining to Leadership Competencies .............191

18. Suggestions for Model Improvement ..................................................................193

19. Leadership Competencies Summary ...................................................................196

20. Understanding Personal Mission ........................................................................198

vii

21. Personal Mission and Organizational Context ....................................................200

22. Alignment with Current Leadership Position .....................................................202

23. Misalignment with Current Leadership Position ................................................204

24. Additional Lived Experiences Pertaining to Personal Mission ..........................207

25. Suggestions for Model Improvement ..................................................................209

26. Personal Mission Summary ................................................................................211

27. Participation Length ............................................................................................212

28. Current Leadership Position ...............................................................................214

viii

ABSTRACT

A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF EXECUTIVE LEVEL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN PEER MENTORING COHORT MODELS

Brian S. Pinzer, Ph.D. Capital Seminary and Graduate School, 2017 Chairperson: Gary J. Bredfeldt Second Reader: Mark D. Eckel

As leaders continue learning and developing, research shows they will increase

effectiveness to lead in their organizational context. Leaders are developed in multiple ways

through their career, including formal education, training, and mentoring. However,

development opportunities diminish for executive level leaders of most organizations. The result

can be isolation and few training or mentoring options, thus stagnated and unbalanced leadership

development. An emerging phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts are seeking to address this

concern for executive level leaders. The goal of this study was to conduct initial research

assessing the value of these emerging peer mentoring cohorts for leadership development.

This study attempted to capture the structure of a few peer mentoring cohort models

designed for executive level leaders and the perceived influence toward participants’ continued

leadership development. The research assumed executive level leaders are responsible for

continued development. This phenomenological study examined the structure of three peer

mentoring cohort models as well as the influence these cohorts had on participants’ development

of leadership competencies found in the literature base and understanding of their personal

mission.

The results of the study show peer mentoring cohorts, leveraging peer relationships, offer

a high value for developing executive level leaders. A qualitative survey distributed to

participants procured data showing a lived experience in their peer mentoring cohorts that was

valuable in developing multiple leadership competencies and understanding personal mission.

The most developed competencies included emotional intelligence (self-awareness and

communication with others), life-long learning, intuitive sense, and empowering others. Further

value was shown in participants’ developing understanding of their personal mission by

measures such as articulating how their personal mission aligns with their organizational context,

confirming alignment with their current leadership position, and understanding their personal

mission. Overall, the study confirmed executive level leaders can continue leadership

development through peer mentoring cohorts.

KEYWORDS: Leader, Executive leader, Peer Mentoring, Mentoring, Cohort, Leader Development, Leadership Competencies, Personal Mission, Life-long Learning

CHAPTER 1

RESEARCH CONCERN

Leaders are trained in multiple ways as they progress in their career or calling. Initial

formal education provides a foundation in which to add critical experience. Furthermore,

organizations provide numerous training opportunities for continued employee development

(Brockbank & McGill, 2006; Day, 2000; DeRue & Myers, 2014; Kleinman, 2004; Waterman,

2011). However, executive level leaders of most organizations struggle to find the same

development offerings as they experienced early in their career or calling. These executive level

leaders can find themselves isolated and short on mentoring prospects (Litano & Major, 2016;

Rokach, 2012). The result can be a stagnated and unbalanced leadership development (Litano &

Major, 2016).

The value of continuous learning is not diminished for executive level leaders.

Tannenbaum (1997) defines continuous learning as the process by which individual or

organizational learning is fostered on an ongoing basis. Leaders at all levels find value in

continuous learning, such as improved performance, increased value to an employer, and

increased career flexibility (Eddy, Tannenbaum, Lorenzet, & Smith-Jentsch, 2005).

Furthermore, stewardship is a concept that marks a transcendent purpose and

responsibility for a leader to continually learn and develop. Stewardship is defined as “the

conducting, supervising, or managing of something especially: the careful and responsible

management of something entrusted to one’s care” (Merriam-Webster, 2003). The term is also

used to refer to the responsible use of wealth and possessions by Christians (Manser, 2009). This

study assumed leaders, including executive level leaders, hold a responsibility for continual

learning and development.

Some mentoring or coaching opportunities arose in recent decades to help address the

continual learning and development needs of executive level leaders. Executive coaching is a

form of development-oriented relationships, which began to be implemented in the 1990s as

organizations recognized the changing culture required an increased need for changing executive

behavior to remain effective (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Kombarakaran, Yang, Baker, &

Fernandes, 2008). The goals for the process of executive coaching are to counsel the executive

on work-related issues and offer an element of a 360-degree feedback by articulating observed

strengths and weaknesses of the executive, thus purposing to increase the executive’s

effectiveness in their organizational context (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Kombarakaran et al.,

2008).

Peer mentoring is another method to enhance continual learning in any context. Various

relational connections experienced by individuals, such as peer mentoring, will increase their

leadership development trajectory (Kram & Isabella, 1985). Peer mentoring has been

popularized as traditional vertical mentoring relationships become less effective in a changing

society. In a rapidly changing society, experience alone is less relevant. Therefore, people are

developed more effectively by peers who identify with each other (Parker, Hall, & Kram, 2008).

Particularly, executive level leaders are now effectively developed through peer

mentoring relationships. Executive level leaders, who are often isolated, have the context to

connect with one another for encouragement and further leadership development through peer

relationships, either internal or external to one’s organization (Stanley & Clinton, 1992).

External peers provide the leader with a varied perspective and the potential for mutual

accountability while internal peer relationships offer contextualized feedback for each leader

(Clinton & Clinton, 1991). Furthermore, peer mentoring relationships can develop one’s

leadership style, self-awareness, social-awareness, professional competence, job effectiveness,

communication skills, management skills, ability to manage and create a high-performance team,

and effective learning skills (Kram & Isabella, 1985; Law, 2013; Parker et al., 2008).

Cohorts are yet another context for continued development. Historically, cohorts of

students in higher education have been an effective option for learning collaboration (Barnett &

Muse, 1993; Basom, Yerkes, Norris, & Barnett, 1995; Norris & Barnett, 1994; Sapon-Shevin &

Chandler-Olcott, 2001). Student cohorts are especially effective for adult learners as they are

created to foster a supportive learning environment, thus offering an environment conducive to

adult learning theory (Barnett & Muse, 1993). Cohorts are flexible for various learning styles,

offer affiliation for adult students, create mutual learning opportunities, and allow adults a

desired measure of control over their educational experience (Barnett & Muse, 1993; Boud &

Bridge, 1974; Knowles, 1970; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).

Several additional advantages of a cohort structure exist for adult learning. Therefore,

there is an emerging use of cohorts even outside formal education (Basom et al., 1995). A cohort

structure can develop self-awareness in even the more seasoned (Basom et al., 1995). Cohorts

environments may also transform values for continued leadership growth (Maher, 2005; Teitel,

1997). Furthermore, leaders will find a cohort to be conducive to adult learning because of

valuable peer relationships and active learning through shared problem-solving (Basom et al.,

1995; Beachboard, Beachboard, & Adkison, 2011; Norris & Barnett, 1994).

Research Goal and Methodology

Several organizations and informal groups currently employ various models of peer

mentoring in a cohort structure, which are designed to foster leadership development for

organizational leaders. These active models suggest an emergent phenomenon of peer mentoring

cohorts for leadership development. However, little research has been conducted within this

emerging phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts.

The literature review in Chapter 2 showed a potential connection between development-

oriented relationships, adult learning theory and contexts, developing personal leadership factors,

leadership development, and understanding one’s personal mission. Yet, few studies have

combined all into one phenomenon to research. Furthermore, most peer or group mentoring

research has held to a context of youth, college, graduate studies, or professional level higher

education contexts (nursing and education leadership development), leaving peer mentoring

cohorts for executive level leaders largely unstudied. Without research, the phenomenon will

lack empirical understanding, validation and credibility. This study sought empirical data to fill

in the stated research gap and offers application of the findings to various contexts.

Kram and Isabella (1985) were one of the first to heavily consider peer mentoring for

career and leadership development in the workplace. Kroll (2015), combining most aspects this

study utilized, conducted one of few research studies on peer mentoring for executive level

leadership development in organizations by focusing on peer group mentoring for women in

leadership. The study sought the lived experience of twelve women in executive level leadership

experiencing peer group mentoring in one of four groups from an undisclosed professional

networking organization (Kroll, 2015). The goal of the study was to, through articulating lived

experiences, find out some specific factors or best practices that may equate to effective peer

group mentoring for women in leadership roles (Kroll, 2015). The result of the research

concluded several meta-themes for effective peer mentoring, including individual traits (intrinsic

interest, learning disposition, commitment to the mentoring experience, vulnerability, other

focused); actions on display within the group (challenging, supporting, leading, rule following);

mentoring topics (deliberate with shared experiences, personal and professional development);

and additional factors (focus while gathered, balanced sharing, long-lasting relationships,

accountability) (Kroll, 2015).

Given the lack of research in this phenomenon, outside the above stated study, and the

perceived potential in a model combining peer mentoring with a cohort structure for executive

level leadership development, the researcher purposed to find out what participants are

experiencing in a few select models. The researcher sought additional lived experience data to

add to the Kroll (2015) study. The resultant data validated the value of peer mentoring cohorts

beyond anecdotal experiences.

Research Goal

This study attempted to capture the structure of a few peer mentoring cohort models and

the perceived influence toward participants’ continued leadership development. The goal of the

research study was to discover insight into the value of a peer mentoring cohort for executive

level leaders who need continued leadership development.

Two specific aspects of executive level leadership learning were considered:

contextualized leadership competencies and understanding of one’s personal mission. These two

categories articulate the highest level of development for executive level leaders because of the

immediate context of developing leadership competencies (Barna, 1993; Bass, 1990; Blizzard,

1956; Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson, 2001; Kiedis, 2009) and the transcendent nature of

personal mission (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Covey, 2004; Dalton, 2001; Fox, 1994;

Guinness, 1998; Palmer, 2000; Searight & Searight, 2011; Terkel, 1997) toward needed life

balance (Litano & Major, 2016).

Both learning categories for this study are pertinent for executive level leaders learning in

cohorts, connected to one another, and are categories of continued growth. Similar to

contextualized competencies being learned and developed, one’s understanding of personal

mission is an ongoing process of discernment (Dik & Duffy, 2009). Moreover, the focus on

these two specific categories were chosen by the researcher because some connection has been

found between continuous adult learning in cohorts and building awareness of one’s personal

mission (Kroth & Boverie, 2000; Norris & Barnett, 1994).

The researcher hoped this study would provide insight, from the lived experiences of

researched participants, for both executive level leaders seeking continued learning and current

or future peer mentoring cohort models. The study provided an empirically researched

understanding of the value of the studied phenomenon. The applications of the empirical

findings were discussed in Chapter 5. In addition, this research provided a foundation for future

studies, such as longitudinal or quantitative, seeking to further the understanding of the

phenomenon.

Research Methodology

A qualitative design with a phenomenological method was used because of the interest in

finding the lived experiences of peer mentoring cohort participants (Creswell, 2014; Leedy &

Ormrod, 2013; Moustakas, 1994; Polkinghorne, 1989). Contrary to a positivist research method,

where concrete data is procured through observation, phenomenology approaches research as a

constructivist endeavor where one can find meaning and experience in subjects and their

experience related to their world (Laverty, 2003). Through a phenomenological design, the

research selected a relatively small number of participant experiences to analyze for patterns of

meaning and experience (Moustakas, 1994).

Phenomenology is defined as the study of lived experience in a given phenomenon

(Creswell, 2014; Laverty, 2003; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Within phenomenology, there are two

widely used distinct streams of philosophy leading to divergence in research practice. Husserl

(1965), positing a descriptive phenomenology, understood phenomenology to be a descriptive

method grounded in an epistemology of the living subject, with little attention to the context of

the subject (Laverty, 2003; Wojnar, & Swanson, 2007). In contrast, Heidegger, a student of

Husserl, sought lived experience by the subject, but with particular attention to the subject’s

context (Laverty, 2003; Wojnar, & Swanson, 2007). This form of hermeneutical, or

interpretative, phenomenology recognizes the interplay between subjects and their lives for

meaning-making (Laverty, 2003; Wojnar, & Swanson, 2007).

Furthermore, a phenomenological approach is that which considers the dynamics

between humans and their world as the fullness of reality while the science focused on merely

observation of an object finds only abstraction (Moustakas, 1994). The lifeworld that has been

described as “the way a person lives, creates, and relates in the world” is the concrete and

dynamic reality phenomenology seeks to unearth (Moustakas, 1994, p. 48).

The researcher’s use of phenomenology was not rooted solely in either descriptive or

hermeneutic phenomenological philosophy or epistemology, but rather in understanding the

value of retroactive data from lived experience. Therefore, the study derived from both vantage

points in practice, ultimately adhering to a biblical worldview and epistemology of absolute truth

found in the special revelation of Christ and the Scriptures and general revelation in all subject

areas of life and experience (Knight, 2006; Hiemstra, 1988). The researcher believes one’s

lifeworld and meaning-making consists of the general revelation of truth from a Creator God

rather than solely coming from within the individual, open to any interpretation.

A Christian worldview, as briefly articulated above, will direct all aspects of the study,

including the methodological choice of phenomenology, its process, and validation. As such,

qualitative research, although criticized by some, offers rigor and validation (Creswell, 2014;

Laverty, 2003; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Within phenomenological research, “bracketing, which

is incorporated into intentional focusing on the experience, is one factor that is central to the

rigor of the study” (Laverty, 2003). The researcher pursued as much focus on the lived

phenomenon as possible by bracketing his own experience and bias out while recognizing this

process did not yield complete separation of researcher and participant. The resultant research

outcome provided an initial understanding of peer mentoring cohort experiences while

recognizing further research will be necessary to arrive at a comprehensive truth.

Research Purpose

The intent of this qualitative research was to explore, through a phenomenological study,

the leadership development experience of executive level leaders participating in a peer

mentoring cohort model.

Research Questions

The following Research Questions guided this study:

1. What are the similarities and differences of structure between the three researched peer

mentoring cohort models?

2. How do participating leaders describe the value of their peer mentoring cohort

relationships for enhancing their competencies pertinent to their particular leadership

context?

3. What perceived influence do these peer mentoring cohort relationships have on the

participating leaders’ developing understanding of their personal mission?

Delimitations of the Study

Several delimitations for this study are worth noting and help to define research

parameters. The study focused on the leadership development experience of only executive level

leaders, as defined in the terminology section that follows, in their organization. The delimiter

allowed the study to articulate the perceptions of a leader population recognizing the need for

continued learning opportunities, thus seeking such learning through peer mentoring cohorts.

Additionally, the study did not comprehensively research all aspects of leadership

development, limiting to the influence of developing competencies in the leader’s current context

and developing understanding of the leader’s personal mission. Both competencies and personal

mission are defined in the following terminology section of this chapter.

Finally, the study was delimited by preselecting three peer mentoring cohort models. The

models selected for this study included Convene, Giant Worldwide, and Younique. The three

models were selected based on several determining criteria. First, the model focuses on

executive level leaders. Second, the model includes peer mentoring in its design. Third, the

model involves a cohort of executive level leaders. Finally, the model is designed, at least in

part, to develop the leader in leadership competencies for his or her context and a further

understanding of the personal mission influencing his or her context. Although the three selected

models are not inclusive of all active peer mentoring cohorts aligned with the criteria, they do fit

all the criteria and represent the emerging phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts for executive

level leaders.

Furthermore, selecting these three models triangulated the qualitative data by offering

three different modalities. The Convene model included an external peer mentoring cohort

model, designed for developing business owners and Chief Executive Officers (CEOs). The

Giant Worldwide model also included a peer mentoring cohort model of executive level leaders.

Finally, the Younique model included an external peer mentoring cohort model for executive

level Christian ministry leaders, designed for leadership development with a focus on personal

mission.

Terminology

The following critical terms, and their meanings, are provided to clarify their usage in

this research study:

Cohort: Educational cohorts are generally defined as groups of students experiencing an

entire or partial academic program together, sharing the same set of courses, and developing a

sense of a learning community in the process (Barnett & Muse, 1993; Norris & Barnett, 1994;

Sapon-Shevin & Chandler-Olcott, 2001). Student cohorts are a form of community-driven

learning, valuing shared knowledge and collaboration (Maher, 2005). The cohort structure,

found in formal education since the 1940s (Basom et al., 1995), is starting to be used for

continued development of leaders in various organizations as the structure is conducive to adult

learning (Barnett & Muse, 1993).

Competencies: Competencies may be defined as ability (Woodruff, 2004) or, more

specifically, knowledge, skill, and experience (Hersey et al., 2001). Each leadership context

requires a certain set of competencies for effective leadership (Bass, 1990). This study allowed

the researched participants to determine the leadership competencies pertinent to their context

and the resultant development of those particular competencies as a result of their experience in

the peer mentoring cohort.

Continuous Learning (Life-Long Learning): Continuous learning is defined as the process

by which individual or organizational learning is fostered on an ongoing basis (Tannenbaum,

1997). Adults learn in various forms, both through formal education and informal contexts such

as life-embedded activities and self-directed learning (Beblavy, Thum, Potjagailo, 2014;

Merriam et al., 2007).

Development-Oriented Relationship: This study used development-oriented relationships

as those designed to foster general development and specific learning for a given need and

context (Clinton & Clinton, 1991; Stanley & Clinton, 1992; Kram & Isabella, 1985; Law, 2013;

Parker et al., 2008). Development was typically used in the study to reference specific learning

processes rather than the scope of human development theory. Therefore, development and

learning was used interchangeably through the study.

Executive Level Leader: One who holds a formal leadership position at the executive

level of an organization. Dependent on the organizational size and structure, the executive leader

may function as the sole leader at the highest level in the organization or as part of an executive

team responsible to lead the organization. This leadership level contains unique challenges,

requiring appropriate skills and competencies (Hall, 1997; Hambrick, Finkelstein, & Mooney,

2005; Katz, 2009; Kühne & Donaldson, 1995; Mumford, Campion, & Morgeson, 2007; Nauss,

1994; Woodruff, 2004).

External Peer Mentoring: A peer mentoring relationship, as defined by the peer

mentoring definition later in this terminology section, between two or more individuals outside

of one’s organizational context (Clinton & Clinton, 1991).

Internal Peer Mentoring: A peer mentoring relationship, as defined by the peer

mentoring definition later in this terminology section, between two or more individuals within

one’s organizational context (Clinton & Clinton, 1991).

Leadership: “A process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to

achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2013, p. 5).

Leadership Development: “The process of preparing individuals and collectives to

effectively engage in leading-following interactions” (DeRue & Myers 2014, p. 835).

Peer Learning: An emergence of informal and unstructured learning, focusing less on

guided outcome and more on learning environment through relationships (Law, 2013).

Peer Mentoring: A development oriented relationship offering a unique connection with

someone who is at a similar stage of development and faces some of the same decisions,

challenges, and shared reality (Stanley & Clinton, 1992).

Personal Mission: A developing understanding of one’s unique transcendent purpose as a

leader, encompassing their God-given temperament, gifts, passions, skills, and experiences. A

personal mission is transcendent to oneself and any one job or role, often considered a calling, is

values-driven and character-driven, guides short-term and long-term goals or decisions, and

articulates a service oriented meaning to tasks and roles (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Chew,

Lee, & Ismail, 2014; Covey, 2004; Dalton, 2001; Fox, 1994; Guinness, 1998; Ligo, 2011;

Messenger, 2011; Palmer, 2000; Rawat, 2011; Searight & Searight, 2011; Terkel, 1997; Weber,

1930).

Research Assumptions

Any research conducted will hold a measure of bias for design, analysis, and

interpretation by the researcher. Qualitative research, although beneficial in seeking descriptive

lived experiences, holds a greater potential for direct researcher influence and assumptions as the

qualitative researcher may be a more intimate part of the research (Creswell, 2014; Leedy &

Ormrod, 2014). In this context, the researcher held to the following foundational assumptions

during the study:

1. There is absolute truth that can be discovered within the created world, and understood

through the revelation of the Bible.

2. The researcher and those included in the research study are fallible. Therefore,

perceptions, interpretations, and other data may be incomplete or flawed.

3. Executive level leaders are responsible for continued professional and personal

development.

4. Peer mentoring cohort models focused on executive level leaders are designed, at least in

part, to foster leadership development.

5. The answers given by participants during the research will accurately reflect their lived

experience in the peer mentoring cohort model.

6. The participants in the study, and included peer mentoring cohort models, will be

representative of the phenomenon for transferability.

Procedural Overview

The purpose of this research was to study the peer mentoring cohort phenomenon. With

the research questions and delimitations of the research, the researcher articulated the modality

of three selected peer mentoring cohorts for executive level leaders and described the perceptions

of participants, pertaining to competencies for their context and their developing understanding

of a personal mission. This qualitative research used interviews with cohort leaders as well as a

qualitative survey to answer the research questions. A qualitative survey was utilized for the

dual purpose it can serve, collecting the qualitative data of lived experiences and ease of access

and convenience to participants (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John, 2004; Jansen, 2010; Kraut

et al., 2004).

The first phase in the research process was to seek permission to include the three

selected peer mentoring cohorts in the study. The researcher sent an email communication to

each peer mentoring cohort leader to request permission to both study their modality and

distribute a survey to their participants. Research question 1 was addressed through the literature

review in Chapter 2 and an initial research phase. The researcher described each model by

analyzing each model’s website and publicly distributed documents. Additionally, the first phase

of research included an interview with a cohort leader to either confirm the literature review

findings or add to the findings.

The second phase of the research was to answer Research Questions 2 and 3. The

researcher designed a two-segment qualitative survey instrument. The first segment addressed

the leader’s perceived value of their peer mentoring cohort relationships for enhancing their

competencies pertinent to their particular leadership context. The second segment of the survey

addressed the leaders’ perception of the influence that the peer mentoring cohort relationships

have on their understanding of their personal mission.

The researcher-designed survey instrument went through a few pre-research steps prior to

distribution for research. First, the survey instrument was evaluated by an expert panel and

revised where necessary. Second, the instrument was pilot tested with five preselected

individuals who were part of the research population. Third, the approval process of the

Institutional Review Board for Lancaster Bible College/Capital Seminary and Graduate School

was followed before the instrument was distributed for research purposes.

The finalized and approved survey instrument was distributed by email, as an online link,

to selected active participants in each peer mentoring cohort model. The survey was distributed

directly by a cohort model leader. The survey was distributed to participants in those peer

mentoring cohort models designed specifically for executive level leaders. Once survey

responses were collected, the data from the survey respondents was analyzed and categorized to

articulate answers to Research Questions 2 and 3.

Chapter Summary

A phenomenological study was conducted, seeking to capture the lived experience of an

emerging phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts aimed at executive level leadership

development. Each model was described to answer the first research question. Two specific

aspects of executive level leadership development were considered, contextualized leadership

competencies and understanding of one’s personal mission, answering the second and third

research questions. Three peer mentoring models were selected for the study that aligned with

the delimitations of the study stated in this chapter. The phenomenological study was conducted

in two stages, first interviewing peer mentoring cohort model leaders, and second, distributing a

qualitative survey to participants of the selected peer mentoring models.

Little research has been conducted in this area specific to executive level leaders, so the

study provides foundational insight and future research opportunity. Specifically, insight was

gained on actual lived experience in peer mentoring cohorts designed for executive level leaders.

This insight might help current peer mentoring models improve and future models emerge.

Additionally, the study provided a foundation for a longitudinal study among executive level

leaders experiencing peer mentoring cohorts.

The following chapters present further details of the study. Chapter 2 presents a literature

review, which will show foundational components of the research purpose. Chapter 3 gives

details of the research methodology, plan, and process. Finally, Chapter 4 shows the descriptive

results and analysis while Chapter 5 provides research conclusions, implications, applications,

and further research suggestions.

CHAPTER 2

PRECEDENT LITERATURE

The purpose of this research was to discover the lived experience of participants in peer

mentoring cohorts designed for executive level leaders. In particular, the researcher looked at

the influence of participants’ experience in the peer mentoring cohort toward developing

competencies pertinent to their particular leadership context and furthering their understanding

of their own personal mission. This chapter presents a review of relevant literature for the

research concern. The following literature review considers pertinent categories such as various

development-oriented relationships; adult learning theories, models, and contexts; personal

factors for effective leadership; leadership development; facets of a personal mission; and

descriptions of the three researched peer mentoring cohort models. Biblical, theological, and

philosophical considerations are articulated throughout the review. As the literature review

progresses, the researcher asserts the basis for the research concern and a gap in the current

research literature pertaining to peer mentoring cohorts for developing executive level leaders.

Development-Oriented Relationships

In a global society, the needs of individuals and organizations are immediate and ever

changing. Leaders and followers alike require continued learning and development toward

increased effectiveness. The traditional means of education and training must give way to more

real-time and fluid means. Learning may occur through formal education, seminars, workshops,

and training. However, one of the most effective forms of learning for anyone is relational in

nature. Development-oriented relationships can be found in formal educational settings but are

often available in other contexts.

Relationships within organizations have proven to be beneficial for training and

development, but the growing demands on leadership and management diminishes the margin

for such relational connections. Therefore, apprenticeships and vertical mentoring are not

enough to foster the learning necessary for individuals. A horizontal mentoring connection can

help achieve needed relationships, which foster learning. Specifically, peer mentoring and peer

coaching relationships, horizontal in nature, can achieve such learning.

This literature stream provides a foundation for the overall research concern while giving

particular understanding to the second research question, “how do participating leaders describe

the value of their peer mentoring cohort relationships for enhancing their competencies pertinent

to their particular leadership context?” and the third research question, “what perceived influence

do these peer mentoring cohort relationships have on the participating leaders’ developing

understanding of their personal mission?”

Biblical and Theological Overview

The concept of learning, or development, specifically through interpersonal relationships,

is a foundational biblical principle. Particularly, spiritual transformation and development are

overarching principles. Children are to be trained and developed by parents and the church. This

training is described as starting them in a right direction of development by a “narrowing” of

conduct from the behaviors of a sin nature, or evil, toward an increase of godliness (Proverbs

22:6; Buzzell, 1985). In general, the regenerated person is both transformed and transforming (2

Corinthians 5:17; Romans 12:1-2).

All individuals experience a continual journey of development. Kierkegaard (2013)

asserted the Christian is on a journey toward a more fully integrated depth of understanding of

oneself, their created goodness (creation), sinfulness and brokenness (fall), as well as the benefits

and perfection found in Christ (redemption) (Johnson, n.d.). The Christian development process

involves an increasing integrated understanding of how one is made in God’s image, deeper

understanding of the impact of the fall in their life, the transformation and power of Christ’s

redemptive work for them, as well as the process of restoration they are experiencing toward

Christ-reorientation (Johnson, n.d.).

The ideal context for development is through interpersonal relationship, reflective of the

relationship found with the Trinity (Genesis 1:26; John 3:35; John 14:16-17; Matthew 11:27).

Social interaction, in various forms, fosters character formation, perhaps developing the

interiority of everyone involved (Houston, 2006; Proverbs 27:17; Smith, 1996).

The biblical role for individuals is to engage others for development. This role is

embedded in the concept of stewardship mentioned in chapter 1 and articulated in Chapter 5 as

well as the mandate for the Church to “make disciples” (Matthew 28:18-20). As shown in the

following section, the Christian holds a transcendent purpose to develop others. One will notice

a contrast in Scripture between those who followed that purpose by leaving a legacy

(Deuteronomy 6:5-7; Psalm 78:4) of developing a future generation (e.g. Moses, Nehemiah,

Jesus, and Paul) and those who failed to leave a legacy of development such as Joshua, who

served the Lord himself, but upon his death Israel transitioned to a cycle of sin and destruction

(Joshua 24; Judges). The following section articulates a biblical foundation of developing

relationships.

Mentoring. Mentoring is a foundational development-oriented relationship modality

found in Scripture. Mentoring has been defined as “a triadic relationship between mentor,

mentee, and the Holy Spirit, where the mentee can discover the already present action of God,

intimacy with God, ultimate identity as a child of God and a unique voice for kingdom

responsibility” (Anderson & Reese, 1999, p. 12). Biblical relationships, reflecting a mentoring

approach, espouse admonishment (II Timothy 4:2; Proverbs 13:18; 25:12) or training and

instruction (Ephesians 6:4; Proverbs 22:6). The word for “admonish” in Greek (noutheteo) was

used by Paul to express the need to challenge and instruct one another (Acts 20:31; I Corinthians

4:14; Colossians 3:16; Mangum, Brown, Klippenstein, & Hurst, 2014). The priority and practice

of relationships is embedded in the command found in Mathew 28:18-20 to “make disciples.”

Making disciples requires relationship, teaching, spiritual growth, and the work of the Holy

Spirit, “pneuma” (John 15:26; Louw, & Nida, 1996). The relationship may be formal or

informal but is always designed for development.

I Timothy and II Timothy offer some insight into how Paul viewed mentoring as a means

to develop followers (I Timothy 4:6-16, 6:12; II Timothy 2:1-13, 4:1-5; Hoehl, 2011): “Paul’s

patterns of mentoring (displayed with Timothy) comprised a mix of instruction, encouragement,

and inspiration” (Chua & Lessing, 2013, p. 94). Although Paul does not give explicit instruction

on mentoring, his exemplary relationship with Timothy provides a template to follow. A two-

pronged approach to mentoring can be observed, namely, empowerment and deployment (Chua

& Lessing, 2013).

The Bible gives several examples of mentoring relationships designed for spiritual

development, including Moses and Joshua, Naomi and Ruth, Elijah and Elisha, Peter and

Barnabas, Paul and Timothy, and, perhaps the most valuable to consider, Jesus and His disciples

(Chua & Lessing, 2013). The example given by Jesus included serving and modeling a servant’s

heart, such as the act of washing their feet, and culminated in the perfect example of service by

His obedient death on the cross (Lanctot & Irving, 2007).

Furthermore, Ephesians 4:11-16 gives a clear understanding of roles God designed to

lead the Church: apostles, prophets, evangelists, shepherds and teachers, who are for

development or maturation. He is not giving a list of individual gifts, such as the one found in 1

Corinthians 12, but a list of offices of those who receive the gifts and are appointed to leadership

for the sake of the whole church (Gaebelein, 1981, p. 58). “Equip” or “prepare,” found in

Ephesians 4:12, is from the Greek – katartismos that has a connotation of “setting of a broken

bone in surgery” (Gaebelein, 1981, p. 58). We also see katartizo in Matthew 4:21 as “mending

of nets” and in Galatians 6:1 as “restore from sin” (Gaebelein, 1981, p. 58). “Service” is from

the Greek – diakonia (from diakonos – “a servant, minister, or related to deacon”), meaning

service or ministry (Thomas, 1998). Similarly, we are urged in 1 Peter 4:10 to use the gifts

(charisma) given us to serve others. “Building” is from the Greek – oikodome (from oikos –

“house or dwelling”), meaning “the act of building or a building” (Thomas, 1998). The roles

mentioned in verse 11 are to build the body of Christ, the church.

Discipleship. Discipleship, akin to mentoring, is also a biblical conduit for development.

Discipleship is the parent idea, taught and practiced by Jesus, for spiritual development while

mentoring is one subset or modality for accomplishing discipleship (Anderson & Reese, 1999).

Discipleship is a process of learning from a teacher to become like them in character,

thought, and action (Mangum et al., 2014; Deuteronomy 4:5). The Latin term discipulus

embraces the meaning of pupil or apprentice (Myers, 1987). The Bible asserts discipleship as

the process of becoming like Jesus as one follows Him (Mangum et al., 2014; John 13:15; Luke

6:40). The word has a connotation of learning, instruction, and obedience, rooted in Hebrew

terms יַָסר (yāsar, “to instruct”) and ָלַמד (lāmad, “to teach”), and the Greek words µαθητής

(mathētēs, “disciple”) and µανθάνω (manthanō, “to learn”) (Mangum et al., 2014). A biblical

understanding includes the mandate to be a part of the process, as in making of disciples

(Matthew 28:19).

Jesus offered a relational approach, discipleship, to developing His disciples toward

accomplishing the mission of the early church. His approach was intentional, communal,

informal in nature, and mission specific (Luke 11:1-13; Matthew 5; 9; 24). It involved teaching,

modeling, and informal observation (Huizing, 2011). In Jesus’ earthly ministry as well as the

church today, discipleship is the means for expanding the church and developing future leaders

(Huizing, 2011; Matthew 28:18-20). Jesus did not expect His disciples to be polished capable

spiritual leaders. These men were taught humility, servanthood, meekness, recognition of their

own weaknesses, and compassion for others (Huizing, 2011; John 13:1-19; Luke 9; Matthew 9).

The character and ethics Jesus exemplified and produced in the disciples gave them the ability to

lead toward a clear mission for the Church (Huizing, 2011).

Huizing (2011) believes biblical leadership cannot exist apart from the discipleship

framework. In discipleship, Jesus gave the ecclesiological modality for leadership development.

Huizing asserts, “As disciples are guided and admonished by those who lead them to become

more and more like Jesus (1 Cor. 11:1), great leaders will be cultivated in the image of Christ

and their actions will incarnate his presence” (p. 344).

As Scripture gives examples of development-oriented relationships, some patterns and

best practices emerge. The approach Jesus took toward discipleship relationships with his

followers was to intentionally connect with others in relationship, create these intentional

connections in community with a measure of informality as life on life was occurring, and orient

these relationships toward a transcendent mission (Huizing, 2011; John 13:1-19; Luke 9; 11:1-

13; Matthew 5; 9; 24). Paul understood development-oriented relationships as a familial

connection with the desire for such closeness and responsibility (Prime, 2005; Titus 2:1; 3-5).

His methodology within those relationships was to instruct, encourage, and inspire toward Christ

and transformation (Chua & Lessing, 2013; 1 Corinthians 4:6; 11:1). Paul’s goals for

development-oriented relationships were to empower individuals in Christ for the purpose of

deploying them into ministry (Chua & Lessing, 2013; Philippians 4:9; 2 Timothy 2:2; 3:14).

Modeling. Another biblically highlighted component of development-oriented

relationships is modeling. Modeling is noticed biblically in the entire public ministry of Jesus as

He is the exemplary figure for Christians and in Paul as he taught, equipped, and encouraged

church leaders (1 Corinthians 11:1; 1 Timothy 1:12-17). Modeling in our current context is a

means of people development that may or may not be intentional. Servant leaders desire to serve

by developing their followers, thus modeling becomes intentional. Any leader will model

something to their followers. One can model behavior that is consistent with a transcendent

ethic, such as biblical ethics exemplified by Jesus, and worth emulating or unethical and lacking

biblical character. Agee (2001) argues, “We owe the people we are trying to lead at least three

things—love, best effort, and a good example” (p. 15).

Modeling is a form of teaching that is, at times, subtle but always visible and influential

(Russell & Stone, 2002). Russell and Stone (2002) indicate, “Modeling has many potential

effects upon an organization, which include setting cultural elements, vision realization, and

ethical framework” (p. 149). Modeling positive character and ethics can encourage integrity,

transparency, humility, and moral reasoning skills (Sendjaya, Sarros, & Santora, 2008).

Owens and Heckman (2012) conducted a study on leader humility, which highlighted

modeling. Humble leaders, according to their research, were most often described as “models of

learning” (Owens & Heckman, 2012, p. 798). Humble leaders were perceived as open to new

ideas, attentive listeners, receptive to feedback, and teachable. All these traits of humility were

overtly modeled to their followers, setting a healthy example.

Humility, modeled by Jesus in his life and obedience to the cross (John 13:1-17;

Philippians 2), is defined as a modest self-perception, or to crouch or bend low (Magnum et al.,

2014). Dickson (2011) suggests the ultimate act of humility is articulated in Philippians, chapter

2, where Paul explains the act of Jesus temporarily and voluntarily giving up rights and power.

Humility is a willing choice to not use power or authority; it would not require (or demand)

dismissal of the self but would focus on how one responded to and treated others (Dickson,

2011).

The Owens and Heckman (2012) study found that modeling of humility and teachability

influenced organizational culture. As those in upper level leadership modeled humility and

teachability, followers in the organization began to recognize their own behavior as a legitimate

means of relating with others (pp. 799-800). Leaders were able to model to their followers that

they were still developing as leaders and humans, validating a follower’s developmental process

(p. 802). Owens and Heckman observe, “These humble leader behaviors influenced followers'

personal ideas about ‘becoming,’ shaping, as it were, a developmental identity for the followers

as members of their organization” (p. 802).

A Christian perspective of modeling coincides with the mentoring and discipleship

relationships previously stated. Many relationships in Scripture exemplify modeling. These

relationships included, but are not limited to, Moses and Joshua (Deuteronomy 31:7-8), Naomi

and Ruth (Ruth 1:7-18; 2:17-3:16), Elijah and Elisha (2 Kings 2:1-6), Jesus with the disciples

(the Gospels), Peter and Barnabas (Galatians 2:11-13), and Paul and Timothy (2 Timothy 2:2)

(Chua & Lessing, 2013).

Leaders in the church and a corporate context will automatically model something to

followers. Their intentionality will define them as either servant leaders or merely leaders

(Wong & Davey, 2007). The best practices of biblical leadership include modeling character and

core values and inspiring others to serve a higher purpose (Wong & Davey, 2007). To lead as a

servant requires intentional modeling that serves the development of others. An aspect of

development that cannot be neglected is recognition of the greater purpose that motivates. For

the secularist, the greater purpose will be organizational goals. For the Christian, regardless of

context, the greater purpose or mission will be, first, organizational goals and, second, to glorify

God (Wong & Davey, 2007).

Teaching. Christian learners come to understand the biblical precepts and character to

live by through a cognitive process (Huizing, 2011). However, it is important to note the

relationship required to pass knowledge from generation to generation. The leader-follower

relationship is critical as teaching is used for development. One can pass along content or

information with little to no relationship. However, for the next generation to recognize this as a

“wondrous act” of God’s faithfulness, as Smith (1995) describes it, the historical fact needs to be

accompanied by relationship. It is relationship that will give context, passion, and faith to pass

along such wonders.

A teacher offers the student content understood in a particular context. Therefore,

teaching ideally occurs in relationship so the teacher can instruct toward one’s context (Smith,

1995). The proximity of relationship is one of the important components of both modeling and

teaching (Deuteronomy 6:6-9; Smith, 1995). Development-oriented relationships, through

modeling and teaching, transmit content in an effective context for development.

There are a couple distinct characteristics of teaching that are biblical in nature but not

readily found in secular philosophy or theory. These two foundations provide clear distinction

from other viewpoints.

First, the work of the Holy Spirit is a critical reality for any Christian teacher. Paul’s

teaching states that the resources and guidance of the Spirit distinguishes Christianity from any

other religion or moral compass (Elwell & Beitzel, 1988). A Christian “walks by the Spirit,” and

is “led by the Spirit,” (Elwell & Beitzel, 1988; Rom 7:6; 8:4–6, 14; Gal 5:1, 16, 18, 25).

Wilkinson (n.d.) espouses the reliance on the work of the Holy Spirit in the teaching-learning

process. This is a reality that seems obvious for Christian teachers but is often ignored or

misunderstood when preparing to teach.

Second, the interiority of both the teacher and the learner are of greatest importance in a

biblical worldview (Houston, 2006; Luke 11:39; Mark 12:38-44). The teacher can convey strong

influence through personal character and integrity. Palmer (1998) believes, “Identity and

integrity have as much to do with our shadows and limits, our wounds and fears, as with our

strengths and potentials” (p. 13). Palmer is more focused on the subjective truths of interiority of

the teacher and students than objective truths. However, he does not neglect the other teaching

orientations. He states, “Good teachers join self and subject and students in the fabric of life”

(Palmer, 1998, p. 11). Content is not the end in itself or understood in a vacuum but rather

through the lens of relationship. Therefore, the interiority of all involved affects learning.

Empowerment. Another biblical aspect of development-oriented relationships is

empowerment. Jesus recognized the advantage of empowerment when he shared with His

disciples he was leaving but the Holy Spirit would allow them to do greater work (John 16:7).

Paul asserted the need to empower others through equipping them to do the work of ministry

(Ephesians 4:11-16). Just as Paul asserts, churches and individual pastors are responsible to

empower those they serve. To understand empowerment, one must also recognize the use of

power in relationships. Kolimon (2011) understands empowerment in relation to distribution of

power and the injustices that occur from the inequity of the power, causing harm to some and

gain for others. The distribution of power is a concern as the world contracts through technology

and becomes a global society. Kolimon argues, “Tensions between peoples with economic,

political, and cultural power and those who lack it — the powerless — bring our world to greater

danger than ever” (2011, p. 36).

Scripture speaks to the notion of power when God’s power and authority is shared with

His creation. Furthermore, God is the defender of the powerless on many occasions in the Bible

(Job 26:2; Psalm 82:3; Psalm 68:5; Deuteronomy 24:17; Proverbs 22:22-23). The Gospels

depict Jesus addressing the corruption of power in the current culture (Kolimon, 2011; Luke

11:39; Mark 12:38-44). Additionally, Jesus challenged the political climate of His time by

exalting the poor and marginalized, giving them benefits from God’s kingship and making them

citizens of His kingdom (Kolimon, 2011).

Jesus’ ministry empowered the powerless (Luke 5:1-11; Matthew 4:18-22; Mark 1:16-

34). His ministry brought a new status to those marginalized, recognizing their dignity (John

5:12-14; Kolimon, 2011; Luke 6:17; Matthew 9:27; 14:14). God’s kingdom, which Jesus

established, operates from a different set of values than the world presents. Christians, leaders

and followers alike, are obligated to represent His kingdom by following Jesus’ example of

defending and empowering the powerless: “We are called to witness the solidarity of God with

the powerless that aims to empower them in order to become active agents of God’s kingdom”

(Kolimon, 2011, p. 56).

Kasambala (2005) offers a view of empowerment aligned with the mission of God and

realized through the church:

The mission of God (missio Dei) in partnership (koinonia) with the church (missio ecclesiae) for the world (cosmos) should reckon with the notion of empowering for it is through the process of empowering that the church demonstrates the missional attitudes of respect and compassion for the other. (pp. 267-268)

Serving others, individually or corporately among churches, should focus on affirming,

equipping, and accommodating (Kasambala, 2005). In the context Kasambala (2005) writes,

African churches are not served with empowerment. Western churches retain control rather than

equipping planted and established churches toward development. Thus, the western churches are

missing the opportunity, and biblical mission, to serve by empowering through respect and

compassion.

Organizations and the individuals who lead them, who truly desire to serve others, will

empower them through a process. Empowerment is a process of serving that focuses on enabling

followers to contextualize the training to their own needs and fulfill their created potential

(Kasambala, 2005). Additionally, leaders interested in empowering followers will allow

utilization of unique solutions and methodologies, failure, and opportunity to build experience of

their own (Kasambala, 2005).

Developing people at all organizational levels involves empowerment, which is the

opposite of dependence. Followers require room to struggle through problems and decisions. A

leader can teach, mentor, and model for followers but still needs to empower them to succeed.

Thus, the leader will need to allow varied insight and modalities (Kasambala, 2005).

The biblical methods and components of people development, discussed already, offer a

foundation for a further consideration of development contexts. Several relational contexts are

used to develop leaders. The following two sections will consider vertical and then horizontal

development-oriented relationships. These relational contexts are considered in the context of

developing executive level leaders.

Vertical Development-Oriented Relationships

Development-oriented relationships are often characterized by an individual who is older

and/or more experienced developing a younger less experienced person. Within this vertically-

aligned relationship category, there are a few subsets such as mentor, coach, and executive

coach.

Mentor. The basic, and most recognized, vertical development-oriented relationship is

mentoring. The concept has its roots in Homer’s Odyssey (Orland-Barak & Yinon, 2005;

Woodhouse, 1930). Mentoring is typically described as an older person connected to a younger

person and experience developing inexperience (Wilson & Johnson, 2001). A mentor may have

a role as a guide to someone through a more formalized approach as a teacher or an advisor

(Wilson & Johnson, 2001).

Mentoring relationships echo the importance of people development toward personal and

professional potential (Waterman, 2011). A typical mentoring relationship is one in which an

older or more experienced individual gives support, feedback, and coaching to a younger or less

experienced person. Often the result is positive career development and emotional and social

support (Parker et al., 2008).

Leaders in any context may use mentoring as a means of developing their followers.

Mentors provide support during moments of cognitive dissonance or disruption brought about by

new information, experience, or crises (Orland-Barak & Yinon, 2005). The support mentees

receive allows the disruption to be developmental in nature (Wilson & Johnson, 2001).

Moreover, according to some research, mentoring relationships are beneficial to all parties

involved, including the leader or mentor (Wilson & Johnson, 2001).

Wright (2004) indicates, “Mentoring at its heart is self-directed leadership development

that takes seriously the relational nature of leadership” (p. 57). Transformation, as the desired

learning outcome of mentoring, suggests a drastic change for the individual, organization, or

both as a result of the learning and development from the mentor relationship (Brockbank &

McGill, 2006). For actual transformation to occur, a challenge or disruption to the status quo

and assumptions is necessary. According to Brockbank and McGill (2006), “Mentoring or

coaching has one clear purpose, the learning and development of an individual, a process that

involves change” (p. 2). Furthermore, the success in mentoring depends on the initiative of the

mentee, as they must conduct a self-assessment for an area of development need and, with the

help of the mentor, willingly seek development (Wright, 2004).

The roles used in the context of mentoring relationships are extensive and can include

“trusted guide, teacher, sponsor, advisor, host, counselor and supporter, patron, godparent,

protector, promoter, trainer, role-model, talent developer, confidant, trusted colleague,

supervisor, encourager, befriender, champion, and leader-coach” (Wilson & Johnson, 2001, p.

121). Moreover, Wright (2004) suggests five mentor categories or models; gardener, advisor,

manager, coach, or resource. These categories are reflective of the goals of the relationship and,

therefore, the design. Each of these relational designs and goals will shape the nature and

outcomes of the relationship.

According to Brockbank and McGill (2006), the four philosophical approaches to

mentoring include functionalist, engagement, revolutionary, and evolutionary. A functionalist

approach values efficiency and maintaining norms of power structure in the organization,

emphasizes the objective world, desires improved performance, and discourages questioning the

status quo. An engagement approach recognizes the subjective world of the mentee and thus

uses a non-directive approach to maintain norms, similar to functionalist. Revolutionary

mentoring promotes the transformation of society through the radical change of the mentee. The

evolutionary approach to mentoring recognizes the subjective world of the mentee, holds respect

for the goals of the one they are mentoring, and encourages analysis of the status quo through

examination of embedded power structures and assumptions (Brockbank & McGill, 2006).

These four approaches to mentoring are an outworking of philosophical assumptions similar to

learning theories and philosophies.

Mentoring relationships have several specific goals, which they are often effective in

fulfilling. First, they are focused on both personal and professional development of the mentee

(Waterman, 2011). Second, Parker et al. (2008) suggest mentoring seeks to provide social and

emotional support in an isolated and fast-paced society. Third, mentoring is designed for

transformation of the individual and an organization (Brockbank & McGill, 2006).

Organizational leaders value mentoring relationships because the effective relationships

provide opportunity for organizational growth as well as a leadership legacy for the mentor

(Kleinman, 2004). However, Kleinman (2004) lamentingly asserts many leaders are too busy to

engage in these relationships to experience their effectiveness.

Failure to foster mentoring relationships may hinder the development of individuals and

perhaps the development of the organization. The best leaders invest in followers by developing

them through mentoring and coaching relationships as well as other organizational resources

(Longenecker, 2014). Furthermore, the leader’s influence and future legacy is diminished if

constrained to anything less than relational mentoring. Kleinman (2004) mentioned “whom we

develop is our greatest legacy” among the eight leadership lessons he offered as a long-time

business executive (p. 22). He points out busyness as the main cause for a lack of supervision,

nurturing, and mentoring of employees. Kleinman laments this mentoring deficiency because it

hinders the present and future of any organization, including the legacy of the leadership.

Mentoring relationships, as they are intentional and goal-oriented, may provide many

effective outcomes for individuals and organizations; yet, achieving intended goals and

effectiveness largely depends on the mentor (Wilson & Johnson, 2001). Particularly, the

interiority of the mentor is paramount to a successful mentoring relationship. For example, such

biblical character virtues as integrity (Proverbs 11:3; Hebrews 13:18), courage (1 Chronicles

28:20; John 14:27; Joshua 1:9), and care (James 1:27; Psalm 35:10) help the mentor avoid harm

to the mentee (Wilson & Johnson, 2001). The mentoring relationship produces a measure of

vulnerability and, in many organizational contexts, involves one’s superior. Therefore, the

character virtues of the mentor aid in fostering a healthy connection and development (Wilson &

Johnson, 2001). Given the positive character and ethics of the mentor and willingness for

development by the mentee, these relationships will be effective.

Coach. Coaching is another vertical relationship that is valuable for individual

development. Typically mentoring and coaching are widely used terms for relational

development pairings and often used interchangeably (Parker et al., 2008). Mentoring and

coaching may be interchangeable terms, but there are some who distinguish the two, despite their

similarities. Law (2013) uses the metaphor of a journey while distinguishing mentoring from

coaching. Coaching tends to be about improving organizational performance while mentoring

relationships focus more on individual development (Law, 2013). Mentors are trusted guides on

the journey of development and may join the journey with the mentee (Law, 2013).

However, coaching is not necessarily directly or solely for the benefit of the organization.

A leader who seeks to coach followers will benefit both the follower and themselves. Boyatzis,

Smith, and Blaize (2006) offer a unique approach to people development and leadership health.

The authors seek to balance the given stress of leadership with the ethic of people development,

specifically coaching, asserting, “We propose that leaders may better sustain themselves by

balancing the potentially stressful effects of exercising leadership with the ameliorative effects of

coaching the development of others” (p. 8). The performance of leading and its inevitable

“power stress” tends toward chronic stress and occasional acute stress. Over time such stress can

bring about leader “burnout” and physical ailments (p. 10).

Coaching with compassion is an antidote to leader stress and a biblical means to

compassionately develop others (Exodus 33:19; Matthew 9:35-38; Psalm 103:13). Boyatzis et

al. (2006) define coaching with compassion as “helping others in their intentional change process

(i.e., achieving their dreams or aspirations or changing the way they think, feel, and act)” (p. 12).

The authors stress the difference between coaching for the benefit of the organization versus

coaching for the end goal of developing the person (Boyatzis et al., 2006). Coaching with

compassion seeks to serve by development.

Although the modality of coaching is not a fresh concept, coaching with compassion is

suggested to be unique and worthy for leaders. Boyatzis et al. (2006) define the three elements

of compassion as “1) empathy or understanding the feelings of others; (2) caring for the other

person (e.g., affiliative arousal); and (3) willingness to act in response to the person’s feelings”

(p. 13). As the leader coaches others in a compassionate relationship, there is a two-fold result;

the individual’s development is cared for, and they are developed further for the good of the

organization, although the latter is not the primary goal.

Coaching with compassion involves a level of care between the coach and the one being

coached, which requires emotional intelligence. One’s emotional intelligence allows the

possibility for caring relationships (Boyatzis et al., 2006). For such caring relationships to occur,

the leader needs to have the emotional intelligence to recognize the needs of others. Particularly,

leaders’ self-awareness is increased to a healthy level as they interact with those they are

coaching. Many executive level leaders experience a lack of honest feedback or criticism, which

can lead to egocentrism and narcissism (Collins, 2001). The authors suggest, “Coaching with

compassion could result in the leader being more open to others and their ideas. It allows or

invites more self-awareness by moving a person into a relational world in which to get feedback

and have [opportunity to study it]” (Boyatzis et al., 2006, p. 17).

Executive coach. Another emerging literature stream pertinent to a peer-mentoring

model is executive coaching. Contrasting with mentoring or manager coaching, executive

coaching is typically a relationship with no authority attached, formally contracted with an

external individual for a short period of time (Feldman & Lankau, 2005). The success of other

forms of coaching and growing need for leadership development and improved performance of

executives has encouraged the increased use of executive coaching (Kombarakaran et al., 2008).

The literature has distinguished executive coaching from other forms of developmental

relationships with various executive coaching definitions and intended outcomes articulated

(Feldman & Lankau, 2005). One of these definitions indicates, “Executive coaching per se

emerged in the 1990s as an intervention geared specifically to changing the behavior of middle-

and senior-level managers” (Feldman & Lankau, 2005, p. 830).

Feldman (as cited in Feldman & Lankau, 2005) articulates three focal points of executive

coaching to be counseling about work-related issues, beginning with the client’s 360-degree

feedback on strengths and weaknesses, and purposing to improve effectiveness for the client’s

current context. Feldman and Lankau indicate, “The presumed outcomes of executive coaching

are changes in managerial behaviors with presumed increases in organizational effectiveness” (p.

834). Furthermore, Peltier describes five approaches to executive coaching offering varying

focuses:

Psychodynamic approach that focuses on client’s unconscious thoughts and internal psychological states, Behaviorist approach that focuses on client’s observable behaviors, Person-centered approach focusing on client’s self-understanding without direct intervention by coach, Cognitive therapy approach that focuses on client’s conscious thinking, and Systems-oriented approach focused on individual, group, and organizational influences on client’s behavior. (as cited in Feldman & Lankau, 2005, pp. 838-840)

Some qualitative and quantitative studies have been conducted to further define the

parameters and effectiveness of executive coaching. A large multinational corporation

implemented a coaching strategy to help support their executives who were struggling with the

transition of an acquisition (Kombarakaran et al, 2008). The coaching focused on increasing

effectiveness by building on strengths, working on weaknesses, fostering relationship

connections with coworkers, and developing coaching skills for the clients (Kombarakaran et al,

2008). The coaches’ data, after the coaching initiative, highlighted improvements for executives

in communication skills, leadership effectiveness, and changed interaction with coaches as well

as behavioral and personal changes integrated into the executive’s leadership style

(Kombarakaran et al, 2008). Further changes were noticed in “effective people management,

better relationships with managers, improved goal setting and prioritization, increased

engagement and productivity, and more effective dialogue and communication” (Kombarakaran

et al, 2008, p. 83). These findings suggest executive coaching can affect change for the

individual and an organization (Kombarakaran et al, 2008).

Passmore (2010) conducted a grounded theory study to determine the perspective of six

corporate leaders who experienced executive coaching. This study found several general themes,

from the perspective of the coachee, that foster effective executive coaching: coachee

expectations, parameters of the coaching session, attributes of the coach, coach’s behavior, and

intended outcomes (Passmore, 2010).

De Haan, Duckworth, Birch, and Jones (2013) conducted a study focused on executive

coaching outcomes. The study looked for generalizable common factors among 156 executive

clients and 34 coaches. The result of the study suggests a critical importance of the client-

perceived relationship quality between coach and client and the use of a broad range of coaching

techniques while pointing to little significance for personality factors: “Theoretically, these

findings are also significant in that they indicate that the concrete skills, actions, or personalities

of individuals may be less important to outcome than what these individuals create ‘in between’

themselves, that is, the strength of their working alliances” (de Haan et al, 2013, p. 55).

Horizontal Development-Oriented Relationships

Relationships between peers, or horizontal orientation, are also valuable for developing

inexperienced individuals or experienced leaders. The main categories of horizontal

relationships are peer mentoring, peer coaching, and executive development programs.

A basic philosophical shift has occurred, leading to a horizontal approach in mentoring.

Traditional vertical mentoring was hierarchical in philosophy and structure. There was a

recognition of the mentor as the authority, only providing a one-way learning flow (Heikkinen,

Jokinen, & Tynjälä, 2012; Kroll, 2015). There has recently been a shift toward a constructivist

philosophy of mentoring, including dyadic relationships and groups (Heikkinen et al., 2012;

Kroll, 2015; McGowan, Stone, & Kegan, 2007). Constructivist mentoring suggests all involved

are equally learning, developing, and constructing meaning together, thus leading toward social

engagement and change philosophically and a flattened hierarchy and group mentoring in

practice (Brockbank & McGill, 2006; Heikkinen et al., 2012; McGowan et al., 2007). Kroll

(2015) particularly suggests group or peer mentoring is constructivist in philosophy.

However, a biblical worldview asserts absolute truth. Therefore, constructing meaning in

peer relationships for the Christian must eventually arrive at a truth that transcends the

individuals. The process of peer interaction can be constructivist in practice while absolute in

outcome.

Peer mentor. The traditional mentoring concept is less effective in a rapidly changing

society. Various relationships outside of the traditional mentoring dyad such as supervisor,

subordinates, and peers are now found to provide growth through mentoring (Kram & Isabella,

1985). Parker et al. (2008) believe, “The traditional role of an older, wiser person guiding a

younger one has been undermined in an age where experience of the past and accumulated

knowledge no longer guarantee relevance in the future” (p. 489). Thus, peer mentoring has

become popular as peers can identify with the rapid changes and uncertainty of a contemporary

society (Parker et al., 2008). Consequently, peer relationships prove to be more relevant and

readily available than traditional mentoring relationships.

There is recognition of several advantages of peer mentoring over traditional vertical

mentoring. Overarching benefits of peer mentoring include enhanced individual competency,

organizational learning, and reduction of supervisor workload (Eddy et al., 2005). Traditional

mentoring is limited with the number of leaders capable and available for employee development

whereas peer mentoring allows more employees to be developed (Parker et al., 2008).

Additionally, peer relationships contrast with most traditional mentoring relationships as

they provide a reciprocal connection between individuals, thus offering shared expertise,

equality, and empathy (Kram & Isabella, 1985). Therefore, while conventional mentoring

relationships are important in early career stages, peer mentors provide value throughout a career

(Kram & Isabella, 1985). Peers offer a unique connection with someone who is at a similar stage

of development and faces some of the same decisions, challenges, and shared reality (Stanley &

Clinton, 1992). The peer relationships with shared reality can foster open communication,

acceptance, accountability, and empowerment (Stanley & Clinton, 1992).

A few disadvantages of peer mentoring are worth noting. As mentioned previously, peer

mentoring typically holds a constructivist philosophy. However, a biblical worldview suggests

the need for constructivism to only be asserted in the process while arriving at an absolute truth

transcendent of the individuals (2 Timothy 3:16-17; John 14:6; 17:17; Psalm 119:160).

Moreover, through a “knowledge community” a collective “groupthink” may occur (Given &

Kelly, 2016, p. 7). Without someone of greater maturity, wisdom, or diversity of perspective in

the peer context, the groupthink may become a negative influence, narrowing rather than

expanding the peer group’s knowledge base (Given & Kelly, 2016). The development-oriented

dissonance that can occur in traditional mentoring relationships, mentioned in the previous

section, can be diminished, thus diminishing development opportunities (Orland-Barak & Yinon,

2005).

Stanley and Clinton (1992) suggest peer mentoring exists on a continuum of three levels:

acquaintance, friend, and close buddy. These levels are characterized by an increased openness,

trust, and commitment to each other. The acquaintance is an important relationship for

information sharing, with little personal connection, trust, or commitment. The next level of peer

relationship, friend, is characterized by a closer personal relationship, thus the possibility for

more trust, openness, and commitment. The friend peer can provide a greater level of

empowerment. The deepest and most empowering peer relationship is the close buddy,

described as having unrestricted openness, trust, commitment, and accountability (Stanley &

Clinton, 1992). This level of relationship, whether for personal or professional development, is

possible with a specific set of shared values and goals.

Similarly, Kram and Isabella (1985) indicate a continuum of peer relationships in an

organization, ranging from an informational peer to a collegial peer to a special peer. The

informational peer relationship is described by low levels of self-disclosure and trust; the

collegial peer relationship builds on self-disclosure and trust as well as increased emotional

support and feedback; and the special peer relationship is a context with the most emotional

support, feedback, and self-disclosure (Kram & Isabella, 1985). The type of peer relationship

determines how supportive it is with career and psychosocial development.

The basis of peer mentoring success is healthy relational connections, which are needed

even if from other mentoring dyads. Stanley and Clinton (1992) insist, “A growing leader needs

a relational network that embraces mentors, peers, and emerging leaders in order to ensure

development and a healthy perspective on his or her life and ministry” (p. 159). Relational

connections should ideally exist in a constellation of mentoring relationships, which include

mentoring from those more developed, mentoring of emerging leaders, and mentoring between

peers (Stanley & Clinton, 1992).

Peer relationships have been found to enhance development in similar areas to

conventional mentoring relationships while some differences of developmental potential exist.

Specifically, career-enhancement functions include information sharing, career strategizing, and

job-related feedback while psychosocial functions include confirmation, emotional support,

personal feedback, and friendship (Kram & Isabella, 1985). A significant difference between

peer mentoring and conventional mentoring is a sense of mutuality in which both individuals

give and receive the above functions, thus a relationship of deeper meaning and sustainability

can be formed (Kram & Isabella, 1985).

Peer relationships can be formed from relationships inside the immediate organization

where one works (internal) or with those beyond one’s organizational context (external) (Stanley

& Clinton, 1992). Internal peers provide perspective and accountability for one another (Clinton

& Clinton, 1991). The accountability offered is both professional and personal. The role of each

individual can be counselor, coach, and teacher at any time through the peer relationship. These

relationships tend to focus on the relationship more than empowerment in the organization

(Clinton & Clinton, 1991). Similarly, external peer mentoring relationships offer perspective

and accountability as well (Clinton & Clinton, 1991). However, external relationships offer a

varied perspective on why something is done as it is, often giving more useful feedback (Clinton

& Clinton, 1991).

Peer coach. Similar peer relationships can form with the purpose of mutual

development, which are known as peer coaching relationships (Stanley & Clinton, 1992). Peer

coaching can be described as an intentional relationship designed for development, which is

voluntary and mutually beneficial (Parker et al., 2008). Parker et al. (2008) introduced peer

coaching as a new developmental interaction capable of addressing learning needs and as a

relationship that is high impact, just-in-time, self-renewing, low-cost, and easily learned.

Moreover, these coaching relationships can incorporate an equal status, intentional development

of both peers through dialogue and self-directed learning, self-reflection, a focus on process over

content, and needed peer learning for career growth (Parker et al., 2008).

A distinguishing difference between peer coaching and peer mentoring is the initial goals

of both individuals (Stanley & Clinton, 1992). Peer mentoring often involves one individual

intentionally developing the other while peer coaching carries the connotation of mutually

sharing the goal of development. Although there may be a need for multiple peer developers, the

peer coaching relationship can provide many of the same benefits traditional mentoring has

provided.

As with other development-oriented relationships, certain factors contribute to the

success of these relationships toward learning and development. Peer coaching relationships

should include relational ingredients for success such as acceptance of one another, enjoyment of

one another, and transparency (Stanley & Clinton, 1992). Parker et al (2008) provided several

characteristics from their peer coaching study in an academic setting, which help ensure a

positive outcome:

• Peer coaching is more effective to the extent that the peers have participated in the matching process.

• The peer-coaching process is more likely to be effective to the extent that it contains an emotional component.

• Peer-coaching outcomes are more likely to be positive when the relationship has the following qualities: trust, mutual respect, professionalism, and mutual accommodation.

• Positive outcomes are more likely to be reached when both peers are motivated to learn and when both contribute actively and equally to the process.

• People are more motivated to engage in peer coaching independently when they have previously experienced positive learning outcomes from peer coaching, such as professional development. (p. 499)

Individuals and organizations who seek after development can utilize peer coaching to

contribute to such a learning process. Managers are now facing a new challenge of how to

promote learning, growth, and development for themselves and those they supervise (Parker et

al., 2008). Multiple relationships within organizations and outside organizations will foster

successful career learning. Peer coaching may be one of the more effective dyads for

development. Career development depends on factors peer coaching can offer such as increasing

self-reflection, expanding self-awareness, increasing ability to personally assess what is known

and what needs to be known, and situational adaptation of pertinent behavior and attitudes

(Parker et al., 2008). The relational interaction found in peer coaching can help develop self-

awareness, shape or solidify identity, and further competencies (Parker et al., 2008).

Executive development programs (EDPs). In the current global economy, individuals

at all levels of organizations must be developed. However, some believe senior level executive

training is the linchpin to corporate strategy, coordination of effort, crisis management, and

change capacity (Conger & Xin, 2000; Wuestewald, 2016). Therefore, organizations have

focused attention and resources toward developing their executive leaders.

Traditionally, formal education has provided development for leaders. However, such

parameters as time, relevance, and cost have diminished the value of formal degrees, largely

refocusing corporations to find development alternatives (Wuestewald, 2016). Consequently,

executive level leadership development has expanded beyond formal education to include

various informal opportunities within or outside organizations (Raelin, 2000; Wuestewald,

2016).

These informal organizational development efforts led to organized executive

development programs (EDPs). EDPs are typically courses or ongoing cohorts, offered either

within an organization or across organizations, designed to develop current and future executives

(Hura, 2013; Wuestewald, 2016). The progress of non-degree executive development options

began in the 1920s and 1930s when recognition of the limitations of formal education emerged

(Wuestewald, 2016). Some universities began launching EDPs, largely utilizing existing

curriculum from degree programs. The result was timely courses for corporations to take

advantage of, while cost was an inhibitor (Wuestewald, 2016). In an effort to reduce cost and

provide industry-specific development, corporations created in-house EDPs in the latter half of

the twentieth century (Conger & Xin, 2000; Wuestewald, 2016). The digital age and increased

demand on executives for possessing flexibility and multiple competencies allowed widespread

growth in numbers and nature of these programs (Wuestewald, 2016).

As EDPs have increased in usage, their instructional methods have evolved (Conger &

Xin, 2000; Wuestewald, 2016). These programs have begun recognizing the unique needs and

experiences of executives. Therefore, programs have begun to focus on adult learning theory,

recognizing the value of executives’ existing experiences, the unique nature of their context,

their self-motivation, and their ability to self-direct their learning (Knowles, 1970; Knowles,

1975; Raelin, 2000; Wuestewald, 2016). Without losing the cognitive elements typically used,

executive training now incorporates learning strategies such as experiential learning and self-

directed learning (Merriam et al., 2007; Wuestewald, 2016).

Several experiential learning concepts have been engaged within EDPs. Executives have

been trained through such experiential learning concepts as problem solving, action learning,

reflective learning, team-based learning, and learning communities (Conger & Xin, 2000;

Wuestewald, 2016). Of these learning approaches, problem-based learning is the most widely

used for executive development (Wuestewald, 2016). Problem-based learning engages

experiential learning theory, suggesting adult learning starts with experiences and is enhanced by

a learner’s context (Brown, Garnjost, & Heilmann, 2011; Jarvis, 1987).

The latter half of the twentieth century saw a shift toward learner and company centric

approaches, thus forming cohorts to shape strategy, vision, and shared mental models

(Wuestewald, 2016). Thus, EDPs are innovating to accommodate the learner-centered, real-

time, and relevancy needs of today’s economy (Conger & Xin, 2000). The result of a survey of

EDP leaders conducted by Conger and Xin (2000) suggested EDPs have shifted from solely

focusing on cognitive growth toward fostering organization level change and strategic

leadership. The survey also suggested a shift toward cohorts of executive leaders for the purpose

of increased buy-in among the team as compared to only a select individual from the executive

team engaging in training (Conger & Xin, 2000).

The state of mentoring in the 21st Century. Leadership and mentoring are merging in

this century. “Leaders can model and create a developmental culture that promotes mentoring

relationships, and mentoring can build leadership capability within individuals and within the

organizational context,” according to Ragins and Kram (2007, p. 679). Leaders and mentors

overlap by functions and outcomes such as the form of the relationship (dyadic or group), the

relationship type (formal or informal), the relationship’s goal (individual or organizational

development), and the context in which the relationship exists (within or outside an organization)

(Ragins & Kram, 2007; Stanley & Clinton, 1992).

Ragins and Kram (2007) suggest several emerging mentoring models are shaping the

current state of mentoring and the future. Mentoring paradigms include developmental

networks, dyadic and reciprocal relationships, continuum of equality, and mentoring episodes

(Ragins & Kram, 2007). Developmental networks, which articulate multiple relationships

leading to development such as peer mentoring cohorts and dyadic connections, are an evolved

understanding of constellations of relationships espoused by Kram and Isabella (1985) and

Stanley and Clinton (1992). Leveraging social network theory, the understanding of

developmental networks suggests the provision of relationships bring emotional closeness and

diverse feedback (Ragins & Kram, 2007). Dyadic reciprocal relationships also offer continued

development with an understanding that not all these relationships are equal in quality and

outcome (Parker et al., 2008; Ragins & Kram, 2007). Furthermore, mentoring episodes are

understood to be individual connection points (dyadic or group) that foster growth, leading to an

articulated developmental, or extended mentoring, relationship (Ragins & Kram, 2007). Each of

these paradigms represent potential future research (Ragins & Kram, 2007).

This study begins to address a gap in peer mentoring research, specifically focusing on

peer mentoring cohorts and their influence on developing executive level leaders. The next

section on adult learning provides further understanding of existing research that informs the

study on developing executive level leaders in peer mentoring cohorts.

Adult Learning

In consideration of the scope of this research, learning, particularly pertaining to adults, is

an important literature stream to review. The context of peer mentoring cohorts is designed for

executive level leaders to learn; thus, this literature review will show theories, models, and

contexts focused on effective adult learning.

Therefore, this literature stream gives further basis for the second research question,

“how do participating leaders describe the value of their peer mentoring cohort relationships for

enhancing their competencies pertinent to their particular leadership context?” and the third

research question, “what perceived influence do these peer mentoring cohort relationships have

on the participating leaders’ developing understanding of their personal mission?”

Biblical and Theological Overview

It is helpful to first look at the subject of learning from a biblical viewpoint. A biblical

perspective is not only found in explicitly spiritual matters but all matters of truth and life

(Pearcey, 2004). Abraham Kuyper’s (1998) well-known quote articulates this truth well: “There

is not a square inch in the whole domain of our human existence over which Christ, who is

sovereign over all, does not cry: ‘Mine!” (p. 488).

For a learning context to be consistent with its worldview, it must align with the major

philosophical categories of metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology (Knight, 2006).

Epistemology comes from one’s understanding of truth seeking. In the case of a Christian view,

truth is found in special revelation (Christ and the canon of Scripture) and general revelation (all

other truth revealed to creation). In this epistemological view, “all truth is God’s truth”

(Gaebelein, 1954; Holmes, 1977). Axiology then comes from the truth discovered in special and

general revelation.

Further illustrating a Christian perspective of knowledge acquisition and transformation,

Eckel (2008) looks to Solomon’s experience. The book of Ecclesiastes offers a perspective on

Solomon’s knowledge and transformation narrative: “Solomon’s lived life sets the standard for

thoughtful, individual, transformational process” (Eckel, 2008, Life Experience: Individuation as

Transformation). Solomon expresses the development of his interiority through life, as life

experiences became application, or wisdom, toward a metaphysical transformation (Eckel,

2008). Eckel (2008) asserts the connections between current adult learning theories and such

transformative aspects for Solomon such as phenomenology, assumption to application,

reflection, and application.

The following section will address the metaphysical reality found biblically in a

metanarrative. The framework that will be used is the biblical metanarrative of creation, fall,

redemption, and restoration. This overview will reveal biblical epistemology, axiology, and

ethical practices on learning that do not fully align with the prevailing humanistic teaching and

learning approach.

Creation. The biblical truth of creation, found in the book of Genesis, implies several

realties including the value of people, their relational quality, and their ability to learn and

develop. God made man in His image, suggesting value, dominion, and growth potential

(Genesis 1:26-27; Isaiah 49:5). Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown (1997) elaborate, “God said, let

us make man— are words which show the peculiar importance of the work to be done, the

formation of a creature, who was to be God’s representative, clothed with authority and rule as

visible head and monarch of the world.”

Many of the attributes of our Creator can be realized in each human. Puffer (2007)

indicates, “The Creator fashioned all persons to possess and exhibit God's communicable

attributes such as love, mercy, compassion, forgiveness, truthfulness, and kindness” (p. 48). One

might also ascertain that humans have a measure of cognitive and creative capacity as a result of

being made in God’s image.

Consequently, the worth of the individual is based on being an image bearer for God’s

delight. The verb “created” in Psalm 139:13 means “to acquire a possession”—i.e. purchase

(Carson, France, Motyer, & Wenham, 1994). In 1 Corinthians 6:20, “Paul does not state the

price as Peter does in I Peter 1:19 (the blood of Christ) and as Jesus does in Matthew 20:28 (his

life a ransom). The Corinthians understood his meaning” (Robertson, 1997). Such scriptures as

Psalm 139:13 and 1 Corinthians 6:20 help build the notion of one’s high value. With such value

and communicable attributes that give God delight, people are both capable of learning and

worth investing in toward further learning.

Fall. Humans bear God’s image, yet that image is marred by sin (Genesis 3; Romans

3:23; Romans 6). Understanding the value and capabilities of humans provides only a partial

framework for learning. One must also recognize the pervasive impact of sin on the individual.

According to Kiedis (2009), “This understanding of the height of human creation and the depth

of human depravity drives implications about learners and learning.” The capacity of humans

who are made in the Creator’s image coupled with the reality that sin has distorted the original

created intent implies a need for continued development and the ability to develop cognitively,

emotionally, physically, and spiritually. Kiedis (2009) suggests the need for careful intentional

instruction and discipline for people to achieve depths of learning (Proverbs 1:1-9, 22;

Deuteronomy 6:4-7; 30:11-15; Psalm 78:5-6; Titus 1:5).

Furthermore, understanding that people are made in God’s image, thus relational,

suggests learning is best achieved in connection with others (1 Corinthians 12:4-6; 2 Corinthians

13:14; John 17:5, 24; Genesis 1:1-2; John 1:1-4; Matthew 28:19). Relational interaction in

learning is portrayed biblically in instances such as Jesus’ engagement with Nicodemus and the

Samaritan woman (Gangel, 1970). Thus, various learning environments articulated in this

literature review such as mentoring, coaching, cohorts, and teams are all effective contexts for

learning. These relational environments provide shared experience and accountability necessary

for the transformation of learning (Gangel, 1970). Accountability is necessary because of the

tendency for selfish gain and distraction from the ideal.

Leaders and teachers of these learning contexts cannot afford to be naïve to the pitfalls of

learning. The same individuals who are image bearers of their creator, with all the diversity that

brings, are also sinful in nature. In Romans 3:23, “Have sinned is constative aorist, presenting a

panoramic view of the human race as doing nothing except committing sin” (Wuest, 1997).

People have a legal status of sin in which they are declared guilty in God’s court of justice; thus,

all people are sinners. The legal status of sin is followed by the practice of sin. Therefore, sin

must be understood and addressed in any relational learning context.

Leading learning contexts requires understanding the relational outcomes of sin.

Confession, accountability, and communication will need to be a part of a healthy learning

environment. As Gangel (1997) points out, “Leadership requires accountability” (p. 47).

MacMillan (2001) understands the importance, specifically in team dynamics, of building and

maintaining trusting relationships. The practice of good communication skills is also important

in a group of sinful people. Herrington, Bonem, and Furr (2000) espouse three practices: “the

use of ‘I’ language to be less threatening, clarify what others meant before disagreeing, and keep

an even tone in [their] voice to avoid the perception of anger” (p. 136). Clarifying the rules of

the learning community will go far in diffusing the effects of sin. The leader is responsible to set

the appropriate ground rules. MacMillan (2001) affirms, “Effective teams develop high trust

levels and communication processes among team members. Defense mechanisms are left behind

in the pursuit of the most creative and productive courses of action” (p. 166).

Redemption. Creation and the fall are still not the whole biblical picture for learning.

The resurrection of Christ has offered renewed possibility and hope for humanity (Isaiah 44:22;

Colossians 1:20-22; Ephesians 1:7; 2 Corinthians 5:17). Learning communities can provide a

vehicle for redemptive work. The mere ability for people to be developed suggests a redemptive

influence. Redemptive work and the possibility for development is best understood through

community (Gangel, 1970; Spears & Loomis, 2009).

The need for establishing community because of the results of sin and the capability for

redemptive change further suggests the value of a learning community and people development.

God’s church is to display unity as spiritual maturity is realized: “The church is constituted as a

community of the reconciliation of all things in Christ, and as the bringing together of the two

'realms' - Jews and Gentiles, formerly in hostility - as one new body in Christ, one heavenly

eschatological temple (Ephesians 1-2)” (Turner, 2005, p. 228). When unity in faith and

knowledge occurs, there is spiritual maturity, as mentioned in Ephesians 4:11-16. This unity is

only possible if “the new man created in Christ is fundamentally restructured away from a

personhood of 'self'-centeredness, 'closedness' and alienation, towards one of reconciliation, and

a new 'openness' of self-giving love to the neighbor” (Turner, 2005, p. 228). The redemptive

work of Christ makes change possible in the context of relationships.

Restoration. The restorative framework of Scripture suggests further capability for

transformation, development, and learning. Restoration is a biblical theme made possible

through redemption found in Christ and further sets the context for learning, development, and

transformation. A biblical understanding of restoration is connected to an eschatological view

that earthly history has an end point that restoration points toward (Knight, 2006; Spears &

Loomis, 2009). Conversely, most teleological views do not consider the need for spiritual

redemption for learning and development toward restoration (Spears & Loomis, 2009).

Biblical restoration is defined as “the returning of something or someone to their original

state. Through the redeeming work of Jesus Christ, both humanity and creation will eventually

be restored” (Manser, 2009; entry 9165). People were restored, through the ministry of Jesus, by

means of health, life, sight, and hearing (Manser, 2009). A Christian is restored as they “walk

by the Spirit,” and are “led by the Spirit” (Rom 7:6; 8:4–6, 14; Gal 5:1, 16, 18, 25). Other

aspects of biblical restoration are found in creation and the restoration of Israel (Manser, 2009).

Restoration is understood to be a process that is not yet fulfilled in its entirety and

suggests a restoring of creation to a pre-fallen state (Morris, 1996). Since the fall, God has

purposefully moved his creation toward restoration (Romans 8:22; Spears & Loomis, 2009).

However, adults who have learned and developed through a maturation process are never fully

restored to their original pre-fall intent; thus, continual learning remains a necessity (Gangel,

1970). The development of people implies a restorative state but does not fully realize or

encompass biblical restoration. However, considering the biblical themes of creation, fall,

redemption, and restoration together, there is evidence to suggest a strong value for

transformation, development, and learning in relational community.

Life-long Learning

Adult learning has biblical roots, as shown previously. Further development came

through educators like John Amos Comenius. Comenius, the Bishop of the Moravian church in

the seventeenth century, advocated for accessible public education that connected to all aspects

of life (Lukaš & Munjiza, 2014). Extensive research continued in the twentieth century. Since

the 1990s, adult learning has become an important educational, economic, and public policy

focus (Beblavy et al., 2014). The results of a study by Beblavy et al. (2014) indicate adults tend

to learn throughout their lives, not just in early adulthood. Furthermore, adults learn in various

forms, both through formal education and informal contexts such as life-embedded activities and

self-directed learning (Beblavy et al., 2014; Merriam et al., 2007). If adults are made aware of

the various contexts and ways they have learned, they may be more inclined to take on new

learning endeavors (Merriam et al., 2007).

The needs of a given society determine the extent to which adult learning is valued and

implemented. For example, the minimal changes of a preindustrial society allowed youth to

learn most of what they needed for adulthood and a lifelong career. In contrast, the rapid

changes in social realities and career shifts of the current culture elevate the need for lifelong

learning (Merriam et al., 2007). Changing societal factors enhancing the need for life-long

learning include an increasingly aging population, globalization, and technology (Merriam et al.,

2007).

Establishing life-long learning is understood to be helpful for individuals, organizations,

and entire nations (Beblavy et al., 2014; Maehl, 2000). The Europe 2020 strategy has targeted

lifelong learning as a vital goal for Europe’s future, citing the increase of employee skill levels as

critical to boosting innovation, growth, and employment (Beblavy et al., 2014). By contrast, in

the United States, lifelong learning is more a principle than an organized formal system (Maehl,

2000). Maehl (2000) summarizes a report by the Commission for a Nation of Lifelong Learners

(1997) as five recommendations: “acknowledge the link between lifelong learning and global

economic success, establish equity of access, incorporate new technologies in lifelong learning,

rethink and reorganize educational delivery, and make resource commitments commensurate

with lifelong learning's importance” (p. 7). Therefore, the resourcing and promotion of life-long

learning is critical to establishing the practice culturally.

Adult Learning Theory

Philosophical foundations. Several philosophical foundations, beyond the biblical

assumptions presented previously, inform an educational philosophy aligned with teaching and

learning of adults. In particular, idealism and humanism help shape a philosophy for teaching

adults.

Idealism describes reality as absolute truths from a divine source (Hiemstra, 1988;

Knight, 2006). However, many who ascribe to idealism in education are not necessarily doing so

from a biblical worldview. Yet, the recognition of absolute truth is the proper starting point for

Christians (2 Timothy 3:16-17; John 14:6; 17:17; Psalm 119:160). These absolutes need to be

conveyed to the learner so they can understand the world around them.

Humanism, another philosophy not fully aligned with a biblical worldview, provides a

measure of parallel for the Christian striving to foster adult learning. The humanist recognizes

the capabilities of people in learning, creating, and problem solving (Hiemstra, 1988; Knight,

2006). Similarly, a biblical view suggests humans, made in the image of God, are capable of

intellectual achievement, which the teacher can aid in facilitating (Genesis 1). Furthermore, both

philosophical perspectives desire both individual transformation and societal reform, which has

some consistency with a biblical worldview (Hiemstra, 1988; Knight, 2006).

Andragogy. Andragogy, one of the critical components of adult learning theory, is the

study of how adult students learn best (Knowles, 1970). This theory identifies how to involve

adults in the learning process “to free them from the oppression of pedagogy” (McGrath, 2009,

p. 101). It might be considered less of a theory and more a practical summation of what should

occur in an adult classroom (Merriam et al., 2007). However, the lack of cohesion and

predictability of an advanced theory has fostered critique of andragogy (Merriam et al., 2007).

Andragogy, how adults learn, and pedagogy, how young students learn, are understood to

not be competing but rather on a continuum, andragogy as student-directed learning and

pedagogy as teacher-directed learning (McGrath, 2009). For example, some students, no matter

their age, will tend to need more of one style of instruction, and some subjects are taught best as

teacher-directed with little student-driven knowledge (Merriam, 2001). In contrast, most adult

learners are capable and prefer student-directed learning environments.

There are several distinguishing points of andragogy (Knowles, 1970). First, adults need

to know why they should learn particular content so they can contextualize the content

(Knowles, 1970; Merriam, 2001). Second, it is important to allow adults to bring their

experience into the classroom, which enriches the learning environment and motivates the

learner (Knowles, 1970; Merriam, 2001). Third, adults are typically motivated students, often

intrinsically motivated as well as extrinsically motivated for career pragmatism (Knowles, 1970;

Merriam, 2001). Teachers of adults can take advantage of such motivation and design the class

for learning activities that take students beyond learning content toward higher levels of learning

such as applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Bloom & Krathwohl, 1956). Finally, adult

students need a safe environment (Knowles, 1970; Merriam, 2001). Given the nature of dialogue

and sharing of ideas, adults with lower self-esteem need to know they can share without negative

response.

A philosophical critique of andragogy is worth expressing. Fundamentally, andragogy

holds to humanistic assumptions of adult learners, which assume adults are autonomous, free,

and desirous of further development (Merriam et al., 2007). Moreover, with a severe attention

on the individual adult learner, andragogy neglects sociocultural influences on the learning

process (Merriam et al., 2007). Specifically, cultural influences can determine learner

expectations, motivations, and interactive norms, thus discrediting the generalized assumptions

andragogy asserts (Merriam et al., 2007).

Practicing the assumptions of andragogy will offer a distinct learning environment. In

this environment, the instructor is a guide for the students to learn for their context rather than

managing content delivery, as in pedagogy (Honeycutt, 2014). Open dialogue-generating

questions are used heavily to bring out previous knowledge from the experience of adult students

(Vella, 2001). Furthermore, cohort programs are often used in andragogy because adults desire

to identify with a group to enhance their learning (Basom et al., 1995).

The role of a teacher is significant for adults. When the focus is on learning not teaching,

the teacher role must change (Barkley, 2010; Vella, 2001). Additionally, the role of the student

must change from passively hearing content to actively processing content to learn (Barkley,

2010; Vella, 2001).

Andragogy is an adult learning theory that is ultimately derived from a biblical

worldview. There is an established value of all learners in the community, like a biblical value

for individuals (1 Corinthians 6:20; Genesis 1:26-27; Isaiah 49:5; Psalm 139:13; Puffer, 2007).

The experiences, insights, wisdom, and skills of each learner are expected and respected.

Therefore, teachers using this theory will willingly or unknowingly espouse the biblical truth of

Imago Dei (Colossians 3:10; Genesis 1:26-27; 5:1-2; 9:6; James 3:9; Psalm 17:15).

Furthermore, cohort-learning communities are designed to create relationships and community,

which is another biblical construct as a Trinitarian theology (2 Corinthians 13:14; Gangel, 1970;

John 1:14; Matthew 3:16-17; Spears & Loomis, 2009).

Self-directed learning. Self-directed learning is another approach critical in adult

learning theory. Self-directed learning is less of a classroom theory and more a learning design

for an individual’s learning development. It offers a way for adults to intentionally learn, which

mirrors adult life. Self-directed learning is advantageous because it is widespread among adults,

occurs as part of an adult’s everyday life, is systematic and not dependent on an instructor or

classroom, and relates learning needs to changing social roles (Tough, 1967, 1971; Merriam,

2001).

Knowles (1980) asserts the following steps in describing the method of self-directed

learning: capitalize on student initiative, diagnose needs, formulate goals, identify resources

needed, choose and implement strategies, and evaluate learning outcomes (Knowles, 1980).

Furthermore, research by Boud and Bridge (1974) discovered five learner controls in self-

directed learning. A most convenient place for the learning goals, the best pace or time and

amount of work, a choice of what to study, a method most useful for the learner, and particular

content one wants to learn (Boud & Bridge, 1974). These five elements were found to be critical

elements to successful self-directed learning.

A staged model of self-directed learning suggests a situational approach (Grow, 1991).

Similar to stages in Situational Leadership Theory, self-directed learning is best used at a certain

development level of the learner (Hershey & Blanchard, 2001). Learners may be dependent and

need a coach, interested and need a guide, involved and need a facilitator, or self-directed and

simply need a delegator (Grow, 1991).

The approach to self-directed learning depends on metacognition (Ambrose, Bridges,

DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010). Metacognition is defined as one reflecting on and directing

one’s own thinking (National Research Council, 2001). With metacognition, a student monitors

and controls learning cyclically (Zimmerman, 2001). Because monitoring and controlling

mutually affect each other, the metacognition process is often cyclical. The process for

metacognition begins with assessing the task (Ambrose et al, 2010). Students learn how to

assess, practice planning, and seek feedback (Zimmerman, 2000). Further steps in the

metacognition process include evaluation of one’s own knowledge, skills, strengths and

weaknesses; planning an approach for the particular context; applying strategies and monitoring

them; and finally, reflecting, evaluating, adjusting, and restarting the cycle, if needed (Ambrose

et al, 2010).

Knowles (1975) and Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (2011) suggest several values of

self-directed learning for adults. Most adults develop capacity for self-direction. Expert

instructors are valuable for learning, but experiences for an adult may be similarly important.

Adults are interested in problem-solving and task completion, both offered in self-directed

learning. Adults tend to be intrinsically motivated so they are capable of directing their own

learning, and perhaps would rather do so.

However, not all adults are capable of excelling by directing their own learning. There

are a few personal characteristics lending to the capability to learn well in a self-directed learning

approach. Adults need a measure of autonomy, socialization skills (related to emotional

intelligence), and self-esteem to be able to direct themselves well in a learning process (Knowles,

1975; Knowles et al., 2011).

Learner-centered education. In fostering learning with adults, learner-centered

education is espoused (Barkley, 2010; McKeachie, 2011; Vella, 2001). Learner-centered

education provides an active involvement for the learner, including them in the process of

learning. Furthermore, there is agreement that merely “telling” content to students does not

equate to learning (Barkley, 2010; McKeachie, 2011; Vella, 2001).

Vella (2001) and Barkley (2010) suggest targeted learning outcomes or goals. Barkley

(2010) believes goals should be clear up-front, measurable, and convergent with the learning

activities. Similarly, Vella (2001) advocates for accountability in teaching by assessing learning,

transfer, and impact.

In addition, transfer is espoused as a necessary element for teachers to foster in learning

(Barkley, 2010; Vella, 2001). Transfer is defined as “using learning: concepts, skills, and

attitudes, in another setting, at work or at home” (Vella, 2001, p. 36). Barkley (2010) articulates

two types of transfer, “positive-versus-negative” transfer and “near-versus-far” transfer (pp. 19-

20). McKeachie (2011) does not specifically reference transfer but does suggest the learner

needs to do something with information other than simply hear it in order to retain it for long-

term memory.

Comparable to action learning articulated later in this chapter, active learning is another

element of learner-centered education. Vella (2001) recommends inductive learning through

learning tasks. Similarly, Barkley (2010) espouses “activat[ing] prior learning” and suggests

input learning tasks by stating, “Learning strategies are best incorporated into content-based

learning activities” (p. 98). McKeachie gives several good examples of active learning tools that

could be considered learning tasks. Several group-learning tools are seen as valuable for adults,

such as peer learning, learning pairs, and syndicate learning (McKeachie, 2011). Furthermore,

McKeachie (2011) frequently emphasizes learner-initiated activities such as peer tutoring,

learning cells, or dyads.

Additional adult learning theories. McClusky’s Theory of Margin has found

importance in adult learning. Foundational assumptions of the theory include adulthood as a

time of growth, change, and a balance of energy (Merriam et al., 2007). Adult learner balance is

described as the “load” of life, which requires energy and “power” of life, which gives the ability

to handle the “load” (Merriam et al., 2007). For adults to participate in a learning process they

must possess some measure of “power” to apply to the learning “load” (McClusky, 1970).

McClusky (1970) asserted the use of his theory in articulating changes in adult development. As

adults age and progress through their life cycle, their load and power are continually adjusting

(McCluskey, 1970).

Illeris’ Three Dimensions of Learning Model also offers a helpful look at adult learning

from a learning process perspective. Illeris (2002) developed a model focused on the learning

process. His model consists of three dimensions of learning: cognition, emotion, and

environment (Illeris, 2002; Merriam et al., 2007). All three aspects of learning posited by Illeris

(2002) occur within a societal context, which heavily shapes learning (Merriam et al., 2007).

Learning in Illeris’ Three Dimensions of Learning Model is stimulated by one of five

factors (Merriam et al., 2007). Learning begins with perception (through impression of senses),

transmission (information or perception from another), prior experience of the learner, imitation

of another, or a goal-directed activity (Illeris, 2002).

Additionally, Jarvis’s Learning Process asserts the value of experience in adult learning.

Jarvis (1987) presents an adult learning model focused on the experiences of adults. Experiences

adults learn from are not those of routine but rather those considered new or different to them

(Jarvis, 1987). These experiences offer the context for learning by causing adults to think, do,

and feel differently (Jarvis, 1987; Jarvis, 2006; Merriam et al., 2007).

Jarvis (1987) suggests disjuncture is the point a new experience arises in which an adult

does not know how to respond from previous knowledge or experience. Previous experience,

understood through our senses, begins the learning process; therefore, points of disjuncture,

again with the senses, create learning as the inability to instinctually respond causes a learning

moment (Jarvis, 1987; Jarvis, 2004; Jarvis, 2006; Merriam et al., 2007). When new information

or experiences are explained and experienced, they will become more familiar and integrated

into the individual’s life understanding. Jarvis (2006) contends, “The significant thing is that the

original sensations have been transformed into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, and

so on” (p. 14).

Adult Learning Models

Peer learning. Peer relationships such as mentoring or coaching, according to Law

(2013), must be grounded in the psychology of learning. Learning can take place through

mentoring relationships, but it is not a given. The mentor and mentee must be actively engaged

in a learning process for successful learning to occur. Law (2013) suggests questions to be asked

in this process:

• What is the ‘right condition’ for learning? • What condition could lead to an ‘Ah ha!’ experience? • How do coaching and mentoring sessions provide the condition for learning? • What factors does this condition consist of – for example, what assumptions,

beliefs, ideas and values – and how do we establish them? (p. 27) The mentoring process is a learning process. Law further suggests, “To learn, one must

embrace (internalize) a new set of values, attitudes, skills or knowledge that one did not have

before” (2013, p. 28). Learning can be hindered by a negative feedback loop from past learning

experiences or enhanced by a positive feedback loop from constructive learning experiences in

the past (Law, 2013). Additionally, learners are affected positively if their environment is safe,

supportive, and caring (Law, 2013). Western assumptions of a goal-setting and feedback-based

learning process are finding research challenges (Law, 2013). There is an emergence of informal

and unstructured learning, focusing less on guided outcome and more on developing a learning

environment through relationships (Law, 2013). Furthermore, intrinsic and extrinsic motivators

help foster learning and development.

Law’s (2013) learning wheel comprises four stages of learning: concrete experience,

reflection, abstract conception, and action. This learning process is an extension of Kolb (1984)

and aligns with Zull (2002). In this process, experience, reflection, and meaning become the key

elements for learning (Law, 2013). Concrete experience with the support and guidance of a

mentor will allow a backdrop for development. The mentor and mentee must then enter a

reflective component of the process to consider the experience and its implications in context.

Finally, once reflective learning has occurred, with various assumptions altered, action can be

taken to confirm development. A review of learning theory in relation to mentoring brings the

conclusion that the process of learning is developmental with the relationship of mentor and

mentee being critical in the transformation desired for development (Law, 2013).

Specifically, mentoring is related to development by fostering psychological (cognitive

and emotional) development through developing emotional intelligence, social development, and

professional or career development (Law, 2013). Mentoring can help leaders and managers

within organizations develop multiple competencies. Mentoring can develop improved

leadership style, effective learning, awareness of self and others, higher levels of professional

competence, effectiveness in job performance, communication and management skills, and the

ability to create and manage high-performance teams (Law, 2013).

Continuous learning. Research on authentic leadership and empowerment have led to

the notion of continuous learning (Frick, Polizzi, & Frick, 2009). Tannenbaum (1997) defines

continuous learning as the process by which individuals and organizations persistently learn in a

conducive environment. A helpful taxonomy of nine key factors contributing to the development

of a continuous learning environment was articulated by Tannenbaum (1997). The nine factors

of continuous learning, articulated and used in a subsequent study by Eddy et al. (2005), are the

following: openness, opportunities to learn, co-worker support, high performance expectations,

supervisor support, tolerating mistakes, situational constraints, assigns to avoid errors, and big

picture awareness.

The education sector in particular has largely embraced a continuous learning ethic,

citing the moral and practical need to foster a learning community for administration and

teachers as well as the need to develop schools as learning organizations (Frick et al., 2009;

Starratt, 2004). Schools that have adopted a continuous learning ethic hold to the assumption

that all administrators and teachers are capable of learning and achieving high standards of

performance, thus aligning with adult learning theory (Frick et al., 2009).

Moreover, ongoing learning and development efforts are understood to be moral

obligations for performance in educational contexts. The need for continual learning,

particularly in education, is connected to ethical leadership and is, therefore, moral in character

(Starratt, 2004). Frick et al. (2009) contend, “Continuous professional development is leverage

for learning, and if not aggressively pursued, carries moral culpability” (p. 9).

Frick et al. (2009) conducted a study with the assumption that educators can be

continuous learners not merely students. The study examined three Pennsylvania school districts

that were seeking to assert a continuous learning ethic toward their professional development

efforts. Frick et al. found mixed results in implementing a continuous learning ethic in each

school district studied. Some of the districts found success in establishing continuous learning.

However, as continuous learning has a moral foundation, it is hard to achieve in a few years’

time. A particular outcome in one district highlights the challenge: “Along with the training, the

administration agreed that a system of peer coaching would need to be put in place so that the

knowledge gleaned from the training could be sustained” (Frick et al., 2009, p. 20).

Relational collaboration found in peer mentoring is one method to enhance the benefits of

continual learning in any context. Eddy et al. (2005) indicate, “There are many potential benefits

for individuals who engage in continuous learning with others, including improved performance,

increased value to the employer, more career flexibility, higher self-esteem, and greater

creativity” (p. 384). Moreover, an organization as a whole can "learn" through the continual and

collective learning of individuals in the organization (Eddy et al., 2005).

Continuous learning environments fostered in organizations provide for successful

mentoring. In such an environment employees are encouraged to participate actively in their

learning through engagement with peers (Eddy et al., 2005). An organization can create a

culture of learning through a system that rewards open communication, managerial support for

peer relationships, and a comfortable working environment (Eddy et al., 2005). Eddy et al.

(2005) propose, “A strong continuous learning environment leads to demonstration of peer

mentoring behaviors (i.e., these behaviors are supported), which leads to individual learning,

which ultimately facilitates the continuous learning process. This circular process can benefit

both individuals and organizations” (p. 388).

Reflective learning. Reflective learning through mentoring, based in humanistic values,

can foster improvement and transformation. Change that seeks only improvement of existing

practices is considered learning for improvement and is rational, controlled, and provides fixed

outcomes (Brockbank & McGill, 2006). However, the larger goal of development is for

transformation rather than merely improved practices. Brockbank & McGill (2006) assert, “In

order to achieve transformation, there needs to be a learning process that addresses the subjective

world of the individual, challenges the status quo (which maintain the power horizon) and

thereby problematizes the dominant framework, rather than the individuals within it” (p. 17).

Reflective learning for transformation brings the possibility to challenge paradigms, thus

transforming organizations and social constructs (Brockbank & McGill, 2006). The values

expressed in reflective learning include the belief that people desire to develop, need holistic

development not merely job improvement, are capable of relating with good will, and have a

spiritual dimension (Brockbank & McGill, 2006).

The three types of reflection for improvement and transformation are instrumental,

consensual, and critical (Kemmis, 1985). Instrumental is focused on achieving goals or solving

problems to improve. Consensual reflection attempts to question the end result and the means of

achieving it. Critical reflection seeks to challenge assumptions (Kemmis, 1985).

Work-based and action learning. Peer mentoring may have some relationship to the

roles of work-based learning, action learning, and action learning conversations (Cunningham,

Bennett, & Dawes, 2004; Gray, 2001; McCauley, Derue, & Yost, 2013; O'Neil & Marsick,

2009). There is a parallel with work-based or action learning groups and peer mentoring groups.

Therefore, one might consider work-based learning, action learning, and action learning

conversations to be a subset or form of peer mentoring. O'Neil and Marsick (2009) assert peer

mentoring can provide development in the area of problem-solving and active learning.

Work-based learning suggests a type of learning that is dependent on context

(Cunningham et al., 2004; McCauley et al., 2013). Specifically, work-based learning is

considered the learning opportunity and process within the context of a particular formal or

informal work activity (Cunningham et al., 2004; McCauley et al., 2013). This learning is

understood through an epistemological view that understands knowledge to be a collective

activity, placing the responsibility of learning on all (Raelin, 1997). Some consider work-based

learning to be separate from formal education (Cunningham et al., 2004) while others understand

this learning to take place within a student’s program of study in formal partnership between

educational institutions and organizations (Boud & Solomon, 2001).

In fostering a work-based model, Raelin (1997) furthered the learning model espoused by

Kolb (1984). Kolb’s experiential learning model was designed to produce insight into various

practical learning styles while Raelin articulated a model conceptualizing processes necessary for

individuals to learn effectively in their work context. The individual must experiment,

experience, reflect, and conceptualize, all with tacit and explicit knowledge as well as learning in

theory and practice (Raelin, 1997). Furthermore, work-based learning occurs on the collective

level. Four types of collective learning, action learning, community of practice, action science,

and applied science, occur on the same matrix of knowledge and learning as the individual

matrix (Raelin, 1997).

Summarizing research on learning pertaining to work, Cunningham et al. (2004) asserted

a maximum of ten to twenty percent of work effectiveness comes from an individual’s training

or education, thus rendering work-based learning critical. Cunningham et al. (2004), citing the

need for organizational culture to promote learning, articulated eleven criteria for organizations

to foster work-based learning:

organization-wide commitment, top management giving demonstrable support, linked to strategic direction and cultural change, large scale development, development of organizational capability, multi-functional development, long term not quick fix, cascading down the organization, part of the organization’s competitive advantage, visibility, and integrating strategy and tactics. (pp. 28-29) Action learning. Reg Revans largely initiated the concept of action learning

(Cunningham et al., 2004; Gray, 2001). His understanding of learning was largely informal and

averse to formalized education (Cunningham et al., 2004). This learning model is closely related

to other experiential learning models articulated by Kolb (1984), Zull (2002), and Law (2013), as

mentioned in the previous section on peer learning (Gray, 2001; Raelin, 1997).

Action learning assumes learning is voluntary, occurs in groups as learners actively work

on tasks, and requires contextualized engagement that goes beyond the classroom formality

(McCauley et al., 2013; Revans, 2011). Furthermore, action learning is inductive, wherein the

learner begins with a contextual problem, then analyzes it from various perspectives, builds

conceptual models and solutions, implements, and evaluates (Gray, 2001). Moreover,

individuals learn through the active process to solve a problem not merely by seeing a final

solution (Gray, 2001; McCauley et al., 2013).

Action learning groups, referred to as learning sets, consist of typically five to six

individuals who meet periodically (Cunningham et al., 2004; McCauley et al., 2013). Three

variants of these action learning groups include group projects, individual projects, and work

problem-solving (Cunningham et al., 2004). These learning sets develop their own procedures

consisting of progress reports on goals, member listening and engagement, and redefining of

goals or action steps (Cunningham et al., 2004).

Action learning conversations, a variance on action learning sets, are “a structured

protocol, used for peer coaching and mentoring, that is a critically reflective practice that can

support transformative learning” (O'Neil & Marsick, 2009). The action learning conversation

process takes the small peer group designed for problem-solving through a sequential process

that includes framing the challenge, unpacking meaning, peer questioning, reframing one's

understanding of the situation, and making informed decisions and actions (O'Neil & Marsick,

2009). The context of action learning or peer relationships has evolved with globalization and

the growing need for remote connections. Peer mentoring has taken on various forms such as

virtual connections with individuals, peer circles, and networks (O'Neil & Marsick, 2009).

The current study looks at the value of peer mentoring cohorts specific to executive level

leaders. Within this context, action learning may occur, and the just-in-time peer mentoring

relationships provide multiple case studies and shared knowledge for learning.

Adult Learning Contexts

Teams and learning. Teams are a collaborative context where learning and

development may occur for adults. Teams are defined as “organizational groups composed of

members who are interdependent, who share common goals, and who must coordinate their

activities to accomplish these goals” (Northouse, 2013, p. 287). Katzenbach and Smith (1993)

add the presence of complementary skills, commitment to a common purpose, articulated

performance goals, and mutual accountability. The purpose of choosing a team approach over

other formats is to increase performance by creating synergy among diverse members, create

flexibility for problem solving, and foster collaborative efforts (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993).

Several essential elements make a team. A team requires a purpose, a leader, member

interdependence, and a structure (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). These elements are not enough to

ensure team health and effectiveness. Teams thrive only with an organizational culture

supporting them, a clear motivating task, suitable leader, distinct member roles, appropriate

member selection, and adequate resources (Barczak, 1996; Katzenbach & Smith, 1993;

Sundstrom, De Meuse, & Furtrell, 1990).

Interpersonal engagement within teams is important. The team leader and each member

needs to possess a measure of interpersonal competency. Mickan and Rodger (2000) assert the

need for each member to have self-knowledge, trust for one another, commitment to other

members and the team purpose as well as flexibility. Additionally, effective teams consist of

members who are cooperative, conscientious, somewhat extroverted, emotionally stable, and

developed in emotional intelligence (Barrick, Stewart, Neubert, & Mount, 1998).

The context of an effective team, as described previously, provides a means of learning

and development (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002). Beyond an integrated work effort toward the

team’s purpose, the team context offers mutual accountability and purposeful interpersonal

engagement through which individual members may experience personal growth or a major

transformation (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). A development ethic readily present in teams may

shape individuals and organizational culture (Laszlo, Laszlo, & Johnsen, 2009). Through shared

experience and empowerment in teams, members may experience learning for future

effectiveness and organizations may learn through the collective transformation of individuals

(Kukenberger, Mathieu, & Ruddy, 2015; Laszlo et al., 2009).

Biblical perspective on teams. Team leadership is not articulated in Scripture as a

mandate but is suggested in principle as the means of church leadership. Three aspects of

Scripture seem to point to teams. A plurality of gifts, the metaphor of the church as a body, and

numerous practical examples all establish the basis for team leadership.

Biblical examples of teams inform a current team approach. Moses led with a team when

necessity for shared leadership was evident. Jamieson et al. (1997) explain, “Jethro gave a

prudent counsel to Moses as to the division of labor (Ex 18:21, 22), and universal experience in

the Church and State has attested the soundness and advantages of the principle.” The mighty

men came alongside David (1 Chronicles 12). Also, Nehemiah was the leader but established

teams to work on various sections of the wall that was to be rebuilt around Jerusalem. Referring

to this example, Carson et al. (1994) elaborate,

The overall picture to emerge is instructive. It demonstrates first a unity of intention by the people, some forty sections apparently working simultaneously. This could not have been achieved had there not been good supervision, close cooperation and an eye open for what was being done in neighboring sections.

These teams were quite effective in accomplishing the shared goal. The early church leaders

formalized team leadership by appointing leaders to serve in a specific role (Acts 6:1-6). Many

of the early missionary journeys and church plants were also led by small teams and established

by elder teams. In 1 Corinthians Paul related the church to a body, referring to it as “many

members”—mutually dependent (Jamieson et al, 1997). Paul spoke of the diversity of spiritual

gifts given to serve the body, each church member as a body part working in unity. Paul

recognized the value of team as he typically traveled on missionary journeys with at least one

other (Acts 13-15; 18).

In consideration of the examples of teams in Scripture, one must focus attention on what

Paul said to the Ephesians:

And He gave some as apostles, and some as prophets, and some as evangelists, and some as pastors and teachers, for the equipping of the saints for the work of service, to the building up of the body of Christ. (Ephesians 4:11-12, NASB)

Ministry leaders are to build up the body of Christ by equipping others for ministry. Leadership

in the church, according to this passage, is accomplished through many that have been equipped.

Therefore, this passage offers a clear look at the various roles or gifting for leadership in the

church and lays a foundation for empowered team leadership.

Perhaps one of the greatest examples of team leadership came through the ministry of

Jesus (Acts 4:13; Mark 3:14). He immediately formed a team of men for a great purpose in

stating, “’Follow Me and I will make you fishers of men’—raising them from a lower to a higher

fishing, as David was from a lower to a higher feeding (Ps 78:70–72)” (Jamieson et al, 1997).

He defined the disciples’ life purpose immediately and the collective purpose of the team.

Learning within teams. A brief review of the literature suggests the possibility that a

team environment fosters individual learning and development. Organizational teams are

typically formed with the purpose of immediate performance but are also capable of fostering

individual development and learning, which can set up the team and organization for future

performance. In fact, Kukenberger et al. (2015) affirm, “Team effectiveness can be gauged not

only by team-level outcomes but also in terms of influences on individual members” (p. 987).

The measurable outcomes for teams can be broadened given this current and future perspective.

Team research pertaining to performance and effectiveness has largely a current focus,

desirous of performance outcomes, with less research on future effectiveness (Kukenberger et

al., 2015). Two criteria for assessing the future effectiveness of a team are the degree members

develop their knowledge and skills resulting from membership on the team and the extent

individuals identify with the team and their commitment level to the team (Kukenberger et al.,

2015).

Additionally, informal learning, not always formalized or measured, occurs in teams.

Informal learning as a result of team experience is perceived as “the extent to which a team

member perceives that his or her task-specific skills and knowledge have improved as a result of

being a member of the team” (Kukenberger et al., 2015, p. 990). The level of informal learning

seems to be correlated with the context of teams; however, few research efforts have focused on

contextual factors that enhance informal learning (Kukenberger et al., 2015).

Empowerment of teams from other organizational leadership is recognized as another

factor within teams that foster members’ development through informal learning. The

empowerment of a team fosters self-leadership and the ability for collective accomplishments

and problem solving efforts, thus creating an environment for informal learning at the team and

individual level (Kukenberger et al., 2015). Kukenberger et al. (2015) indicate, “A collective

sense of empowerment will cross levels of analysis from the team to the individual and be

associated with both informal learning and team commitment” (p. 991).

Teams are also considered a context for developing learning in community. Laszlo et al.

(2009) suggest the need for organizations to consider the team context as they look beyond

performance outcomes to building evolutionary learning communities. A context of individuals

learning in a team, as well as team collaboration, can create organizational level learning, thus

further recognizing the possibilities of learning communities (Laszlo et al., 2009). Moreover,

more resources and attention need to be dedicated to a robust ethic of people development rather

than a sole performance focus, thus recognizing the collaborative power of teams to ethically

shape individuals, organizations, and the broader culture (Laszlo et al., 2009).

A balanced amount and variety of team involvement can contribute to further

productivity and individual learning (O'Leary, Mortensen, & Woolley, 2011). Many

organizations are utilizing multiple team membership to enhance productivity and learning. The

next step for these organizations is to analyze the effect of multiple team membership. O’Leary

et al. point out, “Given the tension between productivity and learning, understanding when and

how both can be optimized in the context of multiple team memberships would be useful” (p.

461). Research suggests productivity tends to increase to a certain point as the number of team

memberships increase; conversely, learning tends to increase as the variety of team memberships

increase (O'Leary et al., 2011).

Additional learning can be fostered through leadership. The team leader is valuable for

people development as the leader can create an environment for learning. Specifically, those

who lead from a transformational perspective are found to create optimal learning conditions.

Raes et al. (2013) clarify, “Transformational leaders approach team learning by setting the

conditions for learning to occur, while limiting the focus on direct interference in the actual

learning processes” (p. 300). Moreover, transformational leaders offer social cohesion, which

fosters performance but, more importantly, enhances psychological safety, a shared-recognition

of a safe environment for interpersonal risk-taking (Raes et al, 2013).

Furthermore, teams that possess a varied skill set, or expertise diversity, may

simultaneously enhance performance and learning because the varied perspectives contribute to

learning, innovation, and shared ideas (Van Der Vegt & Bunderson, 2005): “Moderate levels of

expertise diversity within a team make it more likely that members will utilize their different

perspectives and learn from one another—if they also identify with their teams” (Van Der Vegt

& Bunderson, 2005, p. 545).

Cohorts and learning. Cohorts, with similar characteristics to teams, are another

context for effective learning. More than any other context, higher education has recently

embraced a widespread usage of cohorts. However, cohorts have existed in higher education

since the 1940s as part of programs designed to reform education through training emerging

educational leaders in a cohort format (Basom et al., 1995). In recent decades, the cohort

structure has become an emerging modality for preparing educational leaders as well as

leadership development programs in other fields (Basom et al., 1995).

Educational cohorts are generally defined as groups of students experiencing an entire or

partial academic program together, sharing the same set of courses and developing a sense of a

learning community in the process (Barnett & Muse, 1993; Norris & Barnett, 1994; Sapon-

Shevin & Chandler-Olcott, 2001). Student cohorts are a form of community-driven learning,

valuing shared knowledge and collaboration (Maher, 2005).

Early renditions of cohort-based programs sought to challenge the predominant

authoritarian approach to management by creating a cohort of emerging educational leaders as a

context for future reform (Basom et al., 1995). A different cultural trend since the 1980s has

changed the possible usage of cohorts for training educational leaders, suggesting the need for

training and experiential learning in shared leadership, learning in community, and

transformative and visionary leadership (Basom et al., 1995). Basom et al. (1995) suggest

cohorts can help facilitate these goals, positing that cohort benefits include collegial benefits as

well as overall leader development.

Another recent use of cohorts is within the emerging phenomenon of professionals

returning to work. Companies are creating cohorts of professionals who have been out of the

workforce for several years, recognizing the encouragement and developmental advantages peer

relationships provide within a cohort entering together (Cohen, 2015). Cohen (2015) observes,

“In the case of the re-entry professional, the cohort adds the critical additional function of

providing emotional support from peers during a transition that is otherwise isolating, and

involves dramatic professional transformation” (para. 5).

Connection with teams. Some assert a connection between the function and

development of a cohort and that of a team (Norris & Barnett, 1994; Wheelan & Lisk, 2000).

Specifically, social interaction among members, shared purpose of the cohort, and

interdependence between members are part of team dynamics (Hackman, 2002; Katzenbach &

Smith, 1993; Norris & Barnett, 1994). Furthermore, conditions for effective learning in groups

include clear learning objectives, sufficient time on learning objectives and task completion, and

accountability, which each are found in both functioning cohorts and teams (Hackman, 2002;

Katzenbach & Smith, 1993; Stahl, 1994; Wheelan & Lisk, 2000). Stahl’s (1994) espoused set of

conditions for effective learning groups suggests higher levels of group development for

achieving effective learning.

Basom et al. (1995) propose the three main characteristics of groups—common purpose,

social interactions, and individual or group development—are critical factors to consider in

forming educational cohorts. Cohorts are not simply a means to pragmatically choose a group of

students to take a set of classes together. Furthermore, a facilitator must cultivate the group

dynamics articulated above (Basom et al., 1995).

In addition, selection of cohort members is an important process. It is in the selection

process that potential cohort members can be vetted for their reason for joining, motivation, and

expectations. Cohorts that are formed with members who are similar in motive and expectation

are more likely to experience cohesiveness and interdependence in the cohort experience (Basom

et al., 1995; Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). Once selected, members flourish with greater

ownership of their learning goals and process. Therefore, instructors or cohort leaders must

become facilitators of the cohort learning process, not dictating the learning (Basom et al., 1995).

Conducive for adult learning. Cohorts of students in higher education have become an

effective option for learning collaboration. Student cohorts are particularly effective for adult

learners as they are created to foster a supportive learning environment, thus offering an

environment conducive to adult learning theory (Barnett & Muse, 1993). In particular, they are

flexible for various learning styles, offer affiliation for adult students, create mutual learning

opportunities, and allow adults a desired measure of control over their educational experience

(Barnett & Muse, 1993; Boud & Bridge, 1974; Knowles, 1970; Merriam et al., 2007).

There is connection between adult learning theory and best practices in cohorts. In the

1980s, a Danforth Foundation initiative provided grants designed to overhaul educational

administrative graduate programs (Barnett & Muse, 1993). The 20 universities involved with the

initiative employed a cohort format in the revision effort (Maher, 2005). Furthermore, the

Danforth Foundation initiative sponsored a set of studies assessing the outcomes of those cohort

formats (Barnett & Muse, 1993). While studying graduate program cohorts training school

administrators, Barnett and Muse (1993) linked aspects of adult learning theory to a set of

positive practices for learning cohorts. First, a cohort grouping should foster an environment of

trust, openness, and mutual respect (Barnett & Muse, 1993). These asserted values are typically

nurtured through initial intense activities at the formation of the cohort. The values of trust,

openness, and mutual respect are further developed through informal retreats. During the

retreats, the cohort members engage in informal life activities such as sharing room assignments,

eating together, and team-building activities (Barnett & Muse, 1993).

Reflective opportunities are a second practice connected to adult learning theory for

graduate program cohorts (Barnett & Muse, 1993). Educational cohorts build in opportunity,

either through whole seminars or reflective assignments within seminars, for students to reflect

on the content presented. These reflection points allow students to integrate the theory being

learned with practice in their current or future context (Barnett & Muse, 1993; O'Neil & Marsick,

2009). Some reflection moments may be individually based while others are cohort reflections.

In the group reflections, students bring their life experience, and perhaps problems, to the

discussion (Barnett & Muse, 1993). Open reflection within the cohort brings the chance for

examining relationships, developing meaning of experiences, and further insight (Barnett &

Muse, 1993; O'Neil & Marsick, 2009). Cohort members become empowered by the direction

and content of the reflection times, thus furthering their ownership in the learning through the

cohort experience (Barnett & Muse, 1993).

Barnett and Muse (1993) suggest a few adult learning principles are addressed by the

above cohort practices. First, affiliation is understood to be valuable for adult learning and

fostered through initial relationship building and informal retreats (Barnett & Muse, 1993;

Knowles, 1980). Second, as trust is built through affiliation activities, adults engage in greater

sharing of resources and ideas with less sense of isolation or individualism. Third, adult learning

is more effective when the learners are engaged in decisions of content, goals, and activities

(Barnett & Muse, 1993; Knowles, 1980).

Positive social interaction in cohorts. The social context of a cohort provides both

strengths and weaknesses for an effective learning environment. The quality of relationships and

level of intentionality in developing social interaction helps determine the effectiveness of

learning. First, learning occurs best in groups when the individual participants are actively

involved and contributing to the group (Basom et al., 1995). Active social involvement allows

attitudes and behaviors of group members to be transformed (Basom et al., 1995). Furthermore,

the facilitator of a group is capable of either fostering or hindering such social interaction leading

to individual transformation. For example, a facilitator is able to foster a positive physical

learning environment for the group through such aspects as the meeting location and furniture

arrangement (Basom et al., 1995). The facilitator may also foster positive social interaction by

focusing on the value and sense of belongingness of each member (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991).

Second, the learning environment is enhanced by early social engagement (Basom et al.,

1995). Early informal social opportunities for cohort members help foster trust and a social

structure conducive to a learning cohort. These social interactions contribute to positive learning

outcomes. Specifically, students in cohorts experience inclusiveness, collaboration, and

increased academic performance (Basom et al., 1995).

Third, formal educational cohorts have been found to enhance motivation for learning

through social engagement. Specifically, relatedness, as defined within Self-Determination

Theory, is found in cohort experiences. Self-Determination Theory presents a theory of

motivation for students (Deci & Ryan, 1985). In essence, Self-Determination Theory “is the

investigation of people's inherent growth tendencies and innate psychological needs that are the

basis for their self-motivation and personality integration, as well as for the conditions that foster

those positive processes” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 68). Through this theory, three basic needs

have been identified as developing a higher internalized motivation, namely, autonomy,

competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Autonomy is a perceived choice or causality;

competence is a sense of self-efficacy, and relatedness is the feeling of belonging and connection

with others (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Each of these components builds internal motivation for

effective learning.

Beachboard et al. (2011) posited that those who participate in a formalized cohort

experience an enhanced sense of relatedness leading to increased motivation to learn and

effectiveness toward learning outcomes. Results of a study by Beachboard et al. (2011) found

relatedness did mediate the relationship between cohort participation and educational outcomes,

thus suggesting Self-Determination Theory helps clarify the benefits of learning communities.

Fourth, several research studies have found cohorts to be a positive learning context

because of the social interaction involved. Norris and Barnett (1994) conducted a study of 51

graduate students across four universities, further asserting the positive social influence cohorts

offer. They found multiple advantages of a cohort modality. A cohort context offers

community, increased cohesiveness, collaboration, and shared purpose (Norris & Barnett, 1994).

Additionally, the individual is often transformed through a cohort by increased self-awareness,

developed beliefs and values, appreciation of others, and increased knowledge.

Teitel (1997) conducted a qualitative study of graduate students involved in a cohort

format from which five areas of impact were discovered. These impacts included “gains in

support and connection among the students; a change in the depth of discussion in cohort classes,

especially about sensitive issues like race; changes in interpersonal relationships among

students” (Teitel, 1997, pp. 68-69).

A study conducted by Maher (2005) looked at the perceptions of cohort members toward

the beginning of their cohort experience and their evolving perceptions. The students

interviewed initially expressed the potential value of interpersonal relationships through the

experience while some expressed a weakness of continued relationships that were less helpful to

the cohort experience. The middle phase of the cohort formulated various perceptions and roles.

Some spoke of their developing interpersonal relationships within the cohort in familial terms,

and others understood the interpersonal context in terms of a team. The former perception was

largely from relationship-oriented individuals and the latter from task-oriented individuals.

Further roles were defined, as in teams, such as “nurturer, taskmaster, and tension breaker”

(Maher, 2005, p. 203). The late phase of the cohort experience revealed student perception that

the cohort experience had influenced their learning. The two main themes emerging at this point

in the study were “continuity” of relationships and learning as well as “shared experiences”

among peers, both of which were viewed as enhancing learning (Maher, 2005). Furthermore,

these students increased their desire to actively help one another learn and develop. Maher

(2005) concludes cohort member perception of the cohort format evolves through the process,

similar to stages of team development, with members finding a stronger appreciation for the

format at the end.

Finally, with similar assertions as the above-mentioned studies, Basom et al. (1995)

assert a cohort environment may foster several components for specifically developing leaders.

Cohort members may develop a deeper self-awareness of their strengths, weaknesses, and

aspirations through their cohort experience, thus leading to an enhanced understanding of the art

of leading (Basom et al., 1995). Individuals in cohorts may transform their personal values.

While members exchange ideas in the context of cultivating interpersonal relationships, their

individual values are often transformed (Basom et al., 1995). In addition, social awareness is

enhanced through cohorts. Individuals become increasingly cognizant of the motives,

aspirations, and values of others as a result of the social engagement in cohorts (Basom et al.,

1995). Finally, trust is built from the initially facilitated social engagement through all the

learning processes (Basom et al., 1995).

Negative social interaction in cohorts. Research findings toward relational affiliation

within educational cohorts have been largely positive but advise some weaknesses (Maher,

2005). Teitel (1997) suggests interpersonal relationships within a cohort experience can foster

weaknesses for the format. Unanticipated negative impacts include cliques, interpersonal

conflict, and members “locked” in defined roles (Norris & Barnett, 1994; Sapon-Shevin &

Chandler-Olcott, 2001; Teitel, 1997). For example, as the cohort experience progresses, some

members continue to dominate discussion and others offer predictable responses, thus

diminishing the effectiveness of discussions (Norris & Barnett, 1994; Sapon-Shevin & Chandler-

Olcott, 2001; Teitel, 1997). These negative social interactions, which can cause adverse group

dynamics, end up stunting the development of cohort members in the areas of personal

adjustment, social support, and academic success (Dyson & Hanley, 2002).

Barnett and Muse (1993) assert four common challenges of cohorts. First, the cohort

may become so cohesive that they override the facilitator and perhaps derail the defining purpose

of the program. Second, personal life events of cohort members may hinder their involvement,

as cohorts typically require an extended timeframe. A third challenge within cohorts can be

relational tension between certain members. Fourth, some members may not trust the cohort

facilitator or mentor or other cohort members, thus reducing effectiveness.

Dyson and Hanley (2002) conducted a mixed-method study of a group of teacher

education students involved in an open cohort grouping, comparing their results with that of

students not engaged in a cohort group. This study examined the effect the cohort experience

had on social support, self-efficacy, general adaptation to college life, and academic

performance. The researchers found those students experiencing a cohort did not significantly

increase the above researched factors more than the non-cohort students. The significant finding

of this study showed a lower academic performance for cohort students, attributed to

deteriorating peer relationships as the cohort progressed (Dyson & Hanley, 2002).

The assumption for a cohort context is that increased personal knowledge and shared

history between members will lead to increased learning and development (Sapon-Shevin &

Chandler-Olcott, 2001). However, Sapon-Shevin and Chandler-Olcott (2001) studied several

cohorts of students, finding various disruptions to learning in this modality. Interpersonal

relationship quality was a major theme in their study. Such factors as trust, assertiveness, and

balance of workload were some of the interpersonal considerations of positive or negative cohort

experiences. Additionally, the assumptions and meaning of community within a cohort varied.

Individual members held many different perspectives on the ways members should be

interacting, thus diminishing the perceived community-building advantage (Sapon-Shevin &

Chandler-Olcott, 2001).

Peer mentoring cohorts fit within these multiple adult learning contexts. This study

begins to fill a research gap between peer mentoring, adult learning, contexts for adult learning,

and development of executive level leaders. The next section will continue to solidify the

foundation for the study.

Personal Leadership Factors

The recognition of development-oriented relationships and the adult learning theories,

models, and contexts applicable to executive level leaders still do not provide the entire

foundation of this study. There is a need to also look at the component of effective leadership

pertaining to what the leader brings to the leader-follower equation. This literature stream gives

a foundation to the second research question, “how do participating leaders describe the value of

their peer mentoring cohort relationships for enhancing their competencies pertinent to their

particular leadership context?”

This aspect of the literature review will offer a concise review of leader traits, skills,

competencies, roles, practices, and behaviors. Various researchers distinguish between some of

these terms, and others use these personal factors interchangeably. Some of the lists presented in

the following review are associated with particular leadership theories or approaches. However,

the intent of the researcher is not to review each leadership theory or approach but to give a sense

of what particularly executive level leaders can develop for effectiveness in their context.

Personal Leadership Factors for Executive Level Leaders

Leadership traits, which are important to successful leadership, are the personality or

characteristics of a person used to lead others (Northouse, 2013). Initially researchers thought

only innate traits would allow one to be a leader but eventually recognized the need for traits to

work in a social context (Northouse, 2013; Stogdill, 1948). Stogdill (1948 & 1974) helped build

a foundation for trait theory by presenting two separate literature surveys to determine

consistently highlighted traits through multiple research efforts. A combined list of traits for

effective leadership from Stogdill includes intelligence, alertness, insight, responsibility,

initiative, persistence, self-confidence, sociability, achievement, cooperativeness, tolerance, and

influence (Stogdill, 1948; Stogdill, 1974). Northouse (2013) offers a concise list from various

researchers: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, sociability.

Furthermore, a skill has been defined as “the ability to use one’s knowledge and

competencies to accomplish a set of goals or objectives” (Northouse, 2013). A leader’s personal

traits are typically unchanging while a set of skills can be learned and developed toward effective

leadership. Katz (2009) presented the foundation of leadership skills, asserting the capability of

leaders developing skills beyond an innate set of traits. The skills espoused were categorized as

technical, human, and conceptual while the author suggested differing levels of ability in each

category depending on their level of leadership in the organization (Katz, 2009). For example,

technical skills are needed at a greater level with lower and middle management than executive

level leadership while human and conceptual skills remain highly necessary at the top of the

organization (Katz, 2009).

Competence, another way to consider a leader’s effectiveness, is relevant to a particular

context, thus not necessarily lending to one set for leader effectiveness (Bass, 1990). Bass

(1990) divides competence into the categories of task competencies and interpersonal

competencies. Sub-categories of task competence include intelligence (general and creative),

technical, intuition, and organizational (Bass, 1990). Interpersonal competence is found in sub-

categories such as empathy, care, emotional intelligence, consistency, timing, communication,

conflict resolution, authenticity, and trust (Bass, 1990; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2013).

The defined role of a leader has also been considered in the literature. Mintzberg (1973)

presented foundational research on leader roles divided into three categories. Interpersonal roles

include figurehead, leader, and liaison; informational roles include monitor, disseminator, and

spokesman; and decisional roles include entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator,

and negotiator. Further role definition pertaining to a ministry context will be presented in a

later section of this review.

Further insight into a leader’s effectiveness, and subsequent need to develop, is

categorized by behaviors. Yukl (2012) offers a helpful historical review of effective leadership

behaviors. A hierarchical taxonomy is presented in four categories: task-oriented (clarifying,

planning, monitoring operations, problem solving); relations-oriented (supporting, developing,

recognizing, empowering); change-oriented (advocating change, envisioning change,

encouraging innovation, facilitating collective learning); and external (networking, external

monitoring, representing) (Yukl, 2012). These categories organize a growing list of behaviors

asserted by Yukl and others in his literature review. The above taxonomy lends support for the

idea that “leaders can enhance the performance of a team, work unit, or organization by using a

combination of specific task, relations, change, and external behaviors that are relevant for their

situation” (Yukl, 2012, p. 78).

Stogdill (1963) espoused a set of leader behaviors as part of the Leader Behavior

Description Questionnaire (LBDQ). His list in the LBDQ instrument included consideration,

tolerance of freedom, production emphasis, integration, initiating structure, role assumption, and

representing the influencing superior (Stogdill, 1963). Yukl (2002) presented another

comprehensive list of effective leader behaviors including supporting, consulting, delegating,

recognizing, rewarding, motivating, managing conflict/team-building, developing, clarifying,

planning/organizing, problem-solving, informing, monitoring, representing, and

networking/interfacing.

Leadership practices are also a pertinent category to consider for developing effective

leadership. Using 100 focus groups, Longenecker (2014) compiled research that sought to learn

the best leadership practices as percieved by followers. The following list resulted fron the focus

group study: driven by mission and results, people are prioroity, competent for their role,

prepared (themselves and others), trustworthy, communicate expectations and empower, enable

performance, team-builder, coach, stewards (time and resources), work/life balance, and

passionate. One point especially pertinent to peer mentoring cohorts is the question from the

study related to a great leader’s competency for their role. The key question Longenecker asked

under this attribute is, “Are you and the leaders in your organization focused on continuously

improving and developing your leadership skill set to meet the changing demands of your

workplace?” (p. 23). Leaders need to seek growth in contextualized competencies for continued

effectiveness in their role.

Kouzes and Posner (2010) compiled a set of what they call “leadership truths” for

effective leadership from their years of research and experience. Among these truths are belief

in leadership, credibility, values-driven, future-focused, team building, trusting/trustworthy,

change-agents, exemplary, learner, and love people and the role (Kouzes & Posner, 2010). The

lists from Kouzes and Posner (2010) and Longenecker (2014) offer many points of overlap,

suggesting accuracy of results.

Kouzes and Posner (2002) through the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) identify

further leadership practices. The LPI is an instrument used in multiple research efforts and

designed to articulate transformational leadership practices, or what the authors call exemplary

leadership practices (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). The LPI asserts exemplary leaders model the

way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, and encourage the heart

(Kouzes & Posner, 2002).

Servant leadrship theory, although a specific approach to leadership, offers a helpful set

of characteristics and comptenncies for develomenmt. Many of the compentices espoused in

servant leadership are applicable in any leadership context or theoretical framework. Spears

(2002) asserts ten particular characteristics leading to a servant leader aproach: listening,

empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment

to growth of people, and building community. Liden et al. (2008), in their model of servant

leadership, provide the following behaviors: conceptualizing, emotional healing, followers first,

helping development, behaving ethically, empowering, and creating value for community. Many

others have offered sets of characteristics with little agreement; humility and empowerment are

the few found among all lists (Laub, 1999; Patterson, 2003; Russell & Stone, 2002; Sendjaya et

al., 2008; van Dierendonck & Nuijten, 2011; Wong & Davey, 2007).

Personal Leadership Factors for Pastors

The executive level of leadership within a local church context is typically a pastor role,

if not titled as such. Most of the previous review of personal leadership factors applies to

executive level leadership regardless of context. However, the function of pastor in a church is a

unique role with its own set of competencies and challenges.

Role responsibilities and potential issues. The offices of pastor and teacher are

described by terms such as governing and teaching. Specifically, Paul describes the office with

terms such as ruler (1 Thessalonians 5:12), ambassador (2 Corinthians 5:17-20), steward (1

Corinthians 4:1), defender (Philippians 1:7), minister (1 Corinthians 4:1), servant (2 Corinthians

4:5), and example (1 Timothy 4:12) (Purcell, 2001).

Foundational to the role, pastoral leadership offers an opportunity for developing others

as they seek to lead from a biblical mandate to serve by transformational development.

McKenna, Yost, and Boyd’s (2007) study of pastors revealed a high focus on relationships and

development through those relationships. The matrix developed from the study highlighted

people development as a lesson learned in two categories, “transitions” and “other people.” The

life event category “transitions” pointed to the importance of developing others while a pastor

transitioned to a new congregation. This newly developed group of volunteers and vocational

leaders offers an opportunity to develop a new set of people. The pastor is then developed as he

serves in the process of developing others. “Other people” is the second life event for pastors

that highlighted people development. Many pastors were developed by other role models in their

life and in turn developed others in their congregation. The connection from role model to pastor

to others became a development stream for many interviewed in the study (p. 186).

The study shows a strong significance on relationship for development of both the

pastoral leader and those he leads: “Furthermore, an important lesson learned is good role

models emerged as the most common developmental experience, suggesting that denominations

could likely enhance ongoing pastoral leadership development by pairing new pastors with

experienced pastors who can serve as mentors” (McKenna et al., 2007, p. 186).

Unique from practitioner perceptions or expert assertion, Kühne and Donaldson (1995)

conducted a two-phase structured observation of senior pastors, which provides helpful

information about role duties and activities. Activities were categorized by purpose in the

following categories:

Unknown (non-pastoral work activities), requests (requests made of the pastor and by the pastor), scheduling (coordination of schedules, calendars and events), information (receiving, gathering and giving), decisional (strategic planning and negotiation), administrative (general administration, coordination activities, fiscal or budget activities), and developmental (prayer, worship, preaching, counseling, etc.). (Kühne & Donaldson, 1995, p. 150) The study found further defining aspects of pastoral work, including pace of activities, variety of

activities, and brevity of activities. Moreover, the pastor’s role requires people helping skills, as

understood by the nature of the position, as well as administrative and leadership competencies,

less considered in training. (Kühne & Donaldson, 1995).

Mintzberg (1973) (as cited in Kühne & Donaldson, 1995) identified three specific

"interpersonal roles"—figure-head, leader, and liaison—and three specific "informational

roles"—monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson (pp. 155-156). All these roles were observed

with the pastors in this study. Additionally, the professional role for pastors was observed to

include mentor, caregiver, and, preacher. Therefore, development efforts of current or emerging

pastors might include these competencies (Kühne & Donaldson, 1995).

Some of the unique demands placed on pastors from their role responsibilities, such as

time commitments and fulfilling emotional and physical needs of parishioners, assert

physiological, emotional, and spiritual strain on those serving in the role (Hall, 1997).

Additionally, pastoral care, administration, management, and organization were found to be

among the most difficult job tasks for pastors and, therefore, caused various work-related

stresses (Evers & Tomic, 2003). Furthering the issue, the relational leadership skills of pastors

are often lacking with little focus in pastoral training on such skills (Hall, 1997). Both the

demands on the pastor and their lack of relational skills often result in less effective shepherding

and leading of congregations.

Hall (1997) conducted a literature review of the personal functioning of pastors,

suggesting six categories: emotional well-being, stress and coping, marital/divorce adjustment,

family adjustment, burnout, and impairment. In particular, Hall suggested the literature review

revealed the “centrality of pastors’ interpersonal maturity for their personal fulfillment and

professional effectiveness” (p. 250). The categories mentioned help define the need for pastors

to be supported and continually developed through their career.

The potentially harmful variables related to work in pastoral leadership include work

pressure, role ambiguity, and lack of social support (Evers & Tomic, 2003). Burnout, in any

context, has been defined with the dimensions of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and

reduced personal accomplishment (Evers & Tomic, 2003; Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Work

pressure is closely related to the dimensions of burnout, articulated above, and is a main source

of stress for pastoral leadership. Evers and Tomic (2003) found, “The higher the scores on work

pressure are, the more the pastors report symptoms of emotional exhaustion and

depersonalization, the core of burnout” (p. 334). Furthermore, work pressure has a negative

correlation to personal accomplishment (Evers & Tomic, 2003).

Given the stresses in the role, pastors need outside support. Evers and Tomic (2003)

suggest the growing need for pastors who are seeking increased or even adequate performance to

be supported by cooperation with colleagues and outside professionals.

Competencies. The unique challenges and stresses of the role responsibilities for pastors

requires development of particular competencies. Ministry leadership competencies are

expected from a biblical perspective. A biblical leader must govern with character, skill,

integrity, discipline, and excellence (Psalm 78; Romans 12:8; 1 Corinthians 9:24-27).

Furthermore, certain competencies for ministry leadership are required for varying situations

(Hersey et al., 2001; Kiedis, 2009).

Research pertaining to the effectiveness of executive level ministry leaders offers a

foundation to understand a set of basic competencies required for this type of leadership role

(Woodruff, 2004). Several foundational studies help define pastoral leader effectiveness

(Woodruff, 2004). Blizzard’s (1956) study of 690 pastors helped determine categories of their

role responsibilities. The concluding categories are administrator, organizer, pastor, preacher,

priest, and teacher (Blizzard, 1956).

Nauss (1983) used the Ministerial Function Scale (MFS), developed by Frederick Kling,

to research the components of effective pastoral leadership with his sample of seventy pastors

from the Lutheran-Missouri Synod. The MFS is comprised of priest-preacher, community-social

involvement, personal-spiritual development, visitor-counselor, and teacher (Nauss, 1983). The

main finding of this study is the correlation between job satisfaction and leader effectiveness

(Nauss, 1983; Woodruff, 2004). Barna (1993) asserts six ministry leadership competencies

leading to effectiveness. These competencies include provide vision, strategic thinker, risk taker,

team builder, and encourager (Barna, 1993).

Furthermore, Nauss (1994) highlighted and used in his study two substantial instruments

that have been useful for determining pastoral competencies, the Ministerial Activity Scale

(MAS), an expanded version of the MFS, and the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire

(LBDQ) (Stogdill, 1963). The MAS gives a set of ten activity categories which articulate

pastoral leadership competencies, expanding from the original six categories to include

evangelist, minister to children and youth, personal enabler, and equipper functions (Nauss,

1994; Woodruff, 2004). The compiled categories of competencies include evangelist, ministry

to youth/children, personal/spiritual model, community-minded minister, preacher/priest,

personal enabler, administrator, teacher, equipper, and visitor/counselor. Nauss (1994) also

makes use of eleven subscales from the LBDQ, renaming them to fit a congregational context.

The LBDQ subscales include representing the congregation, tolerant of uncertainty, tolerant of

freedom, persuasive, task-oriented, relations-oriented, goal-oriented, assertive in leading,

accurate in predicting, cool under pressure, and integrative (Nauss, 1994; Stogdill, 1963).

A set of fifty pastoral management competencies were suggested by Boersma (1988) in a

study determining the correlation between perception of competency needs between pastors,

laity, and seminary faculty. Woodruff (2004) used Boersma’s (1988) study as the foundation for

his own study on executive pastoral leadership and management competencies. The fifty

competencies articulated into the Pastoral Management Competencies Questionnaire were

defined in three factors, path finding skills, interpersonal skills, and implementation and decision

making skills, followed by multiple sub-factors (Boersma, 1988).

Leadership style has also been studied in relation to pastoral competencies and role

variables. Leadership style has been recognized to be most effective when considered in relation

to various situations (Bass, 1990; Wexley & Yukl, 1984). Hersey et al. (2001), in espousing the

situational leadership theory, articulate the need for leadership style to vary within a group,

depending on the current measure of development and need of each individual of the group.

Nauss (1995) focused his study of 421 Lutheran pastors on two situational variables –

size of the congregation and leadership function. The study built off the assertion by Bass

(1990) that changing group or organization size will bring about a change in dynamics, leading

to the need for different leadership styles. Nauss looked at the leadership style in relation to

congregation size as well as the added variable of ministry function. Similar to a previous study,

the 1995 study used the MAS and LBDQ, selecting a set of ten activity categories from MAS

with alpha reliabilities ranging from .77 to .91, and eleven renamed LBDQ subcategories

pertinent to a ministry context. The results of the study indicated both size and function are

critical variables in determining effective leadership patterns (Nauss, 1995). No one function

prevailed as more important than another for overall ministry effectiveness. Nauss suggested the

need for training in all functions for future and current pastoral leaders.

This section of the literature review has shown specific competencies necessary to lead

well in multiple contexts, thus a need for developing by all leaders. The next section transitions

to leadership development as a social construct in an organization. Both literature bases provide

a foundation for this study and help articulate the research gap with peer mentoring cohorts for

developing executive level leaders in specific competencies.

Leadership Development

The current cultural shift toward rapid change, globalization, and the resultant

complexities has organizations strategically prioritizing leadership and the need for its

development (DeRue & Myers, 2014). Furthermore, as the recognition of leadership need rises,

the availability of high capacity leadership is declining (DeRue & Myers, 2014). The following

section conveys the difference between development of the individual leader, as articulated

previously, and leadership development collectively across an organization. Leadership

development occurs in a social context of leader-follower interactions and moves toward a

mission or goal transcendent to the individual.

The leadership development literature provides a social and organizational context for

how and why individual leaders develop competencies to lead in their context. Therefore, this

literature stream gives further basis for the second research question, “how do participating

leaders describe the value of their peer mentoring cohort relationships for enhancing their

competencies pertinent to their particular leadership context?”

Defining leadership and leadership development is important to recognize the nuances of

the concepts. Citing Bass and Bass (2008) and Yukl (2010), DeRue and Myers (2014) define

leadership as “a social and mutual influence process where multiple actors engage in leading-

following interactions in service of accomplishing a collective goal” (p. 834). Furthermore,

leadership development is defined as “the process of preparing individuals and collectives to

effectively engage in leading-following interactions” (DeRue & Myers, 2014, p. 835).

Consideration of both espoused definitions above suggests development of a leader and

developing collective leader-follower structures are distinct yet interrelated.

The integrative approach between individual leader development and collective

development of leader relationships, taken by DeRue and Myers (2014), aligns well with this

research study. The researcher is seeking to discover a lived experience of executive level

leaders within a peer mentoring cohort, which is focused on development through peer

relationships. Similarly, DeRue and Myers (2014) suggest a research gap that can be addressed

by their integrative framework: “scholars might use the framework to emphasize the intersection

of individual leader development with more relational or collective forms of development, or

ways in which formal training might complement informal, on-the-job development” (p. 835).

The individual development value of peer relationships, mentoring and coaching, are understood

(Brockbank & McGill, 2006; Clinton & Clinton, 1991; Kleinman, 2004; Kram & Isabella, 1985;

Law, 2013; Parker et al., 2008; Stanely & Clinton, 1992); however, less research has established

the value of peer mentoring or coaching within a collective leadership development framework

(DeRue & Meyers, 2014). Peer mentoring cohorts, which will be studied in this research, are

opportunities for development of the individual leader, but doing so in a communal setting

designed to contextualize learning for the individual and a leader-follower relationship culture.

Two Forms

Leadership development is understood in two forms, development of the individual

(leader development) and development of leadership as a collective relational interaction

between leader and follower in an organizational context (leadership development) (Day, 2000;

DeRue & Myers, 2014). Individual leader development has received a bulk of the attention in

literature; thus research on developing collective leadership in context is relatively lacking but

emerging (DeRue & Myers, 2014).

Leader development, the first form of development, is extensively researched and critical

to the effort to enhance the leadership capacity of any organization (Day, 2000). Individuals

may increase their capacity to lead through development of specific knowledge, skills, and

abilities (DeRue & Myers, 2014). The development of individuals, typically in formal leadership

roles, is perceived as human capital for an organization (Day, 2000). The specifics of individual

leader development outcomes are addressed earlier in this literature review in the section titled

Personal Leader Factors.

The other form of leadership development is focused on the relational interaction

between leaders and followers throughout an organization as they enact leadership, thus

developing leadership collectively in an organization (DeRue & Myers, 2014). This form of

leadership development is considered social capital rather than human capital of leader

development (Day, 2000).

The emphasis in leadership development, or social capital, is on networked social

relationships designed to create value for the organization (Day, 2000; Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998).

These trusting relationships form the foundational context of effective leadership culture (DeRue

& Myers, 2014). According to Tsai and Ghoshal (1998), “Social capital encompasses many

aspects of a social context, such as social ties, trusting relations, and value systems that facilitate

actions of individuals located within that context” (p. 465). Three aspects of social capital

include structural, relational, and cognitive. The structural aspect consists of relational

connections adding value, such as getting a job or gaining information. The relational

component references specific characteristics found within a relationship, such as trust. The

cognitive aspect refers to shared vision, goals, or norms, which are for the common good (Tsai &

Ghoshal, 1998). In summation, cooperative behavior, demonstrated by a mutual sharing of

resources between two individuals, is built through trust (Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998).

Tsai and Ghoshal (1998) conducted research measuring three dimensions of social capital

within local business units of a multinational corporation. The dimensions measured in the study

were social interaction, trustworthiness, and shared vision; all were measured for value creation.

The study found a connection with all three dimensions and resource exchange within the

business unit. Therefore, social capital was found to foster value creation (Tsai & Ghoshal,

1998). Tsai and Ghoshal espouse investing in social capital for organizations desiring to create

value because of the potential for these social interactions for mutual exchange of resources

through trust.

Leader development for intrapersonal growth and leadership development for

interpersonal enhancement, distinct developmental aspects, should be considered in tandem since

they are incomplete as the sole focus (Day, 2000). Day (2000) espouses leadership development

as the transcendent approach in an organization with individual development asserted at all

levels. Leadership development focuses on social contexts for competency building and overall

development within the social construct of an organization (Day, 2000). Developing leadership

in social constructs still emphasizes interpersonal competence or emotional intelligence, which

helps further the idea of development in relationships (Day, 2000; Goleman, 2012).

Practices and Experiences

Day (2000) reviewed several developmental practices used readily within organizations

such as 360-degree feedback, executive coaching, mentoring, networking, job assignment, and

action learning. Each of these practices have been considered highly valuable for leadership

development. As organizations shift focus toward inclusion of leadership development, or

developing social capital across the organization, individual development is also enhanced.

Some general outcomes for the individual leader are realized such as knowledge, skills, and

abilities. Based on a study conducted by Mumford et al. (2007), leadership development must

focus attention on specific skill needs based on organizational level. Furthermore, motivation to

lead and identity as a leader are fostered through the leadership development process, which may

suggest a connection to developing personal mission for the individual (Chan & Drasgow, 2001;

DeRue & Ashford, 2010).

Despite the perceived need for development and the potential outcomes asserted, little

research exists on the specific effectiveness of leadership development practices or how they are

used effectively. Day (2000) suggests intentional and consistent implementation will foster

effectiveness more than the specific type of development practice. Furthermore, the

implementation needs to be across all levels of the organization and connected to a strategic

organizational purpose (Day, 2000).

Regardless of a specific practice of leadership development, individual leaders develop

through lived experiences. This developmental concept stems from experiential learning (Kolb,

1984; Law, 2013). Lived experiences that are challenging and attached to organizational goals

are the most effective sources of development because of their ability to create novel learning

environments (DeRue & Myers, 2014; McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988).

However, experience alone is not enough as these lived experiences are points of

development only through reflective learning (Brockbank & McGill, 2006; Kemmis, 1985;

Revans, 2011; Smith, 2001) or action learning concepts (Cunningham et al., 2004; Gray, 2001;

McCauley et al., 2013; O'Neil & Marsick, 2009). Smith (2001) espouses the merging of

reflective practices with action learning. Reflective practices and action learning within an

organization have consistently shown value for leadership development of the individual and a

learning organization (Smith, 2001). Further insight on reflective learning and action learning

are discussed earlier in this literature review.

Furthermore, specific challenging tasks in a work context often equate to development.

McCall et al. (1988) studied a group of executives well into their career, finding challenges they

faced throughout their career as points of development. Some types of experiences described

were challenged to persuade others in a project, challenged to start a new endeavor, and

challenged to turn around a failing project (McCall et al., 1988). Areas of growth for these

executives occurred in technical areas (e.g., skill development, strategic thinking, problem-

solving), handling relationships (e.g., directing, motivating, confronting, empathy), executive

skills (e.g., learning to delegate, coping with ambiguity, use of power), and personal awareness

(e.g., life balance, self-awareness) (McCall et al., 1988).

Framework

DeRue and Myers (2014) completed a brief overview of the leadership development

literature. The PREPARE framework, espoused in the review, articulates seven components of

research in the field of leadership development. The framework includes purpose, result,

experience, point of intervention, architecture, reinforcement, and engagement. Each of these

components in the framework are areas that have been researched at varying levels of depth

while offering areas for future research opportunities (DeRue & Myers, 2014).

Purpose asks why an organization engages leadership development, specifically aligning

with the organizational strategic goals and objectives (DeRue & Myers, 2014). Result describes

the desired outcome of development, such as cognitive learning in the leader, relational

connections, or organizational culture (DeRue & Myers, 2014). This thread of literature is

aligned with the previous section in this chapter on personal leadership factors. Much research

has considered specific competencies, skills, and behaviors that become targeted results for

leadership development. Many have espoused and researched sets of factors for effective

leadership (Bass, 1990; Longenecker, 2014; Stogdill, 1963; Yukl, 2002; Yukl, 2012). Aligning

with Research Question 2 in this study, there is no consensus on factors that are needed in all

organizational contexts (Bass, 1990; DeRue & Myers, 2014). Therefore, recognizing the specific

needs of the organization is critical to effective leadership development. Experience entails the

context and tools of development (DeRue & Myers, 2014). Point of Intervention is the focal

point for development, who is developed and to what end (DeRue & Myers, 2014). Architecture

refers to the specific functions and cultural norms in an organization designed for development

(DeRue & Myers, 2014). Reinforcement describes the timing and order of the development

experiences (DeRue & Myers, 2014). Engagement is how people experience and reflect on the

processes of development (DeRue & Myers, 2014).

Personal Mission

The following literature stream gives a foundation to the third research question, “what

perceived influence do these peer mentoring cohort relationships have on the participating

leaders’ developing understanding of their personal mission?” This literature stream involves a

specific look at personal mission statements, work, and calling. Together these themes help

undergird the idea of leaders recognizing, developing, and articulating their personal mission.

Personal Mission Statements

Personal mission statements help guide one in major life decisions including family,

work, and education (Searight & Searight, 2011). The guidance of such a statement is found in

broadly encapsulating values that are narrow enough to provide discernment for life decisions

(Searight & Searight, 2011). Ultimately, an effective personal mission statement displays how

one wants to be remembered through a values-driven legacy (Covey, 2004; Searight & Searight,

2011).

Individuals desiring to effectively write an eventually realized future script must begin

with the end in mind (Covey, 2004). A personal mission statement suggests elements of

character, values, and principles, which guide short-term and long-term goals or decisions

(Covey, 2004). These guiding principles in a personal mission statement are static and

foundational, not reacting to the whims of a daily grind or cultural shift, thus the ability to trust

the mission statement (Covey, 2004). However, the personal mission statement takes

introspection and time to articulate with the need to periodically revisit as life development

occurs (Covey, 2004).

A few studies have considered the presence or development of personal mission

statements and the effect in particular vocational contexts. Chew et al. (2014) compared the

personal values and goals defining a personal mission for both medical students and currently

practicing physicians. The personal mission provided motivation and articulated values and

goals for both groups. However, the younger medical students were more focused in specific

learning to become smarter at their profession while physicians in a different life stage focused

more on personal values and continued development (Chew et al., 2014).

Rabow, Wrubel, and Remen (2009) conducted a qualitative study of personal mission

statements written by medical students from several institutions. The study unearthed several

themes from the participants’ mission statements including professional skills of empathy and

development; personal qualities of wholeness, humility, and perfectionism; and the scope of

practice including relationships, emotions, healing, service, spirituality, and life balance (Rabow

et al., 2009). Their study revealed a more personalized mission in some contrast to

organizational missions or oaths: “Unlike the content of classic oaths and contemporary

professionalism statements, the students' statements dealt with fears, personal-professional

balance, love, non-hierarchical relationships, self-care, healing, and awe as key to being a

physician” (Rabow et al., 2009, p. 336).

Work

Work, whether part of an occupation for income or duties outside an occupation, can be

perceived as connected to one’s personal mission. Some perceive work as subjective in nature,

defining it merely as a purposed activity (Rehm, 1999). Work can be a blessing with great

fulfillment to be consumed while also being a difficult daily grind that is aligned with a curse

(Terkel, 1997). Understanding work as a curse that beats and scars individuals, Terkel (1997)

asserts, “To survive the day is triumph enough for the walking wounded among the great many

of us” (p. xi). Conversely, work can be understood as daily meaning and life itself, not a means

to an end, earning material possession or comfort, but an end in itself with intrinsic value (Fox,

1994; Terkel, 1997). For all who experience work, whether convinced it is a curse or deep life

meaning, there is a tension between the ache of reality and searching for meaning (Terkel, 1997).

Aquinas (trans. 2016) stated, “To live well is to work well, or display a good activity,”

thus suggesting the importance of work for humanity. Life and vocation should be integrated

with the same source of purpose (Fox, 1994). Such integration of life and work produces

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purpose, joy, and value (Fox, 1994).

It is possible for one’s life work or vocation to be an expression of their values and heart

(Scott, 2010). With this in mind, Dalton (2001) proposes,

The deepest questions in life are spiritual. They are questions about the search for ultimate purposes and enduring truths. They are profoundly personal questions that each of us must ultimately answer in our own way: Who am I? Why am I here? What am I meant for? What is worth living for? How can I be for myself and also for others? Whom and what do I serve? What is it that I love above all else? (p. 17) Although a spiritual quest is highlighted as individuals are transitioning from adolescents into

adulthood, it is truly a lifelong venture (Dalton, 2001). Spiritual development is the deepest form

of learning, recognizing the transcendent nature of life meaning (Dalton, 2001). Therefore,

Dalton (2001) postulates, education must connect learning to passion and commitment toward

spiritual development, defining purpose through religion or philosophy.

Perhaps a new era of work is upon us, redefining work. Work has gone through various

historical changes such as agricultural, industrial, and technological (Fox, 1994). Each change

occurred with what Fox (1994) calls outer work. Inner work is that which entails our own selves

and humanity as a whole. Fox suggests the need for an expansion of the definition of work for

today, one revealing the need for both an inner and outer work.

A study by Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, and Schwartz (1997) revealed most

individuals in their sample studied understood work in one of three categories: job, career, or

calling. Wrzesniewski et al. based their study on the assertion of the three categories of job,

career, and calling originated by Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, and Tipton (2007), thus

establishing some research data behind the job, career, calling construct. The job is seen as a

means to an end, thus fulfilling financial need not any deeper sense of fulfillment. A job seen as

a career is focused on the opportunity of advancement in that career. A job that is part of a

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calling gave the individual personal fulfillment and societal usefulness.

Christian work. Work for Christians should aim at serving the common good of

humanity rather than one’s own interests (Messenger, 2011). However, a biblical sense of

vocation is not straightforward (Placher, 2005). In initial creation, one notices the ethic of work

(Genesis 2:15), which expresses the inherent creational value of work. Work also mirrors and

replicates the capability of the Creator, for the benefit of the created, and is good (Ecclesiastes 2:

18-26; Eckel, 2014; Genesis 2; Psalm 33:9; 119:91; 148:6). After the Fall, in contrast, work was

also understood as a curse (Genesis 3:17-19; Placher, 2005). Furthermore, the position of being

“in Christ” helps define the theological role of work. In this context, Ligo (2011) argues,

“Spirituality becomes religious, or more particularly Christian, when in Christ one continually

moves toward the farthest reach of the true, the good, and the beautiful” (p. 449). To this end,

work must be redeemed and transformed through Christ’s death and resurrection (Ligo, 2011).

Five interdependent variables of work help describe the overall context toward a spiritual

framework (Ligo, 2011). The variables include product, process, customer, worker, and

workplace (Ligo, 2011). The product is representative of the point of creation, and the process is

the specific duties involved in the process of creating (Ligo, 2011). Furthermore, customer and

worker build an interpersonal characteristic of work (Ligo, 2011). Ligo (2011) suggests the

workplace is “a microcosm of the larger world or culture that we inhabit is a ‘sacrament’ for the

spiritual dimension of life” (p. 448).

Ligo (2011) continued by espousing a helpful set of five criteria for developing a

Christian spirituality of work:

1. Does one’s spirituality of work tend toward the unity of the beautiful, the good, and the true?  

2. Does it heed Lonergan’s precepts (be attentive, be intelligent, be reasonable, and be responsible, or do things attentively, rightly, well, and for the sake of others) to

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the fullest extent?   3. Do the relationships in one’s work setting engender Erikson’s notions of trust,

autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity instead of mistrust, shame and doubt, guilt, inferiority, role confusion, isolation, and despair?

4. Does the spirituality foster a sense of vocation?   5. Does it “sacramentalize” the presence of grace? (p. 448)

Understanding a transcendent spiritual dimension, these criteria are connected to each of the five

work variables mentioned previously (Ligo, 2011).

Narratives for work. Rehm (1999) believes individuals build personal narratives,

including those centered on their work. Personal narratives pertaining to work can range from an

extremely positive sense of calling, with significance and fulfillment, to negative work

environments associated with degrading contexts and powerlessness (Rehm, 1999). Those who

consider work a lifelong journey of calling integrate their personal identity with service to others

(Cochran, 1990).

Individuals create and live out a narrative for their work or career that is shaped by

personal and contextual factors (Rehm, 1999). The meaning making of the individual creates a

symbolic story that aligns with, or perhaps guides, the actual situation toward meaningful

patterns for the individual (Cochran, 1990).

In a vocational narrative, Cochran (1990) articulates the gap between the incomplete and

the complete: “One seeks what will make one complete. This gap between incompleteness and

completeness is a gap between what is and what ought to be” (Cochran, 1990). One’s vocational

narrative may develop throughout life as seasons of incompletion, positioning, positing, and

completion (Cochran, 1990). These seasons might not all come to fruition. For example, it is

possible for individuals to work their entire lives and remain in incompleteness (Cochran, 1990).

Those with a developed vocation narrative are unified in two ways; they have integrated a

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coherent position within a narrative and lived out a unified story (Cochran, 1990).

The challenge of creating a meaningful narrative from work is to consider the choices,

responsibilities, and action required for each individual during his or her work context (Rehm,

1999). Individuals are also challenged with taking responsibility in work decisions, thus creating

meaning in work patterns: “The challenge for individuals is to reflectively create a work life with

personal meaning, consider moral aspects of their work activities, cooperate with others, and

struggle to change conditions when necessary” (Rehm, 1999, p. 146).

Calling

Personal mission, purposeful work, or one’s vocation are all closely related to the idea of

a call or calling. A vocation rendered from an internal desire or an external endeavor from a

philosophical framework or role model, even morally stout in nature, will be a detriment to self

(Palmer, 2000). A vocation is not rooted in self-determining will but a listening, which resonates

from the Latin root of vocation, “voice” (Palmer, 2000). Therefore, a vocation is likened to a

call, which must be listened for (Palmer, 2000).

The traditional concept of calling, found largely in the reformers tradition, “is that place

in the world of productive work that one was created, designed, or destined to fill by virtue of

God-given gifts and talents and the opportunities presented by one’s station in life” (Bunderson

& Thompson, 2009, p. 33). The reformers understood a calling to be a specific station as the

only way one could live acceptably to God and add value to mankind (Weber, 1930). Prior to

Luther, work was only considered a necessary evil or curse (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Dik

& Duffy, 2009; Weber, 1930). Weber (1930) postulated the reformers’ idea of calling

undergirded the rise of capitalism, albeit minimally; the traditional view of calling developed a

work ethic foundational to capitalism (Dik & Duffy, 2009). Guinness (1998) believes a

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transcendent calling is necessary to guide capitalism and restrain the excess.

The theological or philosophical origin of calling varies (Rawat, 2011). Calling can be

religious in origination, thus extending from God; philosophically driven, as in a transcendent

destiny not necessarily from a deity; or rooted in secular humanism, understanding a call to come

from within (Rawat, 2011). Regardless of the differing foundations for a call, there is some

agreement on the purposes of a call: serve community, contribute to fellow humanity, serve

others, and engage work that is connected and valuable to others (Bellah et al. 2007; Dik &

Duffy; 2009; Rawat, 2011; Weiss, Skelley, Hall, & Haughey, 2003).

Three main views of calling can be traced in recent history (Waalkes, 2015; Weber,

1930). The reformers’ perspective suggested all serve a call through “stations” or their

occupation or family duties (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Waalkes, 2015; Weber, 1930). The

mystics articulated the inward call of Christ, character, and God-given spiritual gifts (Waalkes,

2015; Weber, 1930). Recently, a modern Christian perspective involves a blend of the previous

two, which understands an inward call of Christ leading to fulfillment in the institution of work

(Waalkes, 2015).

Calling has traditionally contained three “elements of self, society, and the divine”

(Conklin, 2012, p. 298). However, recent understanding of calling does not always contain a

divine element (Conklin, 2012). An individualized American culture tends to, at least partially,

define personality, measure of success, and the purpose of life for individuals (Bellah et al.,

2007). Furthermore, many individuals articulate values and purpose without a clear

metaphysical foundation. Bellah et al. (2007) assert an axiological set, loosely providing a

metaphysical framework that the individualized American culture defines as encompassing the

nature of success, the meaning of freedom, and the requirements of justice.

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Biblical perspective. Scripture describes several types of calling. The primary biblical

calling is to trust and follow Christ, encompassing all of one’s being, thus participating in His

redemptive work (Romans 1:6; 8:28; 1 Timothy 2:4; 2 Thessalonians 1:11; Messenger, 2011;

Placher, 2005). A secondary, albeit rare, calling occurs when God directly communicates a task,

move, role, or any specific directive to an individual (1 Samuel 3:10; Exodus 3:4; Mark 3; Acts

13:2; Messenger, 2011; Placher, 2005). Furthermore, God calls, or commands, everyone to work

(Genesis 1:27-28; Exodus 20:9; Messenger, 2011). Additionally, everyone is called to a life in

Christ, so work is only a part of a call (Colossians 3:17; Messenger, 2011; Placher, 2005). God

also uses a more subtle and common approach of leading someone toward a vocation. In this

final guidance, one is guided through the Word of God as well as guided and given the capacity

by the Holy Spirit (1 Corinthians 12:7-10; Messenger, 2011; Placher, 2005).

Placher (2005) traced the historical perspectives of calling. Calling has been understood

through four broad categories in the early church, the Middle Ages, the reformation period, and

the post-Christian era (Placher, 2005). The early centuries of the church brought tremendous

persecution for professed Christians, thus defining the idea of calling in terms of choosing to

follow Christ in a new life. The Middle Ages were not wrought with persecution; therefore,

Christians decided between the vocation of religious order (monk, priest, friar) or a married life

with family. The reformation period saw a society that offered more occupational choices, and

the reformers taught a sense of God’s calling to any occupation, reducing the dichotomy between

religious vocation and secular occupation. Placher (2005) suggests the post-Christian era of

today is similar to the early church period. Christians are not likely to be martyred but do live in

a society that does not hold to Christian values. Therefore, to be called to a vocation currently

may be more about a call to follow Christ than an occupation.

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Guinness (1998) defines calling as “the truth that God calls us to himself so decisively

that everything we are, everything we do, and everything we have is invested with a special

devotion and dynamism lived out as a response to his summons and service” (p. 4). If not

already known, people are seekers of a calling. Augustine offered a prayer to God, “You have

made us for yourself, and our hearts are restless until they find their rest in you” (as cited in

Guinness, 1998, p. 13).

Moreover, the modern understanding of a call is almost solely individual in nature. Yet,

God calls the individual as well as issuing a corporate call for the Church (Guinness, 1998).

Each individual call must be aligned with the corporate call for the Church. The reality is most

are void of community experiences in an individualized western culture, thus do not recognize

God’s intent to align the Church and their individual callings into a community of faith

(Guinness, 1998).

Calling is critical in a modern context because it defines the self with an identity in

relation to something or someone greater (Guinness, 1998). Calling and vocation hold value and

relevancy for an individual’s meaningful work experience (Dik & Duffy, 2009). Conklin (2012)

postulates the fulfillment of a calling will indirectly develop the self. Still, our modern society

has both hindered and propelled the notion of calling (Guinness, 1998). Western civilization is

one of the few historically that has no distinct purpose of life with which to draw a calling from

(Guinness, 1998). Yet, modern society offers an incredible level of choice and opportunity for

change, thus lending to the capacity for seeking individualized purpose (Guinness, 1998).

Further redefining of vocation, job, and calling continues. For example, vocation has

traditionally been considered synonymous with a job. Waalkes (2015) challenges this automatic

connection, particularly in the context of a Christian worldview:

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If a job or career is a primary place to find a calling, then we have little to say to a majority of our population, including the unemployed or underemployed, stay-at-home parents, and those who are institutionalized (whether the disabled, prisoners, or the aged). (p. 136) Waalkes suggests a gospel correction to our view of calling. First, calling should be lived out in

occupation but with an understanding of the prevalence of sin in those contexts. Second,

working against injustice is part of everyone’s calling. Third, emphasis on community will help

combat the individualism of American culture and calling. Fourth, a gospel correction helps

prevent an unhealthy and idolatrous self-identification in work (Waalkes, 2015).

Guinness (1998) offers a similar corrective. The Catholic distortion of calling included a

dualism that was dismissive of the secular or natural. Conversely, the Protestant distortion of

calling offered a dualism somewhat dismissive of the spiritual. Therefore, a calling must be

grounded in a Caller and devoted to the same. Thus, being in the presence of a Caller is the

primary calling, above doing for the Caller (Guinness, 1998).

Studies on calling. Several themes relate to calling, such as intrinsic motivation, work

flow and meaning, because of the connection to meaning and satisfaction (Dik & Duffy, 2009;

Rawat, 2011). Individuals who sense a particular call and are aligned with that call have a

relatively higher intrinsic motivation because their work is meaningful for them (Dik & Duffy,

2009).

A study by Rawat (2011) found associations between calling and an organizational

context. Specifically, a calling is associated with lower emotional exhaustion, higher emotional

performance, and deep acting within emotional labor or the modification of a worker’s emotions

to match the outward requirements (Rawat, 2011).

Bunderson and Thompson’s (2009) qualitative study of the call of zookeepers found a

couple results worth noting. First, the sample reflected a closer alignment to the classic

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reformers’ understanding of calling than a contemporary secular rendition (Bunderson &

Thompson, 2009). Second, “we found that a neoclassical calling is both binding and ennobling”

(Bunderson & Thompson, 2009, p. 32). The sample reflected positive and negative, or

sacrificial, implications of their call. The positive edge consisted of identification with their

occupation, meaning in their work for society, and importance of their daily duties (Bunderson &

Thompson, 2009). Conversely, the negative edge of calling for these zookeepers included moral

duty that was compelling them, personal sacrifice within their occupation, and the vigilance with

which they performed their duties (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009).

Dik and Duffy (2009) articulate a working definition of calling, useful for research and

application:

A calling is a transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role in a manner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation. (p. 427) Furthermore, a working definition of vocation is asserted, recognizing the overlap, while

suggesting some distinction:

A vocation is an approach to a particular life role that is oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation. (Dik & Duffy, 2009, p. 428) Both defined terms suggest elements of purpose, meaning, and other-focused while calling

assumes motivation of purpose is transcendent and, therefore, comes from outside oneself (Dik

& Duffy, 2009).

Dik and Duffy (2009) assert several views based on their construct of calling and

vocation. First, they view the discernment of calling and vocation as an ongoing process for

individuals. Such a process may include initial or additional career choices as well as meaning

making for the current occupation and job duties. Second, calling and vocation are not limited to

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those privileged as anyone can find purpose and meaning in even the most basic survival-focused

endeavors. Third, calling and vocation is not limited to any particular set of occupations such as

religious or social work. Fourth, some already have a sense of calling or vocation, “presence of,”

and some are still in process of discovery, “search for” (Dik & Duffy, 2009, pp. 429-431).

The discernment process may reflect one’s epistemological perspective, which will have

implications for those counseling or mentoring someone on call or vocation. For example, some

may discern career decisions in a traditional decision making manner with criteria such as self-

assessment, work experience, and interests aligning with specific opportunities while others will

seek a revelatory direction (Dik & Duffy, 2009).

Given the above understanding that individuals bring unique metaphysical and

epistemological perspectives, Dik and Duffy (2009) assert a series of steps in mentoring toward

calling and vocation. First, individuals need to discern and articulate their understanding of

meaning and purpose. Second, one’s work needs to find some integration with such meaning

and purpose. The integration of work with meaning and purpose is of great variation and

depends on one’s metaphysics. For example, a biblical worldview, articulated previously, asserts

absolute claims on the metaphysical assumptions, namely a sovereign Creator with clear purpose

for His creation (Ecclesiastes 12:13; Exodus 9:16; Philippians 2:12-13; Psalm 19:1; Romans

8:28), and epistemological perspectives, through the inspired Word of God illumined by the

Holy Spirit (2 Timothy 3:16-17), on calling and vocation.

The understanding and alignment with a calling is moderately to strongly correlated to a

measure of satisfaction in both job and life (Duffy, Allan, Bott, & Dik, 2014). Duffy et al.

(2014) hypothesized three sources for calling and vocation, which were substantially endorsed

by their sample group. The sources confirmed in their study are external summons, destiny, and

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perfect fit. Each source aligns with a unique metaphysical foundation. The study found those

living out a calling experience high job and life satisfaction regardless of their perceived source

of calling (Duffy et al., 2014). Another study by Wrzesniewski et al. (1997) revealed higher

levels of life and work satisfaction when one’s occupation is considered a calling.

Duffy and Dik (2013) surveyed over forty studies since 2007 on the connection between

calling, work, and personal outcomes. The majority of the recent studies have utilized two

instruments, the Brief Calling Scale (BCS), assessing the presence of a calling, and the Calling

and Vocation Questionnaire (CVQ), which uses three subscales of external summons, pro-social

motivation, and meaning or purpose (Duffy & Dik, 2013). The research has revealed a high

number of individuals, from college through adult, articulate some sense of calling associated

with their work. Particular positive outcomes of calling have included career maturity, career

commitment, work meaning, job satisfaction, life meaning, and life satisfaction (Duffy & Dik,

2013, p. 434). Duffy and Dik (2013) point out the significant increase in the above outcomes

when individuals are living out their calling within their work context.

Kroth and Boverie (2000) conducted a qualitative study of life mission and its potential

impact on adult learning. For their study, they defined mission as representing the foundational

“Why am I?” question of purpose that suggests “a set of assumptions that each person holds

about his or her life purpose, reason for being, or what he or she is to do with life” (Kroth &

Boverie, 2000, para. 5).

The concept of mission or purpose is found in motivational aspects of adult learning

theory although the linkage between mission and learning has not been studied (Kroth &

Boverie, 2000). Kroth and Boverie (2000) postulated a discovered relationship between mission

and adult learning would be valuable for adult educators and learners. Their inquiry was an

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attempt to strengthen self-directed learning and purposeful learning (Kroth & Boverie, 2000).

The result of their study was an initial qualitative data set pointing to a connection

between life mission and adult learning. Most adults have a life mission that steers their

decisions while some are unaware (Kroth & Boverie, 2000). Moreover, the process of learning

can either revise or reinforce their mission (Kroth & Boverie, 2000). Kroth and Boverie (2000)

concluded the study with a few implications for adult learning. Adults operate, known or

unknown, from a set of assumptions about their purpose. Adult educators can improve the

linkage between an individual’s life mission and their learning by facilitating an examination of

their life mission. The examination learning process itself will build awareness, definition, and

connection for the learner. Kroth and Boverie argue, “This linkage would increase learner self-

direction, helping the learner to make meaningful learning choices and maximizing motivation”

(Discussion section, para. 6).

Further connections to an adult learning context have been articulated. Norris and

Barnett (1994) assert the role of cohort experiences in allowing members to find their “pathway

to their personal dream,” thus developing their leadership trajectory (p. 32). As cohort members

experience trusting relationships, quite important in leadership progression (Kouzes & Posner,

2002), they develop self-awareness and leadership skills (Norris & Barnett, 1994).

Description of Selected Peer Mentoring Cohort Models

The first five literature streams reviewed offer a foundation for the overall study while

specifically addressing the second and third research questions for this study. This sixth and

final literature review begins the effort of answering the first research question, “what are the

similarities and differences of structure between the three researched peer mentoring cohort

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models?” The researcher has reviewed the available public records, websites and blogs, of each

peer mentoring cohort model included in the research. An initial summary per model follows.

Convene

Convene is an organization bringing business leaders together in a “peer team” to build a

synergy between “business performance and eternal perspective” (Convene, 2014). Convene

was founded in 1996 by Brian Thatcher and five other business leaders who recognized a

widespread lack of knowledge, tools, and support necessary for leading a business successfully

and with, what they call, “kingdom impact” (Convene, “Our Faith Foundation”, 2014). The

mission of Convene is “to connect, equip, and inspire Christian CEOs and business owners to

grow exceptional businesses, become higher-impact leaders and honor God” (Convene, “Our

Mission”, 2014). At the time of this writing, Convene has active chapters in 15 states and the

District of Columbia seeking to fulfill the stated mission (Convene, 2014).

Convene has espoused three specific values, or “parallel priorities,” which their members

are committed to develop. The parallel priorities for a Christian CEO or business owner are

“growing an exceptional business, being a high-impact family leader, and serving God with

significance” (Convene, “Parallel Priorities”, 2014). First, “growing an exceptional business” is

related to stewardship. Members of Convene seek development in stewarding the health of their

business and considering each stakeholder while recognizing the need for integration with the

other parallel priorities. Second, “being a high-impact family leader” is a unique priority, which

focuses Convene members beyond the business context. This priority seeks to develop business

leaders’ capacity to lead well in their most important ministry, the family. Finally, “serving God

with significance” articulates the personal mission of each Convene member. Members discover

the unique plan God has designed for them as they lead through their business. This mission, or

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calling, “embraces...dreams, strengths, passions, personality, and experiences” (Convene,

“Parallel Priorities”, 2014). All three of these critical priorities are understood in their calling or

personal mission. The organization itself expresses the priorities in this way,

They’re the core areas of our daily calling in which mediocrity and failure can have huge implications for us, our families and businesses. In Christ, success in all these priorities is possible at the same time, resulting in the benefits and blessings of a life well-lived. (Convene, “Parallel Priorities”, 2014) The Convene model of “peer teams” is further understood through four espoused benefits

or results of membership, “insight, growth, impact, and legacy” (Convene, “The Benefits”,

2014). Insight involves the wisdom and intuition gleaned from others in a relational setting that

furthers the individual’s limited perspective. Growth aligns with the parallel priority of

“growing an exceptional business,” articulated previously. Impact is aligned with the parallel

priority of “being a high-impact family leader,” articulated previously. Finally, legacy is aligned

with the parallel priority of “serving God with significance,” articulated previously.

The specifics of how often these peer teams meet, how long they meet each time, what

they do within their meetings, or any other model details was not presented on the publicly

available material. The researcher will seek this information to comprehensively answer

Research Question 1 through an interview of a model leader.

X-Core

X-Core is a program of Giant Worldwide. Giant Worldwide, an organization developing

executive level leaders, has a layered and scalable approach to leadership development. Their

focus is on individual and team development toward growth of healthy organizational culture.

X-Core seeks to develop individuals, teams, and organizations. X-Core is a twelve-month

program designed to develop the individual leader, who in turn develops others in their sphere of

influence. The 100X program is designed to develop leadership teams in an organization to

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foster efficiency and synergy. Finally, the Leadership Academy is a program embedded in an

organization designed to leverage all Giant Worldwide content and systems to effect

comprehensive culture change in the organization (Giant Worldwide, 2016).

X-Core will be the focus of this study because the program fits the delimitations of the

study, as outlined in Chapter 1. The program is described as a “12-month transformational

leadership journey” (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core”, 2016). The three overarching goals of X-Core

are to “strengthen your ‘core’ leadership capacity, multiply (x) transformation into others, and

leave a legacy of impact and influence” (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core”, 2016). The intent of the

program is to equip leaders with wisdom and tools to lead effectively in their context as well as

transform leaders in all areas of their lives (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core Download Details”,

2016). These transformational goals are also intended for multiplication with those the

participants lead (Giant Worldwide, 2016).

X-Core is divided into four elements including four quarterly retreats, monthly X-Core

groups, one on one coaching, and the Giant Toolkit (online resources provided for continued

reference and use with others). The quarterly retreats last one day each and build upon one

another since they introduce new content to participants for their development. They also offer

larger relational contexts for networking and learning. The content of these retreats progresses

through the X-Core program. The first retreat is focused on leading oneself through self-

awareness with the theme “Know yourself to lead yourself” (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core

Download Details”, 2016). The second retreat builds on self-awareness and begins to

contextualize leadership in the team or organization with the theme “Know yourself to lead the

team and organization” (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core Download Details”, 2016). The third retreat

goes beyond leading oneself and leading effectively in an organization to multiplying

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development efforts by leading an X-Core group. The final retreat, labeled “Acceleration,”

develops participants in coaching and apprenticeship strategies with the goal of accelerating the

growth of healthy culture in their organization (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core Download Details”,

2016).

X-Core groups consist of six to eight members who meet twice a month in an online

environment (Giant Worldwide, 2016). These groups offer peer accountability, encouragement,

and shared experiences designed to reinforce learning from the previous retreats (Giant

Worldwide, 2016). Giant Worldwide considers X-Core groups to be the “foundational

components of leader development and growth for members in the X-Core” (Giant Worldwide,

“X-Core Download Details”, 2016). Each X-Core group is led by a Giant Worldwide leader

who, with a coaching posture, will challenge, support, and encourage the participants.

Furthermore, X-Core groups consist of peer relationships offering varying perspectives, insights,

and experiences (Giant Worldwide, 2016). These vital relationships provide an environment for

shared accountability and personal and professional learning.

Further learning occurs, beyond the retreats and X-Core groups, through one to one

coaching. Coaching opportunities are offered monthly to all participants to process their learning

and deepen lasting transformation (Giant Worldwide, 2016). Coaching sessions with the X-Core

group leader are a 30-45-minute timeframe for participants to gain individual attention for

learning and contextualized coaching (Giant Worldwide, 2016).

Younique

Younique is a program of Auxauno founded by author and leadership consultant, Will

Mancini. In 2014 Mancini laucnhed the first Younique personal vision cohort. This endeavor

was a direct result of positive feedback from Mancini’s leadership speaking content and personal

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clarity tools as well as mounting interest by leaders for further growth in personal clarity

(Mancini, 2014). Mancini (2014) designed Younique to accommodate the need for personal

clarity for leaders, citing the purpose “is to give an invaluable contribution through progress in

self-awareness and vocational alignment with [their] vision.” This espoused purpose is realized

through content and tools presenting personal clarity for leaders and a collaborative coaching

process designed to facilitate connections and clarity (Mancini, 2014).

The content for Younique is designed around a set of master tools. Specifically, the

Clarity Spiral, Discovery Grid, Sweet Spot Map, Life Frame, and Horizon Storyline are the set of

tools utilized with accompanying sub-tools or exercises (Mancini, 2014). Each participant is

given a notebook containing the master tools as well as other content (Mancini, 2015b).

The pilot launch of the Younique personal vision cohort, with twelve participants, lasted

one calendar year and utilized the following monthly process through virtual connections

(Mancini, 2014; Mancini, 2015a). Each month the participants connected through a live ninety-

minute webinar introducing specific content and tools for training purposes. After initial

reflection and practice for one week the participants experienced huddles to process content by

answering questions together. The third experience each month involved process groups. These

were groups of four to six participants meeting one or two weeks after the huddle for two hours.

The process groups allowed deeper interaction and reflection with others of similar affinity, life

stage, or ministry context. Additionally, a closed group on a social media platform (the specific

platform was not indicated) was opened to allow participants to interact further for

encouragement (Mancini, 2014). Each participant in the pilot cohort invested $1200 to

participate.

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Since the pilot cohort, the content remains similar but the process of Younique is slightly

changed. Younique can be experienced in stand-alone ninety-day increments or a total of three

ninety-day increments for the full Younique Personal Vision Journey (Mancini, 2015b). Each

ninety-day experience can stand-alone or build toward the next ninety-day experience.

Furthermore, rather than three diverse monthly experiences, the new process brings participants

together weekly in the same group of five to nine people led by someone trained by Mancini

(Mancini, 2015b). The groups gather virtually using a Zoom video conferencing session.

Chapter Summary

This chapter presented a literature review pertinent to the research problem. The review

was also foundational to the research findings articulated in Chapters 4 and 5. The researcher

addressed six foundational areas to the research problem. These foundational categories

included various development-oriented relationships; adult learning theories, models, and

contexts; personal factors for effective leadership; leadership development; facets of a personal

mission; and descriptions of three researched peer mentoring cohort models. Biblical,

theological, and philosophical considerations were presented throughout the review.

The literature review showed a potential connection between development-oriented

relationships, adult learning theory and contexts, developing personal leadership factors,

leadership development, and understanding one’s personal mission. The final category reviewed

the three preselected peer mentoring cohort models, seemingly leveraging the other five

literature streams. However, the literature review found very little research specific to the

development of executive level leaders in peer mentoring cohorts for either contextualized

competencies or personal mission. Thus, a research gap exists with no empirical connection

between all above categories. The literature review has articulated the need for the research

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problem and subsequent research purpose, both stated in Chapter 1. Chapter 3 will present the

methodical design for addressing the research problem.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN

Executive level leaders of most organizations struggle to find the same development

offerings as they experienced early in their career or calling. These executive level leaders can

find themselves isolated and short on mentoring prospects. The result may be a stagnated

leadership development. External peer mentoring cohorts might be able to provide feasible

means for further leadership development of these executive level leaders.

Several organizations and informal cohorts currently employ a model of peer mentoring

cohorts designed to foster leadership development for organizational leaders. These active

models suggest an emergent phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts for leadership development.

This study captured the structure of the researched models and the perceived influence toward

participants’ continued leadership development.

Research Purpose

The intent of this qualitative research was to explore, through a phenomenological study,

the leadership development experience of executive level leaders participating in a peer

mentoring cohort model.

Research Question Synopsis

The following Research Questions guided this study:

1. What are the similarities and differences of structure between the three researched peer

mentoring cohort models?

2. How do participating leaders describe the value of their peer mentoring cohort

relationships for enhancing their competencies pertinent to their particular leadership

context?

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3. What perceived influence do these peer mentoring cohort relationships have on the

participating leaders’ developing understanding of their personal mission?

Research Design Overview

The research was a qualitative research design. Qualitative research is a methodology

designed to explore the meaning individuals and groups ascribe to social problems or situations

(Creswell, 2014). A qualitative approach was helpful for this study because the researcher

intended to discover the experienced meaning of peer mentoring cohort participants.

A qualitative design with a phenomenological methodology was used because of the

interest in exploring the lived experiences of peer mentoring cohort participants (Creswell, 2014;

Leedy & Ormrod, 2013; Moustakas, 1994; Polkinghorne, 1989). Phenomenology assumes it is

critical to understand experience itself before knowing the natural world (Polkinghorne, 1989).

Experience involves active processes such as memory, imagination, and feeling, which go

beyond perception of objects to arrive at awareness (Polkinghorne, 1989). Therefore, the shift in

observational data is from description of objects to description of experience.

Contrary to a positivist research method, where concrete data is procured through

observation, phenomenology approaches research as a constructivist, believing one can find

meaning and experience in subjects and their experience related to their world (Laverty, 2003).

Through a phenomenological design, the research sought a relatively small number of participant

experiences to analyze for patterns of meaning and experience (Moustakas, 1994).

Phenomenology is defined as the study of lived experience in a given phenomenon

(Creswell, 2014; Laverty, 2003; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Within phenomenology, there are two

widely used distinct streams of philosophy leading to divergence in research practice. Husserl

(1965), positing a descriptive phenomenology, understood phenomenology to be a descriptive

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method grounded in an epistemology of the living subject with little attention to the context of

the subject (Laverty, 2003; Wojnar & Swanson, 2007). In contrast, Heidegger, a student of

Husserl, sought lived experience by the subject but with particular attention to the subject’s

context (Laverty, 2003; Wojnar & Swanson, 2007). This form of hermeneutical, or

interpretative, phenomenology recognizes the interplay between subjects and their lives for

meaning-making (Laverty, 2003; Wojnar & Swanson, 2007).

Furthermore, a phenomenological approach is that which considers the dynamics

between humans and their world to be the fullness of reality while the science focused on merely

observation of an object finds only abstraction (Moustakas, 1994). The lifeworld that has been

described as “the way a person lives, creates, and relates in the world” is the concrete and

dynamic reality phenomenology seeks to unearth (Moustakas, 1994, p. 48).

The researcher’s use of phenomenology was not rooted solely in either descriptive or

hermeneutic phenomenological philosophy or epistemology but rather in understanding the value

of retroactive data from lived experience. Therefore, the study derived from both vantage points

in practice, ultimately adhering to a biblical worldview and epistemology of absolute truth found

in the special revelation of Christ and the Scriptures and general revelation in all subject areas of

life and experience (Knight, 2006; Hiemstra, 1988). The researcher believes one’s lifeworld and

meaning-making consists of the general revelation of truth from a Creator God rather than solely

coming from within the individual and being open to any interpretation.

Additionally, qualitative research, although criticized, offers rigor and validation

(Creswell, 2014; Laverty, 2003; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Within phenomenological research,

“bracketing, which is incorporated into intentional focusing on the experience, is one factor that

is central to the rigor of the study” (Laverty, 2003). The researcher sought as much focus on the

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lived phenomenon as possible by bracketing his own experience and bias out while recognizing

this process would not yield complete separation of researcher and participant.

As a phenomenological study seeking to obtain perceptual content from participants, this

research utilized a two-stage qualitative research design (Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod,

2013). The researcher employed two research stages, interview of cohort model leaders to

describe each model and distribution of a qualitative survey to seek cohort participant

perceptions. These two research steps were implemented to garner data to answer the research

questions in this study while providing foundational data for further research.

Population

The intended research population was those who hold executive level leadership

positions in their organizations. Furthermore, the population consisted of leaders currently

involved, or involved in the last three years, in a particular peer mentoring cohort for the purpose

of continued leadership development. The researched population needed to already have a

minimum of six months of experience in the peer mentoring cohort, thus acquiring an adequate

amount of time to articulate a lived experience. Given the diversity of peer mentoring cohort

modalities, and thus various defined lengths of time cohorts are asked to participate, the

researcher determined a six-month minimum participation was adequate to define a lived

experience in the model. The stated population aligned with the research problem, purpose, and

delimiters of the research study presented in Chapter 1.

Sample and Delimitations

The sampling for this research was not random or representative of a larger population

but particular to those who have experienced a peer mentoring model. The participants, although

not random, needed to be multiple to triangulate the described meaning beyond a single

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experience (Polkinghorne, 2005). The sample consisted of surveyed participants from the three

selected peer mentoring cohort models. It was a purposeful sampling process whereby the three

peer mentoring cohort models were selected by accessibility for the researcher, designed for

executive level leaders, and focused on developing competencies for their current context and

further understanding of their personal mission (Patton, 1990).

Qualitative research purposely selects participants who are deemed best to answer

research questions (Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013; Patton, 1990). The goal of this

sampling was not to comprehensively gather data on this phenomenon for purposes of theory-

making but to obtain relevant and accessible data pertaining to the study’s research questions and

delimitations (Jansen, 2010, section 3.2; Patton, 1990).

Once the three models were selected from the above criteria, the researcher sought

permission to access participants from each model, further defining the research sample. The

researcher asked the cohort model leaders for permission to include a group of participants from

their model; these participants were determined by the leader and researcher to be representative

of the model and adequately accessible. The criteria for representation emerged from each

model. Those cohort participants to whom the researcher received access were sent a researcher-

designed survey to accrue research data of participant perceptions. Those peer mentoring cohort

model participants who adequately responded to the distributed survey became the research

sample.

The sample was delimited in several ways. First, the sample was taken from a population

of executive level leaders experiencing, or having experienced in the last three years, a peer

mentoring cohort model. Second, the sample was from three selected peer mentoring cohort

models. Third, not all who participated in the cohort model were accessible or responded to the

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distributed survey. The surveys were distributed by the cohort model leader, thus limiting the

researcher’s control of when or how the survey was distributed.

Limitations of Generalization

The nature of a qualitative study is that research findings are typically not easily

generalized to other populations but rather the research seeks transferability to other contexts

(Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). The desire for this study was to conclude with

transferrable findings to inform other leadership development contexts.

Given this unique desired outcome of a qualitative study, there were limitations to

transferability. As the number of peer mentoring models included was limited and the

participants per model were also limited, transferability to other contexts was reduced. However,

in a qualitative study such as this a large sample size was not necessary to articulate a

transferable lived experience (Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

Furthermore, the study focused on the perception of participants toward their

developmental experience in the model. Their perception may have limitations as their degree of

self-awareness dictated (Goleman et al., 2013). The study did not include the measurement of

participant self-awareness or the inclusion of peer reviews. Additionally, the study did not

review other relational differences in the participants or variables for participant leadership

contexts. These limitations to transferability may offer opportunities for further research.

Research Method

“The focus of qualitative inquiries is on describing, understanding, and clarifying a

human experience. It requires collecting a series of intense, full, and saturated descriptions of

the experience under investigation,” according to Polkinghorne (2005, p. 139). In the process of

seeking a lived experience, the researcher is a subject in any qualitative research methodology

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(Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Reflexivity was present as the researcher instilled

some of his own lived experience and culture in the analysis and interpretation of data (Creswell,

2014).

As a qualitative study using phenomenological methodology, the research included

interviews with cohort model leaders and a qualitative survey of cohort participants. Both

phases were conducted under the qualitative research assumption that meaning and experience

were possible to be obtained from participants in the research (Patton, 1990). Interviews were

utilized to gain an understanding of cohort modality, confirming or adding to the understanding

of the model from the literature review in Chapter 2.

The qualitative survey was employed to gather data on participant perceptions of their

development experience within the cohort. A qualitative survey was also utilized for the dual

purpose it served, collecting the qualitative data of lived experiences and ease of access and

convenience to participants (Gosling et al., 2004; Jansen, 2010; Kraut et al., 2004). Once the

data was collected, a qualitative descriptive analysis with further narrative data from the survey

instrument was implemented to discover shared meaning and common lived themes. Overall,

the outcome desired for a phenomenologist is specific descriptions of the essence of the lived

experience rather than a full explanation or analyses for a theory (Moustakas, 1994).

Instrumentation

The question of instrumentation for a phenomenological study encompasses the

foundational social sciences criteria of seeking meaning rather than data (Englander, 2012).

From natural science, instrumentation is typically related to a subject to object process of

gathering data. The term itself is quantitative in nature. However, for qualitative social science

research, the interviewer and interviewee become a subject-to-subject instrumentation while the

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research focus is from subject to object (the phenomenon) (Englander, 2012). Therefore, in this

phenomenological context, the choice of actual instrumentation and procedure was driven by the

researcher and the research questions of the study. In this research study, an open interview was

used for stage one of the study while a twenty-five-question survey with its qualitative questions

contained the instrumentation for stage two of this phenomenological inquiry.

The researcher designed a two-segment (competency, personal mission) semi-closed

survey that was used in a single empirical cycle. The twenty-five-question survey was pre-

structured using scaled response closed questions, helping to arrive at qualitative data by

categorized means to answer Research Questions 2 and 3, as well as sub-questions throughout to

further narrate the closed questions. Furthermore, an open question per segment helped further

illustrate the data. The combination of closed and open questions helped capture participants’

lived experiences. The survey questions were developed by concepts and sources from the

literature review in Chapter 2.

The survey instrument was developed and distributed through an online platform, Survey

Monkey. The use of an online survey was cost effective and allowed the researcher quick access

to and return of participant experience data. Furthermore, the online distribution and survey

structure minimized intrusion of time and commitment for participants, perhaps increasing

response rates (Gosling et al., 2004; Kraut et al., 2004). A weakness of this approach was a lack

of environmental control and monitoring afforded in open interviews where the researcher could

verify the subject, observe non-verbal cues, and ask follow-up questions (Gosling et al., 2004;

Kraut et al., 2004). However, the researcher was not seeking a comprehensive or representative

data set for experience in this phenomenon but rather initial personal experience patterns of the

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selected participants generally describing the phenomenon that could be the foundation for

further research (Fink, 2003; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

This instrument provided some numerical data in frequency counts and percentages of

categorized responses, but this data was representative of both diversity of experience and

meaning, thus qualitative, and was analyzed in a qualitative framework. Jansen (2010) explains,

“Qualitative-versus-quantitative nature of data is established in the analysis. It is not inherent

ontology but analysis which determines whether a study is qualitative or quantitative” (section

2.1).

A qualitative survey is often not included as a possible method for various qualitative

forms of research, such as phenomenology, while some have espoused the use of qualitative

surveys in collecting data on experience and meaning (Fink, 2003; Jansen, 2010). A qualitative

survey, differing from a quantitative or statistical survey looking for quantity or frequency, seeks

to find qualitative data on the diverse meaning and experiences in a particular population

(Jansen, 2010). Therefore, the researcher chose this method and instrumentation to fit the

intended outcome of the study.

Furthermore, to provide trustworthiness, rigor, and quality for the research instruments,

the researcher followed a multi-step process for each instrument. First, the interview questions

for selected cohort leaders were reviewed by an expert panel for assessing credibility. The panel

was asked to evaluate the instrument with the following criteria: (1) do you believe the questions

will be effective in gathering accurate qualitative data for the pertinent research question; (2) do

you believe any questions are biased or leading; and (3) do you have any suggested questions or

elements not currently included. The panel was asked to give a consensus of their feedback.

Results from the expert panel were incorporated into an updated interview instrument. Second,

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the approval process of the Institutional Review Board for Lancaster Bible College/Capital

Seminary and Graduate School was followed before the instrument was distributed for research

purposes. This final step assured ethical reliability and gave final research permission for this

interview instrument.

The researcher-designed survey instrument also went through pre-research steps prior to

distribution for research. Each step was designed to confirm trustworthiness and quality of the

survey instrument for research and ethical reliability. First, the survey instrument was evaluated

by an expert panel for content quality, rigor and trustworthiness, and revised where necessary.

The researcher identified three experts seasoned in the field of leadership development and with

an understanding of qualitative research design. Their expertise was determined by postgraduate

training and experience. The panel was asked to evaluate the instrument with the following

criteria: (1) do you believe the questions in your area of expertise will be effective in gathering

accurate qualitative data for the pertinent research question; (2) do you believe any questions are

biased or leading; and (3) do you have any suggested questions or elements not currently

included. The panel was asked to give a consensus of their feedback. Results from the expert

panel were incorporated into an updated instrument.

Second, the instrument was pilot tested, for clarity, with five preselected individuals who

were part of the research population. This group of five was asked to respond with specific

feedback. They were asked three questions to structure the feedback: (1) were any questions

confusing to understand (if so, which ones); (2) were any of the questions biased or leading (if

so, which ones); and (3) do you have any further feedback about this survey. Results from the

pilot test were then incorporated into an updated instrument.

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In addition to the pre-research steps articulated above, the approval process of the

Institutional Review Board for Lancaster Bible College/Capital Seminary and Graduate School

was followed before the instrument was distributed for research purposes. This final step

assured ethical reliability and gave final research permission.

Research Procedures

The purpose of this research was to study the peer mentoring cohort phenomenon. With

the research questions and delimitations of the research, the researcher articulated the modality

of three selected peer mentoring cohorts for executive level leaders and described the perceptions

of participants pertaining to competencies for their context and their developing understanding of

a personal mission. This qualitative research used interviews with cohort leaders as well as a

qualitative survey to answer the research questions.

The researcher-designed interview questions, and the survey instrument went through

pre-research steps prior to distribution for research. Each step was designed to confirm

trustworthiness, rigor, and quality of the survey instrument for research and ethical reliability.

First, each instrument was vetted by an expert panel for content credibility and revised where

necessary. Second, the survey instrument was pilot tested, for clarity, with five preselected

individuals who were part of the research population.

In addition to the validation steps listed above, the approval process of the Institutional

Review Board for Lancaster Bible College/Capital Seminary and Graduate School was followed

before the instruments were implemented for research purposes. This final step assured ethical

reliability and gave final research permission.

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Research Question 1

The first stage in the research process began by seeking permission to include the three

selected peer mentoring cohorts in the study. The researcher sent an email communication to

each peer mentoring cohort leader to request permission to both study their modality through an

interview and distribute a survey to their participants. Research Question 1 was addressed

through the literature review in Chapter 2 and this initial research stage of interviews. The

researcher first described each model by analyzing each model’s available information from

websites and distributed documents.

Additionally, the first stage of research included an interview with a cohort leader from

each model to either confirm the literature review findings or add to the findings. This interview

consisted of several open questions to arrive at an adequate understanding of the model

researched. The final version of interview questions is in Appendix E. The researcher

conducted these interviews by phone for increased accessibility and flexibility for the

interviewee. Seeking permission from the interviewee in advance, the researcher recorded the

interview in its entirety through a voice recording application, TapeACall Pro.

Once each interview was concluded, the researcher transferred the data digitally into

Microsoft Word for analysis and summation. The resulting content from the interview was

integrated with the information obtained in the literature review. The researcher then compiled

an updated and complete articulation of each model. For accuracy, the updated articulation of

each model was sent to the model leader previously interviewed, asking the leader to either

confirm the accuracy of the content or provide further clarification. A final summation was

charted, allowing a basic visual comparison between the three models. The researcher used basic

coding to discover themes from the interviews and create the comparison chart.

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Research Questions 2 and 3

The second stage of the research answered Research Questions 2 and 3. The researcher

designed a two-segment qualitative survey instrument. The first segment addressed the leaders’

perceived value of their peer mentoring cohort relationships for enhancing their competencies

pertinent to their particular leadership context. The second segment of the survey addressed the

leaders’ perceived influence that the peer mentoring cohort relationships have on their

understanding of their personal mission. The initial survey instrument is located in Appendix F.

The finalized and approved survey instrument was distributed by email as an online link

to selected active participants in each peer mentoring cohort model. The survey was distributed

directly by a cohort model leader. The survey was distributed to participants in those peer

mentoring cohort models designed specifically for executive level leaders. The participants were

asked via the email correspondence to complete the survey within two weeks of receipt. This

timeframe encouraged quicker responses, allowing the researcher to continue with analysis.

Once survey responses were collected, the data from the survey respondents was

analyzed and categorized to articulate answers to Research Questions 2 and 3. The data from the

closed questions were counted manually for frequency of response by category. Per closed

question, the frequencies for each category were summarized in a frequency distribution table

including count and percentage per category. The researcher also completed a frequency

distribution table per closed question per model, thus providing a descriptive look at the sample

data per model.

A basic content analysis was used for open questions in the survey instrument, further

illustrating data for the sake of answering Research Questions 2 and 3. Attached to each closed

question were open sub-questions designed to narrate the frequency data in the closed question.

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The responses from these open sub-questions were manually analyzed for narrative themes for

both the collective research sample and per model. Moreover, the remaining open questions,

those at the end of each segment, were also manually analyzed for narrative themes. These two

open questions at the end of each segment (competencies and personal mission) provided further

narrative on the lived experiences pertaining to each respective category. The content analysis

did not require a robust protocol of coding like an open interview would because of the

researcher defined nature of the survey questions.

Chapter Summary

Chapter 3 presented an overview of the research purpose, questions, design, population,

sample, delimitations, limitations of generalization, methodology, instrumentation, and

procedure. The study was guided by three research questions. Specifically, the research sought

to describe the value of peer mentoring cohort relationships for enhancing competencies

pertinent to a particular leadership context and the perceived influence peer mentoring cohort

relationships have on participating leaders’ developing understanding of their personal mission.

The researcher selected three peer mentoring cohort models designed, minimally, for developing

executive level leaders in the above-mentioned areas.

Overall, this chapter presented the methodological design of the study. The researcher

chose a phenomenological study to seek lived experiences, while seeking these lived experiences

through a two-stage process, interviews and a participant survey. Within the methodology, a

particular research procedure was presented to articulate the followed process for original

research.

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CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

The purpose of this research was to explore, through a phenomenological study, the

leadership development experience of executive level leaders participating in a peer mentoring

cohort model. The previous chapters have described this research problem, a review of relevant

precedent literature, and the methodological design of the research. Chapter 4 presents the

sources and procedure of data collection for the research as well as relevant data and analysis for

each of the three research questions.

Sources and Procedure of Data Collection

The researcher was successful in procuring permission and access to research the three

peer mentoring cohort models proposed for the research study. The three models researched

were Convene, X-Core, and Younique. Each of the models were summarized through the

literature review and an interview with a model leader. The two Convene leaders were

interviewed via phone on December 1, 2016, and December 6, 2016. The X-Core leader was

interviewed via phone on December 15, 2016. The Younique leader was interviewed via phone

on January 14, 2017. Each interview was recorded on the TapeACall application, transcribed

(shown in Appendix H), and summarized later in this chapter. The final step with the interview

data was coding to create a comparison chart of the three models.

Further data was collected through a qualitative participant survey designed with Survey

Monkey and distributed via email. The qualitative survey was vetted by two pre-research steps.

First, an expert panel reviewed the first draft, giving relevant feedback to the researcher. The

researcher revised the survey per the feedback from the expert panel. Second, the revised draft

of the survey was distributed through the model leader to five Convene participants as a pilot

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test. Four questions were added to the end of the survey for the pilot test (shown in Appendix

C). Four Convene participants responded to the distributed pilot test. The researcher reviewed

the feedback from the pilot test and revised the survey accordingly, resulting in a final survey for

distribution (shown in Appendix G).

The final survey was distributed and open for respondents between December 10, 2016,

and February 4, 2017. Convene has approximately five hundred members; however, the model

leader distributed the survey to approximately twenty participants. From the original

distribution, nine Convene participants responded to the survey. X-Core has approximately three

hundred participants to date; whereas, the model leader distributed the survey to approximately

fifteen participants. From the original distribution, eight X-Core participants responded to the

survey. Younique had twelve participants in their original cohort, so the model leader distributed

the survey to all twelve participants. From the original distribution, six Younique participants

responded to the survey.

Overall, twenty-three individuals responded to the survey. All twenty-three respondents

were usable in the research as they fit the criteria identified in Chapter 1 and 3, executive level

leaders who have participated for a minimum of six months. Therefore, the resultant sample was

twenty-three participants.

Research Design Strengths

The research design and protocol provided a clear direction for the researcher to gather

and analyze data to suggest the lived experience of the sample. The researcher found the

protocol for Research Question 1 to be helpful in obtaining enough information to answer the

research question. The model leaders helped fill in the potential gaps from the literature review

to arrive at an adequate summation of each model.

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The research procedure also functioned to provide data to answer Research Questions 2

and 3. The choice of a qualitative survey afforded the opportunity for the researcher to include

participants from various locations. The survey tool also diminished the commitment of time for

participants, hence increasing the possible sample size.

Research Design Weaknesses

A couple limitations of the procedure are worth noting. First, the survey offered a

directed approach to obtaining a lived experience of participants by asking questions pertaining

to specific competencies or measurements of understanding personal mission. The researcher

also designed open questions after each closed question and open questions at the end of each

section. However, not all respondents chose to answer the open questions. Perhaps requiring

responses to these questions might have given further information. Moreover, an open interview

might offer further narrative as the researcher could ask further clarifying questions. Second, it

was difficult to obtain survey responses. The researcher needed to ask each model leader to send

multiple follow-up requests for participation. Perhaps an open interview procedure would have

brought greater commitment for participation. However, despite the struggle for participation,

the researcher still collected data from twenty-three cohort participants.

Research Question 1

The following section of Chapter 4 articulates each model and adds a comparison

between the three researched models. The researcher first gathered data on the model from

public records, including it in the literature review found in Chapter 2. Upon approval to

conduct research, the researcher then interviewed a leader of each model, seeking to confirm or

add to the data from the literature review. The researcher typically interviewed one leader per

model. However, two Convene leaders were interviewed because of the level of autonomy

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expressed through local Convene chapters. The specific questions asked in each interview and

the subsequent responses by the interviewees are included in Appendix H. The following

summaries integrate the data from the literature review with new information from the leader

interview.

Summary of Convene

Convene is an organization bringing business leaders together in a “peer team” to build a

synergy between “business performance and eternal perspective” (Convene, 2014). Convene

was founded in 1996 by Brian Thatcher and five other business leaders who recognized a

widespread lack of knowledge, tools, and support necessary for leading a business successfully

and with, what they call, “kingdom impact” (Convene, “Our Faith Foundation”, 2014). The

mission of Convene is “to connect, equip, and inspire Christian CEOs and business owners to

grow exceptional businesses, become higher-impact leaders and honor God” (Convene, “Our

Mission”, 2014).

One model leader interviewed articulated the mission as “building strong businesses that

have eternal value” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 1, 2016). The eternal

value is realized through product, people, and purpose. The interviewee believes “strong

businesses create eternal value” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 1, 2016).

Another Convene Chair articulated a specific mission and vision for his team, which he believes

aligns with the Convene mission. The local chapter has a mission “to assist members in the

performance of their companies in a Christ-centered manner.” It is aligned with the Convene

statement but contextualized. The vision for his team is to “create a cohesive and supportive

team of sixteen Christian business leaders that will greatly impact the Washington D.C. area and

beyond for the kingdom of God” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 6, 2016).

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At the time of this writing, Convene has active chapters in 15 states and the District of

Columbia seeking to fulfill the stated mission (Convene, 2014). There are currently about fifty-

five total Convene chapters. The current number of Convene members nationally is between

five hundred and five hundred fifty. These members represent about forty thousand employees

and a combined revenue of seven to nine billion dollars. These numbers represent the size and

scope of the Convene platform to impact people (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

December 1, 2016).

Convene has espoused three specific values, or “parallel priorities,” which their members

are committed to develop. The parallel priorities for a Christian CEO or business owner are

“growing an exceptional business, being a high-impact family leader, and serving God with

significance” (Convene, “Parallel Priorities”, 2014). First, “growing an exceptional business” is

related to stewardship. Members of Convene seek development in stewarding the health of their

business, considering each stakeholder while recognizing the need for integration with the other

parallel priorities. Second, “being a high-impact family leader” is a unique priority that focuses

Convene members beyond the business context. This priority seeks to develop a business

leader’s capacity to lead well in their most important ministry, the family. Finally, “serving God

with significance” articulates the personal mission of each Convene member. Members discover

the unique plan God has designed for them as they lead through their business. This mission, or

calling, “embraces...dreams, strengths, passions, personality, and experiences” (Convene,

“Parallel Priorities”, 2014). All three of these critical priorities are understood in their calling or

personal mission. The organization itself expresses the priorities in this way,

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Moreover, Convene has the desire to impact the owners and CEOs, the employees, and

the communities where they reside. Convene desires their members to realize the opportunity to

take the integration of faith in the workplace down to their own people and then have that as a

mechanism to reach out and impact the community (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

December 1, 2016). One Convene interviewee shared, “We would love for those people, to not

only be great business leaders and great Christians, but [also] understand how to integrate the

Lord’s work into the business. The integration would not only impact the community...but [also]

it would mean your employees understand the beauty of stewardship” (Personal Communication,

December 1, 2016).

The Convene model of “peer teams” is further understood through four espoused benefits

or results of membership, “insight, growth, impact, and legacy” (Convene, “The Benefits”,

2014). “Insight” involves the wisdom and intuition gleaned from others in a relational setting

that furthers the individual’s limited perspective. “Growth” aligns with the parallel priority of

“growing an exceptional business,” articulated previously. “Impact” is aligned with the parallel

priority of “being a high-impact family leader,” articulated previously. Finally, “legacy” is

aligned with the parallel priority of “serving God with significance,” articulated previously.

Convene chapters consist of between eight and sixteen members. Members participate as

long as desired with no set length of the program. Member participation lasts as long as they

perceive value and stay in a position of leadership (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

December 6, 2016). These “peer teams” leverage trusted relationships, which builds a

community of developing leaders. Peer relationships formed offer advisement, challenge,

problem-solving, and encouragement toward holistic development (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 1 and 6, 2016).

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The specifics of how often these peer teams meet, how long they meet each time, what

they do within their meetings, or any other model details was not presented on the publicly

available material. However, the researcher has obtained these details through the interviews.

Convene chapters meet monthly as a group for a full-day called Forum days. Some chapters

have chosen a half-day to accommodate schedule strain for members (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 6, 2016). These days consist of biblical study, prayer, group

problem solving, discussion of leadership development topics, and occasional outside speakers

addressing business leadership needs. The Chair is responsible to assess the needs of the chapter

and address those particular needs through choosing appropriate leadership development topics,

group problem-solving, or a specific speaker. Some chapters bring a speaker in to a monthly

meeting about once a quarter (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 1, 2016).

In addition, the Chair meets with each member once a month for a ninety-minute one-on-

one meeting. One of the interviewees is changing to two meetings a month, offsetting their

transition to half-day Forum days (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 6, 2016).

These one-on-one meetings may be considered coaching times although often they are used for

assessment, reflection, and development for the individual member (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 6, 2016). New members are asked to self-assess with a list of CEO

attributes. These one-on-one meetings are used by the Chair in the first year to work on the

discovered weaknesses. The Chair might use these sessions to follow-up with the member each

month on his or her development in these areas, asking what is working and what is not working.

In some cases, their issues may be brought into the monthly group meeting for further peer help

(Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 1, 2016). One Chair explained, “Convene is

employing two Scriptural elements in the leadership development process; ‘iron sharpening iron’

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in the one-on-one and ‘the counsel of many’ in the monthly group meetings” (Personal

Communication, December 1, 2016).

The content used in monthly Forum days and one-on-one meetings provides a means of

leadership development among a peer team. Leadership development content is provided for

local chapters by Convene. There is a repository of content called an Organizational

Development Roadmap available to every Chair. This provided content is organized topically to

include kingdom purpose, mission, vision, values, strategic issues, and management issues.

Within each topic are multiple options for Chairs to use with their team (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 1 and 6, 2016). The content is designed as a five-year curriculum for

local teams to progress through. Each team delivers the content differently as some are rigid to

the five-year curriculum while others may be flexible (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

December 6, 2016). In addition, Chairs provide their own insight and contextualized content for

leadership development. One interviewee suggested opportunity and challenge discussions offer

development of competencies. Their chapter also uses an overriding theme each year on high

level strategic leadership development (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 6,

2016).

Furthermore, Convene chapters seek holistic leadership development through

development of business and life competencies. One interviewee shared, “The great thing about

Convene, is that it is not only focused on business and integration of faith in the workplace, but

we care about the family and spiritual health of the individual” (Personal Communication,

December 1, 2016). Personal mission, life, and family are addressed collectively and in one-on-

one meetings with the Chair. Some Chairs focus more on these life issues than others, but it is

an underlying value for Convene.

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Convene Chairs have a measure of autonomy in how they run their chapters. However,

there is consistency of training for Chairs and continual connection among Chairs. There are

approximately 40 Chairs, who are broken down in support teams that get together every other

week on a conference call to discuss issues, ideas, and work through opportunity and challenge

exercises. There is also a semi-annual meeting of Chairs for two and a half days. These formal

Chair meetings consist of guest speakers, Chair topical presentations for consideration, and

administrative staff updates. Furthermore, there is an annual leadership conference for two and a

half days bringing around three hundred to three hundred fifty members together plus about

eighty percent of the Chairs. The conference has guest speakers for general topics, Convene

member testimonials, and breakout sessions for specific topics (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 6, 2016).

Goals for Convene are summed up in the mission and values articulated above. Given

the measure of autonomy within Convene, local chapters often articulate their own goals. For

example, one of the model leaders shared the goals for his chapter, believing they reflected

Convene and represented the group’s local reality. Forum Day goals for this chapter are “to

provide a safe, confidential and high energy environment; create a community of support; ensure

high value and benefit to member businesses; and address two business opportunities every

month” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 6, 2016). There is also a goal to meet

once a month one-on-one with each member. This Chair’s specific goal is to serve them

personally with what they need or are dealing with (personal, business, spiritual, family).

Another interviewee has a goal of a second fully functioning chapter in his area (Interviewee,

Personal Communication, December 1, 2016).

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As goals are articulated, opportunities for enhancing effectiveness of Convene are

noticed. Two specific needs for improvement were mentioned by the interviewees. First,

Convene needs to provide a larger footprint by expanding with chapters in more cities as well as

internationally (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 1, 2016). Second, Convene

needs to periodically review content to determine if it is the most current available (Interviewee,

Personal Communication, December 6, 2016).

Summary of X-Core

Giant Worldwide is an organization focusing on leadership development in the corporate

and non-profit sector. Their mission is “to raise up liberators who will change leadership culture

in every major sector and city in the world” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December

15, 2016).

The focus of Giant Worldwide is on individual, team, and organizational development

toward growth of healthy organizational culture. Therefore, they have a layered and scalable

approach to leadership development (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15,

2016). X-Core seeks to develop individuals, teams, and organizations. X-Core is a twelve-

month program designed to develop the individual leader, who in turn develops others in their

sphere of influence. The 100X program is designed to develop leadership teams in an

organization to foster efficiency and synergy. Finally, the Leadership Academy is a program

embedded in an organization designed to leverage all Giant Worldwide content and systems to

affect comprehensive culture change in the organization (Giant Worldwide, 2016).

X-Core will be the focus of this study because the program fits the delimitations of the

study as outlined in Chapter 1. The program is described as a “12-month transformational

leadership journey” (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core”, 2016). X-Core is the main way individuals

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who desire connection in a leadership development process are engaged to accomplish the

mission of Giant Worldwide (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15, 2016). X-

Core provides peer connections with others also interested in developing as a leader

(Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15, 2016).

The three overarching goals of X-Core are to “strengthen your ‘core’ leadership capacity,

multiply (x) transformation into others, and leave a legacy of impact and influence” (Giant

Worldwide, “X-Core”, 2016). The intent of the program is to equip leaders with wisdom and

tools to lead effectively in their context as well as transform leaders in all areas of their lives

(Giant Worldwide, “X-Core Download Details”, 2016). These transformational goals are also

intended for multiplication with those they lead (Giant Worldwide, 2016).

The model leader expressed an X-Core vision aligning with what is stated on the

website while providing further definition specific to the program. Through the X-Core

program, Giant Worldwide wants to be consistent with their mission by raising up liberating

leaders who will impact their organizations. A liberator is defined as “one who fights for the

highest possible good in the lives of those they lead” (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

December 15, 2016). The vision of X-Core is articulated in practice as “want[ing] to help people

become leaders worth following (implying that a liberator is worth following), to then build

leaders worth following, and then lead organizations everyone wants to work for” (Interviewee,

Personal Communication, December 15, 2016).

X-Core leaders focus on participants “becoming” and “building” (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 15, 2016). Two vison questions drive X-Core leaders, “how do we

get leaders healthy, and how do we multiply that” (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

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December 15, 2016). Leaders consider transformation of the individual and multiplication

through others in their organization.

Initially, X-Core had only one group, which anyone interested in participating had to

attend. Giant Worldwide is now expanding the X-Core program by adding regional groups

around the United States. Each regional group has between twenty and forty-eight participants

(Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15, 2016).

X-Core is divided into four elements including four quarterly retreats, monthly X-Core

groups, one on one coaching, and the Giant Toolkit (online resources provided for continued

reference and use with others). The first and last quarterly retreats are held for two days each

while the middle two retreats are a day and a half long (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

December 15, 2016). Each retreat builds upon one another as they introduce new content to

participants for their development. They also offer larger relational contexts for networking and

learning.

The content of retreats progresses through the X-Core program and is designed around

their vision framework, “to become, build, and lead” (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

December 15, 2016). The first retreat is focused on leading oneself through self-awareness with

the theme “Know yourself to lead yourself” (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core Download Details”,

2016). The second retreat builds on self-awareness and begins to contextualize leadership in the

team or organization with the theme “Know yourself to lead the team and organization” (Giant

Worldwide, “X-Core Download Details”, 2016). The third retreat goes beyond leading oneself

and leading effectively in an organization to multiplying development efforts by leading an X-

Core group. The final retreat labeled “Acceleration” develops participants in coaching and

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apprenticeship strategies with the goal of accelerating the growth of healthy culture in their

organization (Giant Worldwide, “X-Core Download Details”, 2016).

A set of tools is provided to X-Core leaders for quarterly retreats and X-Core groups,

which meet between retreats. These tools are strongly recommended and used by all leaders in

each regional X-Core group while some flexibility is afforded leaders to contextualize content

toward the needs of their group (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15, 2016).

X-Core groups consist of six to eight members who meet once a month between retreats

in an online peer learning environment (Giant Worldwide, 2016; Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 15, 2016). These groups offer peer accountability, encouragement,

and shared experiences designed to reinforce learning from the previous retreats (Giant

Worldwide, 2016). Giant Worldwide considers X-Core groups to be the “foundational

components of leader development and growth for members in the X-Core” (Giant Worldwide,

“X-Core Download Details”, 2016). Each X-Core group is led by a Giant Worldwide leader

who, with a coaching posture, will challenge, support, and encourage the participants.

Furthermore, X-Core groups consist of peer relationships offering varying perspectives, insights

and experiences (Giant Worldwide, 2016). These vital relationships provide an environment for

shared accountability and personal and professional learning.

The model leader interviewed expressed an explicit design by Giant to leverage peer

relationships for the previously stated advantages: “A coaching environment of a Core-group

unit of six to eight is a great opportunity for depth, collaboration, and accountability. We have

intentionally structured this with the understanding that the learning is happening peer to peer in

these Core groups” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15, 2016). Many X-Core

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participants have confirmed the value of peer relationships in their development process through

the program (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15, 2016).

Further learning occurs, beyond the retreats and X-Core groups, through one to one

coaching. Coaching opportunities are offered monthly to all participants to process their learning

and deepen lasting transformation (Giant Worldwide, 2016). Coaching sessions with the X-Core

group leader are a 30-45-minute timeframe for participants to gain individual attention for

learning and contextualized coaching (Giant Worldwide, 2016).

Leader development is the focus in all aspects of the X-Core program. The leader

interviewed indicated, “We focus on three areas: IQ (leadership competency piece), EQ

(emotional intelligence to connect well with people), and PQ (personality quotient focusing on

self-awareness and personality)” (Personal Communication, December 15, 2016). The

development content represented in the categories previously mentioned leverages a set of visual

tools to create a common language for participants. Specifically, leader development

components include push/pull communication skill sets (dealing with communication patterns),

support/challenge matrix (helping with the skills of managing and leading effectively), and

vision communicating change (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15, 2016).

Personal mission is also addressed in developing the individual leader. Giant Worldwide

believes all leaders should be liberators “fighting for the highest possible good in the lives of

those [they] lead” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15, 2016). X-Core uses a

tool called the Peace Index, which addresses leaders’ personal mission and their current

alignment with that mission. The Peace Index “asks how leaders are doing personally, and if

they are aligned with what they are supposed to be doing” (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 15, 2016).

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The model leader interviewed stated several aspects of learning that participants

experience through X-Core. Self-awareness has increased in many as they discover the depths of

their personality and how they respond as a leader to stress and other environmental factors.

Participants have developed leader skills including both cognitive intelligence and emotional

intelligence components. Furthermore, learning has occurred on how other personalities engage

with them, fostering appreciation and understanding of differences in other people. These areas

of learning are helping leaders leverage their team (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

December 15, 2016).

The interviewee believes the X-Core model is effective in mission, vision, and praxis.

However, a couple areas of improvement were suggested. First, the virtual component of X-

Core (groups and one-on-one coaching) may limit relational connection. The geographical

spread contributes to the need for virtual connectivity while a recent expansion to regional

groups has helped address this limitation (Interviewee, Personal Communication, December 15,

2016). Another weakness may be inclusion of all levels of leadership in the X-Core program.

Including leaders at all levels benefits a larger leader pool and allows for further culture change

in organizations. However, some executive level leaders have been surprised with the inclusion

of all leader levels. The development needs for executive level leaders is unique enough for

them to desire a peer group for mutual understanding and collaboration (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, December 15, 2016).

Summary of Younique

Auxano is a leadership coaching orgranization for the Church, which was founded by

author and leadership consultant Will Mancini. The mission of Auxano is “creating

breakthrough clarity with church teams to realize their vision” (Interviewee, Personal

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Communication, January 14, 2017). In 2014 Mancini launched the first Younique personal

vision cohort as part of the Auxano offerings. This endeavor was a direct result of positive

feedback from Mancini’s leadership speaking content and personal clarity tools as well as

mounting interest by leaders for further growth in personal clarity (Mancini, 2014). The mission

of Younique is to “catalyze progress in personal calling for the Church, through the Church, to

release the Church” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). Mancini (2014)

designed Younique to accommodate the need for personal clarity for leaders, citing the purpose

“is to give an invaluable contribution through progress in self-awareness and vocational

alignment with [their] vision.” This espoused purpose is realized through content and tools

presenting personal clarity for leaders and a collaborative coaching process designed to facilitate

connections and clarity (Mancini, 2014).

Younique has measurable goals guiding the process for participants to arrive at clarity of

their personal calling (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). Younique

leadership seeks to measure the enduring value of their toolbox of content, the breakthrough with

participants (measurable difference in one’s life), the ability for participants to live with more

power, and the interpretative life (insights into participants’ own story) (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, January 14, 2017).

The Younique process seeks eight deliverables for participants. There are four

deliverables pertaining to identity: life call (mission or purpose statement), life core (core

values), life steps (strategy piece for a rhythm [participants] want to step into or resource [they]

want to increase in the next year), and life score (storylines in [their] life [they] can evaluate at

any time) (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). There are also four

deliverables pertaining to direction: a three-year vision, a one-year vision, a ninety-day goal, and

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a “this week approach” (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017).

The content for Younique is designed around a set of master tools. Specifically, the

Clarity Spiral, Discovery Grid, Sweet Spot Map, Life Frame, and Horizon Storyline are the set of

tools utilized with accompanying sub-tools or exercises (Mancini, 2014). Each participant is

given a notebook containing the master tools as well as other content (Mancini, 2015b).

Younique explicitly develops leadership competencies. A foundational leadership

competency is applying self-awareness for self-leadership. The interviewed Younique leader

asserts, “One must be able to lead themselves before leading others” (Personal Communication,

January 14, 2017). The toolbox of content provides ample content on self-leadership. The

leaders’ self-awareness allows them to lead others better. These competencies are prior building

blocks for better leadership (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). In

addition, Younique develops other leadership competencies by teaching on leading from mission

and from values and creating a picture of the future (Interviewee, Personal Communication,

January 14, 2017).

Younique is designed to develop one’s understanding of a clear personal mission.

Younique is perhaps one of the most intentional peer mentoring models for personal mission due

to the time participants spend processing through assessment and interpretation (Interviewee,

Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). Personal mission is clarified in Younique cohorts

by commitment of time, assessment efforts, required peer interaction, and experienced coaching

(Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017).

The pilot launch of the Younique personal vision cohort, with twelve participants, lasted

one calendar year and utilized the following monthly process through virtual connections

(Mancini, 2014; Mancini, 2015a). Each month the participants connected through a live ninety-

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minute webinar introducing specific content and tools for training purposes. The pilot cohort

had ten modules or topics over the course of twelve months (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, January 14, 2017). Fifty percent of the tools Younique uses are curated for the

toolbox and fifty percent are tools Mancini has created for Younique (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, January 14, 2017). After initial reflection and practice for one week, the

participants experienced huddles to process content by answering questions together. The pilot

cohort only had 12 participants so rather than separating into smaller huddles, they discussed as a

whole cohort (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). The third experience

each month involved process groups. These were groups of three to four participants who met

for two hours one or two weeks after the huddle (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January

14, 2017; Mancini, 2014; Mancini, 2015a). The process groups allowed deeper interaction and

reflection with others of similar affinity, life stage, or ministry context. Additionally, a closed

group on a social media platform (the specific platform was not indicated) was opened to allow

participants to interact further for encouragement (Mancini, 2014).

Peer relationships are purposely leveraged in the Younique model as they are essential to

get breakthrough in the learning process (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14,

2017). Part of the learning process in Younique through peer relationships is to be able to

articulate personal clarity to others. Peer relationships provide accessible and positive

accountability among growing friendships with built in peer pressure and means for explicit

accountability (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). Furthermore, peers

gain more perspective on their life as they are around others gaining perspective on their lives.

Peers also gain new insight and perspective from their heritage and other aspects, which is a

higher level of learning (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). In addition,

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multiple perspectives in a peer cohort offer multiple case studies with each tool and topic

discussed and applied (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). Therefore, the

learning for everyone is enhanced through multiple case studies. One leader credits the power of

this sharing, saying,“It would be more efficient and marketable to do a solely online class, but it

would not create the breakthrough we are after in people’s lives” (Personal Communication,

January 14, 2017).

Since the pilot cohort, the content remains similar, but the process of Younique is slightly

changed. Younique can be experienced in stand-alone ninety-day increments or a total of three

ninety-day journeys for the full Younique Personal Vision Journey (Mancini, 2015b). Each

ninety-day journey can stand-alone or build toward the next ninety-day experience. The first two

journeys can be experienced as day and a half intensives, totaling three intensive days. The other

option is to do journey one and two in twelve weeks each. The twelve-week journey option

consists of a seventy-five-minute video conference once a week for twelve weeks. The first two

journeys develop the participant’s life plan. The third journey is a ninety-day application

together of the life plan, which was created during journey one and two (Interviewee, Personal

Communication, January 14, 2017). Furthermore, rather than three diverse monthly experiences,

the new process brings participants together weekly in the same group of five to nine people led

by someone trained by Mancini (Mancini, 2015b). The groups gather virtually using a Zoom

video conferencing session.

The changes to the model were largely made to provide small wins for participants along

the journey. An interviewee shared, “We changed from a twelve-month model to a thirty-six-

week model, with a finish line every twelve weeks (Personal Communication, January 14, 2017).

And, the leader further clarified, “A long journey requires some breakthrough moments to keep

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people going” (Personal Communication, January 14, 2017). Additionally, the training materials

were developed while the pilot cohort was progressing. Therefore, a refining process during and

after the first cohort was necessary (Interviewee, Personal Communication, January 14, 2017).

Model Comparison

The following model comparison was compiled from the interviews of each model

leader. The interview questions and transcription are found in Appendix H. The researcher then

used open coding to discover themes from the interviews and created the following comparison

chart (Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

The following steps define the coding protocol utilized by the researcher. First, the

interview transcripts were analyzed for model components or themes showing in each

transcription. These components and subsequent coding themes for this chart (see Table 1) were

guided by the criteria for inclusion of each peer mentoring cohort model in the research and the

interview questions seeking a description of the model. Once the components were identified,

several themes emerged as the criteria to compare the three models. The ten emerging themes

included target, mission, group size, participation length, goals, components, group autonomy,

competencies developed, personal mission addressed, and explicit peer relationship design.

Once the themes emerged across all interviews, the researcher began to identify the

content per interview transcript that aligned with each of the ten themes. The chart was then

created with the resultant themes and corresponding content.

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Table 1

Model Comparison Chart

Model Target Mission Group Size Convene Christian business

owners and CEOs “to connect, equip, and inspire Christian CEOs and business owners to grow exceptional businesses, become higher- impact leaders and honor God”

8-16

X-Core Corporate leaders “help people become leaders worth following, to then build leaders worth following, and then lead organizations everyone wants to work for”

- 20-48 regionally - 6-8 in Core groups

Younique Senior Pastors and executive level leaders in Christian non-profits

“catalyze progress in personal calling for the Church, through the Church, to release the Church”

Model Participation Length Model Goals Components Convene Indefinite - Growing an exceptional

business - Being a high-impact family leader - Serving God with significance

- Monthly Forum Day - Monthly one-on-one coaching

X-Core 12 months - Strengthen your “core” leadership capacity - Multiply transformation into others - Leave a legacy of impact and influence

- Four quarterly retreats - Monthly X-Core groups - One on one coaching - The Giant Toolkit

Younique 12 months (now three ninety-day journeys)

Identity: - life call - life core (core values) - life steps (strategy piece) - life score (storylines in your life you can evaluate) Direction: - three-year vision - one-year vision - ninety-day goal - “this week approach”

- Live webinar - Huddle - Process group - Interaction on closed social media platform

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Table 1–Continued. Model Comparison Chart

Model

Group Autonomy?

Leader Competencies Developed?

Personal Mission Addressed?

Peer Relationships Explicit?

Convene Yes (leader largely directs format and content)

- Kingdom purpose - Mission - Vision - Values - Strategic issues - Management issues

- Encompassed in the priority, “serving God with significance” - Addressed in Forum Days and one-on- ones with Chair

Yes

X-Core No (format and content are consistent across model)

- IQ (leadership competency piece) - EQ (emotional intelligence to connect well with people) - PQ (personality quotient focusing on self-awareness and personality)

- The Peace Index “asks how leaders are doing personally, and if they are aligned with what they are supposed to be doing”

Yes

Younique No (format and content are consistent across model)

- Self-awareness - Self-leadership - Leading from mission - Leading from values - Creating a picture of the future

- Through assessment and interpretation - By commitment of time, assessment efforts, required peer interaction, and experienced coaching

Yes

Research Question 2 - Data and Descriptive Analysis

The following segment provides a descriptive analysis of the findings for Research

Question 2. The distributed participant survey provided the data necessary to answer this

research question. The data from the closed questions were counted for frequency of response

by category. Per closed question, the frequencies for each category were summarized in a

frequency distribution table including count and percentage per response category. The

researcher completed a frequency distribution table per closed question per model as well as for

the overall sample. A summary analysis was provided per question including the descriptive

narrative provided from the optional open sub-question following each closed question.

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The remaining open questions, those at the end of the contextualized leadership

competencies segment, were analyzed for narrative themes. These two open questions provide

further narrative on the lived experiences pertaining to the contextualized leadership

competencies category.

Leadership competency includes skills, behaviors, or practices that enhance individuals’

ability to effectively lead in their leadership role. Necessary competencies vary by context as

they are not limited to one particular set but relevant to a context (Barna, 1993; Bass, 1990;

Blizzard, 1956; Boersma, 1988; Goleman et al., 2013; Hersey et al., 2001; Kiedis, 2009; Kouzes

& Posner, 2002; Kouzes & Posner, 2010; Longenecker, 2014; Nauss, 1994; Woodruff, 2004;

Yukl, 2012).

Task Competencies

Task Competencies include intelligence (general and creative), technical, intuition, and

organizational (Bass, 1990; Yukl, 2012). These competencies were measured by the first four

questions of the qualitative survey, and results are shown in Tables 2 through 5.

Question 1.

The data gathered from question 1 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed some amount of creativity to lead with 91.3% responding with some

agreement to the statement. However, 8.7% disagreement shows some varied participant

experience (see Table 2).

The narrative from optional responses suggests interaction with others has helped

participants’ leadership creativity. For example, one respondent cited the collective creativity of

their peers while another suggested the interaction with the model leader was helpful in

developing their creativity to lead.

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Table 2

Leadership Creativity

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: my leadership creativity has developed (e.g. creatively cast vision, creatively communicate, creatively problem-solve).

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 44.4% 4 Agree 44.4% 4 Disagree 11.1% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

As a member of the group you are exposed to a diverse group of creative problem solvers each with their own distinct abilities in this area. Being exposed to other processes gives you tools to add to your own arsenal. It has been the interaction with my chair that has benefitted me the most, followed by the guest speakers we have had present.

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: my leadership creativity has developed (e.g. creatively cast vision, creatively communicate, creatively problem-solve).

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 37.5% 3 Agree 62.5% 5 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

The frameworks extend my ability to do these things further. So, the creativity hasn't increased per se, but the creativity is built onto a larger framework, so the end result is more extensive.

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Table 2–Continued. Leadership Creativity

Younique As a result of my experience in Younique: my leadership creativity has developed (e.g. creatively cast vision, creatively communicate, creatively problem-solve).

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 2 Agree 50.0% 3 Disagree 16.7% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

Personally, this was a target outcome of the Younique program, and it was successful. Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: my leadership creativity has developed (e.g. creatively cast vision, creatively communicate, creatively problem-solve).

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 39.1% 9 Agree 52.2% 12 Disagree 8.7% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps the competency to creatively lead is developed similarly regardless of

model design and focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value

of peer mentoring relationships in general.

Question 2.

The data gathered from question 2 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed some amount of technical competency with 73.9% responding with some

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agreement to the statement. However, 26% disagreement shows a varied participant experience

(see Table 3).

Table 3

Technical Competencies

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: some technical competence, pertinent to my role, has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 3 Agree 44.4% 4 Disagree 22.2% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

Each member of the group has a different background which allows all to harness the power of the group. (financial, marketing operations etc.)

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: some technical competence, pertinent to my role, has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 37.5% 3 Agree 25.0% 2 Disagree 37.5% 3 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

Some of the tools are technical in nature. e.g., the power of the medium and what percentage of communication is based on content, delivery, body language, etc.

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Table 3–Continued. Technical Competencies.

Younique As a result of my experience in Younique: some technical competence, pertinent to my role, has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 0.0% 0 Agree 83.3% 5 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 16.7% 1

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

I would not have answered this question if possible because the intent is unclear... what do you mean by 'technical competence'? I have a degree in computer engineering, however I'm quite certain that ascertaining a subjective measure of increased technical competence in my primary vocational role is not your intent. (I serve in ministry in a tent-maker capacity.)

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: some technical competence, pertinent to my role, has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 26.1% 6 Agree 47.8% 11 Disagree 21.7% 5 Strongly Disagree 4.3% 1

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The narrative from optional responses suggests the diversity of technical competencies

and specific model content have both helped develop the individual. For example, one

respondent cited the power in diversity of backgrounds, such as financial, marketing, and

operations, lending to development of competencies. Another respondent gave examples of

content shared in the model that gave technical skills such as communication.

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The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps technical competencies for one’s role are developed similarly regardless of

model design and focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value

of peer mentoring relationships in general.

Question 3.

The data gathered from question 3 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed the intuitive sense with 95.7% responding with a measure of agreement to

the statement. Only 4.3%, or one respondent, indicated there was no development of an intuitive

sense through his or her experience in the model (see Table 4).

Table 4 Intuitive Sense

Convene

As a result of my experience in Convene: I have a better intuitive sense for leading in my role.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 22.2% 2 Agree 77.8% 7 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

The group's experiences shape you over time allowing for their actions to enter into your leadership. If I have not been through a situation, but a member of the group has that experience plays out in my execution.

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Table 4–Continued. Intuitive Sense.

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I have a better intuitive sense for leading in my role.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 50.0% 4 Agree 37.5% 3 Disagree 12.5% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

Intuition will take far more reps.

Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I have a better intuitive sense for leading in my role.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 66.7% 4 Agree 33.3% 2 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 4

I perceive 'intuitive' to be a loaded word. Have I developed a greater awareness? Yes. However, this is a learned sensitivity that I would not quantify as innately instinctive. I would have responded 'Neutral' had that been an option. Helped to clarify where I "should" and should not be investing my time. Just the "two word" personal vision tool has helped me know better when I am in my sweet spot and not. I am less self-critical when I realize I am doing something that is not in my sweet spot. It gave me greater clarity on my unique contribution.

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Table 4–Continued. Intuitive Sense.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I have a better intuitive sense for leading in my role.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 43.5% 10 Agree 52.2% 12 Disagree 4.3% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The narrative from optional responses brings some clarity to how participants understood

the value of their experience in the model to develop a sense of intuition. Several respondents,

mainly from the Younique model, indicated a greater clarity of where and how they should serve

in their role, suggesting intuition helps bring clarity of function. Another participant explained

the value of the group, realizing the experience of others contributes to one’s own intuitive

execution.

The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps a sense of intuition is developed similarly regardless of model design and

focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value of peer mentoring

relationships in general.

Question 4.

The data gathered from question 4 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed the competency to effectively lead an organization with 91.3% responding

with a measure of agreement to the statement. However, 8.7% indicated they did not develop the

competency to effectively lead an organization through their experience in the model (see Table

5). It is worth noting, one respondent indicated “disagree” to the statement but agreed this

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competency was developed for leading in his or her ministry context. The researcher designed

the survey to allow respondents to consider their main leadership context, typically vocational.

This respondent separated all his or her various leadership roles and consequently struggled with

this and other questions.

Table 5

Organizational Leadership

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: my competence to effectively lead my organization has enhanced.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 44.4% 4 Agree 55.6% 5 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

Through listening to the mistakes and successes of others it helps you to navigate complex challenges. The concepts that Convene brings to leadership, line up with our philosophy as a company and mine as an individual. Good to Great, DISC assessments, the 12-month reporting are all things that we are using as a company and have directed our path during high growth.

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: my competence to effectively lead my organization has enhanced.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 62.5% 5 Agree 37.5% 3 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

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Table 5–Continued. Organizational Leadership. Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: my competence to effectively lead my organization has enhanced.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 66.7% 4 Agree 0.0% 0 Disagree 33.3% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

Having an increased sensitivity, greater creativity, and a stronger understanding of myself and my unique giftedness provides many benefits. However, directly correlating that to effective leadership is not guaranteed. In my ministry work I would say I 'Agree', however in my day job I would 'Disagree'. Again, I would have responded 'Neutral' had that been an option. Yes, greater awareness of the unique mission/vision God has given me has helped shape what I give to our organization.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: my competence to effectively lead my organization has enhanced.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 56.5% 13 Agree 34.8% 8 Disagree 8.7% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The narrative from optional responses brings further insight to the responses. Three

points were made in the clarifying responses: listening and sharing the experience (successes or

failures) of others in the cohort helped develop participants’ ability to lead in their organization,

content taught and discussed helped further their development, and increased understanding of

mission and vision contributed to their organizational leadership competency. Further examples

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of what may help lead to greater organizational leadership were given by one respondent (i.e.

sensitivity, creativity, and self-awareness).

The response across models has some variation. The distribution of answers is similar

with Convene and X-Core as both had 100% in agreement. Younique responses were more

balanced with 66.7% responding in agreement and 33.3% responding in disagreement.

Interpersonal Competencies

Interpersonal competencies are found in sub-categories such as empathy, care, emotional

intelligence, consistency, timing, communication, conflict resolution, authenticity, and trust

(Bass, 1990; Goleman et al., 2013; Yukl, 2012). These competencies were measured by

questions 5 through 11 of the qualitative survey, and results are shown in tables 6 through 12.

Question 5.

The data gathered from question 5 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed empathy for others in the participant’s organization with 91.3%

responding with a measure of agreement to the statement. Only 8.7% indicated they did not

develop empathy through their experience in the model (see Table 6). It is worth noting the two

respondents who selected “disagree” indicated they only chose to respond “disagree” to the

question because they already had a value and practice of empathy prior to their experience in

their cohort.

The narrative from optional responses brings further perspective on how participants

understood the value of their experience in the model to develop empathy. One respondent

suggested the tools used by their model helped build empathy for others. Another articulated the

development of sympathy and understanding while still recognizing a lack of emotional

engagement or empathy toward others. Still another respondent recognized the understanding of

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Table 6

Empathy

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I have felt greater empathy for those in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 3 Agree 55.6% 5 Disagree 11.1% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

I feel great empathy for people because of my Christian values and I disagreed only because I am already tuned into my team. DISC and other tools have greatly enhanced my attitude toward others.

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I have felt greater empathy for those in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 50.0% 4 Agree 50.0% 4 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

The ability to understand my tendencies and the mere understanding that different tendencies exist is enough to build empathy in others.

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Table 6–Continued. Empathy.

Younique As a result of my experience in Younique: I have felt greater empathy for those in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 0.0% 0 Agree 83.3% 5 Disagree 16.7% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 3

I would say more sympathy... greater understanding. I'm not a deeply empathetic person, so feeling their emotions is not likely. Some in the sense that I recognize how challenging it can be to serve without clarity. I already had quite a bit of empathy.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I have felt greater empathy for those in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 30.4% 7 Agree 60.9% 14 Disagree 8.7% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

one’s own tendencies and those of others helps build empathy. Additionally, one individual

articulated developing empathy as a leader by stating an awareness of how hard it is to function

with lack of clarity from leadership.

The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps empathy is developed similarly regardless of model design and focus. This

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similarity of development between models may suggest the value of peer mentoring relationships

in general.

Question 6.

The respondents of this qualitative survey through the data from question 6 indicated a

strong development of emotional intelligence. Among those surveyed, 100% indicated they had

developed in some aspect of emotional intelligence (see Table 7). The next survey question

furthers the data by indicating which emotional intelligence component was developed.

Table 7

Emotional Intelligence

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: an aspect of my emotional intelligence has developed (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, or relationship management).

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 3 Agree 66.7% 6 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: an aspect of my emotional intelligence has developed (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, or relationship management).

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 87.5% 7 Agree 12.5% 1 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

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Table 7–Continued. Emotional Intelligence. Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: an aspect of my emotional intelligence has developed (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, or relationship management).

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 83.3% 5 Agree 16.7% 1 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: an aspect of my emotional intelligence has developed (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, or relationship management).

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 65.2% 15 Agree 34.8% 8 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

Question 7.

The data for question 7 of the qualitative survey is unique to the survey design. Each

respondent was asked to choose all the emotional intelligence components they believe were

developed because of their experience in the peer mentoring cohort model. Given these question

parameters, self-awareness, at 87%, and communicating with others, at 78.3%, were the most

developed. The least developed emotional intelligence component was recognizing and

controlling emotions (emotional regulation), at 47.9% (see Table 8).

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Table 8

Emotional Intelligence Aspects

Convene

If emotional intelligence has developed, select all of the following aspects that have increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count I have increased self-awareness. 66.7% 6 I am better able to recognize and control my emotions. 33.3% 3 I am more aware of the emotions of others. 77.8% 7 I am able to communicate more effectively with others. 77.8% 7

answered question 9 skipped question 0

X-Core

If emotional intelligence has developed, select all of the following aspects that have increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count I have increased self-awareness. 100.0% 8 I am better able to recognize and control my emotions. 87.5% 7 I am more aware of the emotions of others. 100.0% 8 I am able to communicate more effectively with others. 100.0% 8

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Younique

If emotional intelligence has developed, select all of the following aspects that have increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count I have increased self-awareness. 100.0% 6 I am better able to recognize and control my emotions. 16.7% 1 I am more aware of the emotions of others. 16.7% 1 I am able to communicate more effectively with others. 50.0% 3

answered question 6 skipped question 0

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Table 8–Continued. Emotional Intelligence Aspects. Total Sample

If emotional intelligence has developed, select all of the following aspects that have increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count I have increased self-awareness. 87.0% 20 I am better able to recognize and control my emotions. 47.9% 11 I am more aware of the emotions of others. 69.6% 16 I am able to communicate more effectively with others. 78.3% 18

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The survey data did not reveal any significant variance between the effectiveness to

develop components of emotional intelligence between the three models. This similarity of

development between models may suggest the value of peer mentoring relationships in general.

Question 8.

The data gathered from question 8 of the qualitative survey suggests the

experience in each model developed interpersonal conflict skills in 78.3% of respondents. In

contrast, 21.7% indicated they did not develop interpersonal conflict skills from their experience

in the cohort (see Table 9).

The optional responses bring further perspective on how participants understood the

value of their experience in the model to develop interpersonal conflict skills. All four

responding to the optional clarifying question realized greater clarity and insight into themselves

and others served to provide perspective and patience to help resolve conflict.

The response between Convene and Younique is consistent with 33.3% disagreeing with

the statement in both models. However, X-Core had 100% agreeing their ability to resolve

interpersonal conflict was enhanced by their experience in the peer mentoring cohort model.

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Table 9

Interpersonal Conflict

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I have developed in my ability to resolve interpersonal conflict.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 11.1% 1 Agree 55.6% 5 Disagree 33.3% 3 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

It has created more interpersonal conflict due to the awareness of self, but this is not necessarily a bad thing. I only disagree with the statement as it is written and am still working on this component of my leadership and purpose in my life.

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I have developed in my ability to resolve interpersonal conflict.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 37.5% 3 Agree 62.5% 5 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

The understanding of type and voice give me a better ability to understand and "hear" and not simply listen.

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Table 9–Continued. Interpersonal Conflict. Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I have developed in my ability to resolve interpersonal conflict.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 0.0% 0 Agree 66.7% 4 Disagree 33.3% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

I feel like I've been pretty strong in that area and wasn't really looking for that through my experience with Younique. I suppose greater clarity can lead to greater patience with others who may not see what I see. It gave me more insight into others, and how they may be wired differently from me.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I have developed in my ability to resolve interpersonal conflict.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 17.4% 4 Agree 60.9% 14 Disagree 21.7% 5 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

This research does not provide enough information to suggest why X-Core participants

responded differently although it may be due to specific content taught in the model.

Question 9.

The data gathered from question 9 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed the alignment of action and espoused values with 82.6% responding with

a measure of agreement to the statement. In contrast, 17.4% indicated they did not develop

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further alignment with action and espoused values through their experience in the model (see

Table 10).

Table 10

Alignment with Espoused Values

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I find my actions more closely align with my espoused values.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 11.1% 1 Agree 66.7% 6 Disagree 22.2% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

This is also about being aware always and continued interaction with Christian leaders always keeps this in front of you.

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I find my actions more closely align with my espoused values.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 37.5% 3 Agree 50.0% 4 Disagree 12.5% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

Now I know enough to know that they don't align as well as I thought. It's a process.

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Table 10–Continued. Alignment with Espoused Values Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I find my actions more closely align with my espoused values.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 50.0% 3 Agree 33.3% 2 Disagree 16.7% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

Yes . . . to the extent I keep my vision frame in view. Yes! This is one of the biggest contributions that Younique made in my life.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I find my actions more closely align with my espoused values.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 30.4% 7 Agree 52.2% 12 Disagree 17.4% 4 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The narrative from optional responses brings further perspective on how participants

understood the value of their experience in the model to closer align their actions and espoused

values. Several reasons for development in this area were indicated including a process of

further self-awareness, influence of others, and clarity of personal mission. One respondent

indicated their experience in the peer mentoring cohort model developed alignment of action and

espoused values more than any other development.

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The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps aligning action and values is developed similarly regardless of model

design and focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value of peer

mentoring relationships in general.

Question 10.

The data gathered from question 10 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed participants’ ability to empower those they lead with 95.7% responding

with a measure of agreement to the statement. Only 4.3% indicated they did not develop the

ability to empower those they lead through their experience in the model (see Table 11).

Table 11

Empowerment

Convene

As a result of my experience in Convene: I am finding more ways to empower those I lead.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 11.1% 1 Agree 88.9% 8 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

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Table 11–Continued. Empowerment. X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I am finding more ways to empower those I lead.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 37.5% 3 Agree 62.5% 5 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

People appreciate empathy and the intentionality of building a relationship bank with people magnifies the ability to lead.

Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I am finding more ways to empower those I lead.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 16.7% 1 Agree 66.7% 4 Disagree 16.7% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

Yes, to the extent I help them by integrating concepts and tools I have learned/received. I am especially sensitive to helping others function in their sweet spot and more compassionate when someone else has to do something they not naturally gifted at.

Total Sample As a result of my experience in _______: I am finding more ways to empower those I lead.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 21.7% 5 Agree 73.9% 17 Disagree 4.3% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

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The narrative from optional responses brings further perspective on how participants

understood the value of their experience in the model to develop empowerment of others. One

respondent cited a development of greater empathy and intentional relationship building as

means of empowering others. Another respondent utilized content and tools from the cohort to

empower those he or she leads. Further clarification came from one respondent recognizing

growth in sensitivity to helping people function in their “sweet spot” as well as compassionately

acknowledging the difficulty people may have when they are operating in an area of weakness.

The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps empowerment of others is developed similarly regardless of model design

and focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value of peer

mentoring relationships in general.

Question 11.

The data gathered from question 11 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model prioritized development of those the participants lead with 91.3% responding with a

measure of agreement to the statement. Only 8.7% indicated they did not prioritize the

development of those they lead through their experience in the model (see Table 12). However,

it is worth noting those responding “disagree” to the statement (two respondents) both indicated

in the optional clarifying question that they only indicated “disagree” because they had a high

ethic of developing those they lead prior to the experience in the cohort.

The narrative from optional responses brings further perspective on how participants

understood the value of their experience in the model to prioritize the development of others.

One respondent agreed with the statement but clarified a struggle with busyness still gets in the

way of developing others. Another respondent shared that he or she has helped develop

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followers by getting the company to engage other employees in the Giant Worldwide, parent

organization to X-Core, process of leader development. Perhaps the most important clarification

from the optional question, as mentioned above, is the two respondents who indicated they chose

“disagree” only because they already had a strong development ethic for those they lead.

Table 12

Developing Others

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I have prioritized developing others in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 11.1% 1 Agree 77.8% 7 Disagree 11.1% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

I only disagree because of how the question was asked. This was something I brought with me to the group and it has always been part of who I am.

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I have prioritized developing others in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 50.0% 4 Agree 50.0% 4 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

I was able to help lead the company to invest 200 people into the GiANT process in some way shape or form.

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Younique As a result of my experience in Younique: I have prioritized developing others in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 16.7% 1 Agree 66.7% 4 Disagree 16.7% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

This was a strong priority before... so Younique did not change this. Yes, to some extent. I wish I could say that were true to a very large extent, but I'm still fighting the whirlwind.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I have prioritized developing others in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 26.1% 6 Agree 65.2% 15 Disagree 8.7% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps development of others is established similarly regardless of model design

and focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value of peer

mentoring relationships in general.

Change and External-Oriented Competencies

Change (advocating change, envisioning change, encouraging innovation, facilitating

collective learning) and external-oriented competencies (networking, external monitoring,

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representing) (Yukl, 2012) were measured by questions 12 through 14 of the qualitative survey.

Results are shown in Tables 13 through 15.

Question 12.

The data gathered from question 12 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed the ability to initiate organizational change in 73.9% of respondents. In

contrast, 26% indicated they did not develop the ability to initiate organizational change from

their experience in the cohort (see Table 13).

Table 13

Initiate Organizational Change Convene

As a result of my experience in Convene: I understand better how to initiate change in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 0.0% 0 Agree 77.8% 7 Disagree 11.1% 1 Strongly Disagree 11.1% 1

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

X-Core As a result of my experience in X-Core: I understand better how to initiate change in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 50.0% 4 Agree 50.0% 4 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

Apprenticeship square! Know yourself to lead yourself! Work backward from the reality you want to create.

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Table 13–Continued. Initiate Organizational Change. Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I understand better how to initiate change in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 0.0% 0 Agree 33.3% 2 Disagree 66.7% 4 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

In ministry. Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I understand better how to initiate change in my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 17.4% 4 Agree 56.5% 13 Disagree 21.7% 5 Strongly Disagree 4.3% 1

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The optional responses did not bring much further perspective on how participants

understood the value of their experience in the model to develop the ability to initiate

organizational change. One respondent cited several model-specific tools in helping develop this

competency. Another articulated specifically developing this competency in a ministry

leadership context.

There was no consistent response to this question between models. Therefore, no

definitive understanding of the difference between models can be understood by this data.

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Question 13.

The data gathered from question 13 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed the ability to network with others outside the participants’ organization in

82.6% of respondents. In contrast, 17.4% indicated they did not develop the ability to network

with others outside their organization from their experience in the cohort (see Table 14).

The optional responses provided further perspective on how participants understood the

value of their experience in the model to develop the ability to network with others outside their

organization. Two respondents cited positive relational connections through the cohort

experience with people they would likely not interact with otherwise. One respondent mentioned

the challenge of relational chemistry, indicating intentionality fostered wins in this area. Still

another suggested he or she was not looking for, or needing, further networking opportunities.

Additionally, developing in self-awareness was mentioned as a contributing factor in relating to

Table 14

Networking

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: my relational networking ability with others outside my organization has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 3 Agree 55.6% 5 Disagree 11.1% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

The group has opened up many contacts with people of high moral integrity, which is refreshing. Not really something I have focused on or need to at this juncture.

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Table 14–Continued. Networking. X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: my relational networking ability with others outside my organization has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 37.5% 3 Agree 50.0% 4 Disagree 12.5% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

The biggest roadblock for me was chemistry. It's a long road, but something I'm trying to work on. Being intentional has led to some wins which is very motivating. Most helpful tip "Focus on being interested and not interesting"

Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: my relational networking ability with others outside my organization has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 2 Agree 33.3% 2 Disagree 33.3% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

Yes, awareness and participation with others I never would have interacted with otherwise.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: my relational networking ability with others outside my organization has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 34.8% 8 Agree 47.8% 11 Disagree 17.4% 4 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

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others in a networking capacity. Yet another relational factor developed for networking was

showing interest in others.

The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps developing relational networking skills is established similarly regardless

of model design and focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the

value of peer mentoring relationships in general.

Question 14

The data gathered from question 14 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model helped the participants seek more opportunities to learn outside their organization

with 91.3% responding with a measure of agreement to the statement. Only 8.7% indicated they

did not seek more opportunities to learn outside their organization through their experience in the

model (see Table 15). However, it is worth noting the only two respondents indicating

“disagree” did so because their desire to learn from others was high prior to their experience in

the cohort.

Table 15

Learn from Others

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I am seeking more opportunities to learn from others outside my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 22.2% 2 Agree 77.8% 7 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

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Table 15–Continued. Learn from Others X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I am seeking more opportunities to learn from others outside my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 62.5% 5 Agree 37.5% 3 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

I have been seeking wisdom from others, like Jeremie and Steve, who have systemized their knowledge.

Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I am seeking more opportunities to learn from others outside my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 0.0% 0 Agree 66.7% 4 Disagree 33.3% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

This was already a natural part of me... Yes, to a small degree. I've had a strong learning quotient so I don't feel that has necessarily increased that much.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I am seeking more opportunities to learn from others outside my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 30.4% 7 Agree 60.9% 14 Disagree 8.7% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

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The narrative from optional responses did not bring much further perspective on how

participants understood how the value of their experience in the model caused them to seek more

opportunities to learn outside their organization. As mentioned previously, two respondents

responded with “disagree” because they already had a strong desire to learn from others outside

their organization. Furthermore, one respondent cited the interest in learning from leaders who

had systematized their knowledge, specifically the founders of Giant Worldwide, the parent

organization to X-Core.

The response across models is consistent with the only two responding with ”disagree”

because they already had a strong desire to learn from others outside their organization. The

distribution of answers is similar with each model. Perhaps developing a desire to learn from

others outside participants’ organizations is established similarly regardless of model design and

focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value of peer mentoring

relationships in general.

Competencies (Miscellaneous)

Question 15.

The data gathered from question 15 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model further prioritized life-long learning for participants with 95.7% responding with a

measure of agreement to the statement. Only 4.3%, one respondent, indicated not placing a

higher priority on life-long learning through his or her experience in the model (see Table 16).

However, it is worth noting the one responding “disagree” to the statement indicated in the

optional clarifying question that the “disagree” option was selected only because of a high

priority on life-long learning prior to the experience in the cohort.

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Table 16

Life-long Learning

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: my desire to continually improve and develop my competencies has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 22.2% 2 Agree 77.8% 7 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: my desire to continually improve and develop my competencies has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 75.0% 6 Agree 25.0% 2 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

The fact that I attended the first class, is probably evident that I have a bias towards self-improvement, but yes, even more so now.

189

Table 16–Continued. Life-long Learning. Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: my desire to continually improve and develop my competencies has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 50.0% 3 Agree 33.3% 2 Disagree 16.7% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

If I did not already have this desire I would not have spent 1) time out of my busy schedule over the year-long cohort, nor 2) my personal money to participate in Younique. So no, Younique did not increase this characteristic / element of my personality.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: my desire to continually improve and develop my competencies has increased.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 47.9% 11 Agree 47.9% 11 Disagree 4.3% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The narrative from optional responses did not bring much further perspective on how

participants understood the value of their experience in the model to prioritize life-long learning.

As already mentioned, the one responding “disagree” did so because of an already high priority

on life-long learning prior to the experience in the cohort. This respondent stated a priority on

continued learning drove the commitment to this cohort. Furthermore, another responded

“agree” to the statement but recognized commitment to the cohort because of an already high

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desire to learn. However, this participant believed the cohort experience helped even more with

a desire to continually develop.

The response across models is consistent. The distribution of answers is similar with

each model. Perhaps placing a higher priority on life-long learning is established similarly

regardless of model design and focus. This similarity of development between models may

suggest the value of peer mentoring relationships in general.

Question 16.

Question 16 of the qualitative survey sought additional lived experience from

respondents, leading to further narrative on the value of these peer mentoring cohorts toward

developing leadership competencies. Participants were given an option of skipping this open

question, which resulted in 52% of the sample responding with some further information (see

Table 17).

The value of peer relationships was the most repeated theme from this question. Four

respondents clearly mentioned the value of relationships in their experience. One specified the

value of a peer group. The respondent realized the lack of peer groups available within an

organization for an executive level leader. This respondent cited the cohort peer group offered

the judgment free sharing opportunity and challenge needed by this participant as an

organizational leader.

Another strong narrative from this question was the value of foundational biblical and

theological instruction from the cohort experience. Three respondents mentioned the value they

perceived of the biblical instruction and tools designed to help participants lead a business well

and develop others.

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Table 17

Additional Lived Experiences Pertaining to Leadership Competencies

Convene Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in Convene, toward developing leadership competencies for your current position?

Response Count 4

answered question 4 skipped question 5

Relationships have been biggest thing. When you lead an organization, you are sometimes lonely and don't have a peer group to share challenges without fear of being judged. This is a humble group of people willing to help without judging you for your mistakes. They also are direct when that is needed as well in challenging you! Convene presents a leader with a well thought out, biblically sound approach to running a business and the tools to make it happen. Convene offers the theological perspective that often gets lost/discarded in the secular world. The careful reminders based on scripture are so important that help us grow in faith and cultivate God's children to become all that he wants them to be. Without Convene, it would be easy to forget that scripture is quite relevant for today's management situations.

X-Core

Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in X-Core, toward developing leadership competencies for your current position?

Response Count 4

answered question 4 skipped question 4

The tools are great, but the people are the best. The fact that I have relationships (not just tools) that I can reach out to for help, is incredible confidence boosting. Huge value in leveraging the relationships----encourage that for the natural introverts from the start X-Core has enhanced culture in our organization by improving emotional intelligence. When managers knowing themselves better, they truly lead better. The beauty of X-core is the clear language and visual tools, which make it effective in my everyday leadership role.

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Table 17–Continued. Additional Lived Experiences Pertaining to Leadership Competencies Younique

Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in Younique, toward developing leadership competencies for your current position?

Response Count 4

answered question 4 skipped question 2

no The exercises and the personal visioning model/framework were invaluable. My Younique experience has helped me value personal vision work in my own life and the lives of those I lead. I value more highly than before time and energy spent on self assessment and personal development toward a purpose that is in the realm of my personal vision. It helped me understand my own calling much better, including what I'm not called to do.

Total Sample

Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in _______, toward developing leadership competencies for your current position?

Response Count 12

answered question 12 skipped question 11

Some specific areas of development were mentioned by three respondents. One

respondent mentioned the development of emotional intelligence, specifically self-awareness,

and articulated an organizational culture change as leaders throughout the organization

developed this competency to lead more effectively. Another area of development mentioned by

a couple respondents was personal mission (articulated as both personal vision and calling).

Knowing one’s personal mission, or calling, brings clarity of what should and should not be the

focus for the leader as well as self-assessment and development toward that personal mission.

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Additionally, two respondents highlighted the clear language and visual tools of their

model. The language and tools brought clarity and repeatability for their leadership context.

Question 17.

Question 17 from the qualitative survey sought additional lived experience from

respondents by asking how the model might be improved, leading to further narrative on the

value of these peer mentoring cohorts toward developing leadership competencies. Participants

were given an option of skipping this open question, which resulted in 39% of the sample

responding with some further information (see Table 18).

Table 18

Suggestions for Model Improvement Convene

Would you suggest any changes to Convene that would further enhance participants’ development of leadership competencies for their current position?

Response Count 2

answered question 2 skipped question 7

It's always a struggle to commit the time and I don't see a clear solution to solving that issue. Convene should offer more practical experiences and training from experts in the form of speakers, facilitators or resources.

X-Core

Would you suggest any changes to X-Core that would further enhance participants’ development of leadership competencies for their current position?

Response Count 3

answered question 3 skipped question 5

I think the tools are great, but I think they can be taught better. You learn them through repetition, but if there were more "story" around the toolkit as a whole, it would be easier to retain. 1:1 follow up afterwards with group leaders Not really, they continue to innovate

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Table 18–Continued. Suggestions for Model Improvement. Younique

Would you suggest any changes to Younique that would further enhance participants’ development of leadership competencies for their current position?

Response Count 4

answered question 4 skipped question 2

More a methodical planned out strategy to mentor leaders on specific competences and provide them tools to accomplish those core competencies I think the changes I might suggest have been implemented in their most recent roll out. Perhaps have a built in coaching follow-up to help ensure follow through. Streamlining the process so it is less overwhelming and helping participants see how the element they are currently working on fits in the whole. It could be tightened a bit from the version I took.

Total Sample

Would you suggest any changes to _______ that would further enhance participants’ development of leadership competencies for their current position?

Response Count 9

answered question 9 skipped question 14

The information collected from this question did not provide any clear themes. Perhaps

the variance in models presented a diverse response to this question.

There were several suggestions made by respondents worth noting. Two respondents

discussed the way the content and instruction might be enhanced. One suggestion is simply

adding more of what they received in their cohort, practical experiences, expert training, and

resources. Another believes the tools used in their model were great but could be enhanced by

surrounding the presentation of each element with story to increase retention.

Three responded with the suggestion of altering or adding to the delivery methodology.

Two participants suggested further one-on-one coaching or follow-up with a leader. Another

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participant proposed the need for a more intentional approach to mentoring cohort participants

toward specific competencies.

Specific to Younique, several respondents articulated some weakness in their pilot cohort

experience. One recommendation was for more coaching follow-up. Another participant stated

the need to streamline the process as well as connect individual development points to the overall

goal of the model. There was recognition that their experience was in a pilot cohort and future

renditions were likely improved.

Section Summary

In summarizing the leadership competency section of the qualitative survey the following

leadership competencies seemed to be most developed by participation in the researched peer

mentoring cohort models. The most developed competencies included emotional intelligence at

100% (self-awareness at 87% and communication with others at 78.3%), life-long learning at

95.7%, intuitive sense at 95.7%, and empowering others at 95.7%. The next highest

competencies developed in these peer mentoring cohort models, with 91.3% for each, were

creativity to lead, organizational leadership, empathy, developing others, and learning from

others outside one’s organization (see Table 19).

A few competencies may be developed through experience in a peer mentoring cohort

model but were less significantly represented in this research. The competencies articulated as

least likely to be developed were technical competencies at 73.9%, initiating change at 73.9%,

resolving interpersonal conflict at 78.3%, aligning action with espoused values at 82.6%, and

networking outside an organization at 82.6%. It is worth noting, each of these were still cited as

being developed somewhat by over seventy percent of respondents. Therefore, the results of this

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Table 19

Leadership Competencies Summary

Ranked Order for Perceived Development of Leadership Competencies

Leadership Competency Response Percent Agree/Strongly Agree Response Count

Agree/Strongly Agree Emotional Intelligence 100% 23 Life-Long Learning 95.7% 22 Intuitive Sense 95.7% 22 Empowering Others 95.7% 22 Creativity to Lead 91.3% 21 Organizational Leadership 91.3% 21 Empathy 91.3% 21 Developing Others 91.3% 21 Learning Outside Organization 91.3% 21 Networking Outside an Organization 82.6% 19 Aligning Action with Espoused Values 82.6% 19 Resolving Interpersonal Conflict 78.3% 18 Initiating Change 73.9% 17 Technical 73.9% 17

study suggest there can be significant development in many leadership competencies through

experiencing a peer mentoring cohort.

The results, indicated by percentage, are not statistically significant from a quantitative

perspective, rather they provide numerical data to capture a narrative of the lived experience of

participants in the researched peer mentoring cohort models.

Research Question 3 – Data and Descriptive Analysis

The following segment provides a descriptive analysis of the findings for Research

Question 3. The distributed participant survey provided the data necessary to answer this

research question. The data from the closed questions were counted for frequency of response

by category. Per closed question, the frequencies for each category were summarized in a

frequency distribution table including count and percentage per response category. The

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researcher completed a frequency distribution table per closed question per model as well as for

the overall sample. A summary analysis was provided per question including the descriptive

narrative provided from the optional open sub-question following each closed question.

The remaining open questions, those at the end of the personal mission segment, were

analyzed for narrative themes. These two open questions provide further narrative on the lived

experiences pertaining to the personal mission category.

A personal mission is transcendent to oneself and any one job or role, is often considered

a calling, is values-driven and character-driven, guides short-term and long-term goals or

decisions, and articulates service oriented meaning to tasks and roles (Bunderson & Thompson,

2009; Chew et al., 2014; Covey, 2004; Dalton, 2001; Fox, 1994; Guinness, 1998; Ligo, 2011;

Messenger, 2011; Palmer, 2000; Rawat, 2011; Searight & Searight, 2011; Terkel, 1997; Weber,

1930).

Question 18

The data gathered from question 18 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed a greater understanding of their personal mission in 91.3% of respondents.

In contrast, 8.7% indicated they did not develop a greater understanding of their personal mission

from their experience in the cohort (see Table 20).

The optional responses did not bring much further perspective on how participants

understood the value of their experience in the model to develop a greater understanding of their

personal mission. However, the responses reinforce the numeric responses by establishing a

strong ability for their peer mentoring model to develop understanding of personal mission. One

respondent mentioned understanding of personal mission was the greatest “takeaway” from the

experience in the cohort. Another respondent highlighted the integration of intentionality into his

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Table 20

Understanding Personal Mission

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I have a greater understanding of my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 3 Agree 66.7% 6 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I have a greater understanding of my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 75.0% 6 Agree 12.5% 1 Disagree 12.5% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

I have worked on my personal mission statement over the past 5 years. Intentionality is a part of my mission now. In addition, the limits I used to place on myself are completely gone.

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Table 20–Continued. Understanding Personal Mission. Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I have a greater understanding of my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 83.3% 5 Agree 0.0% 0 Disagree 16.7% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

Absolutely . . . 100% This was one of the biggest takeaways.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I have a greater understanding of my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 60.9% 14 Agree 30.4% 7 Disagree 8.7% 2 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

or her personal mission. Furthermore, the same respondent realized the freedom to accomplish

more as mission clarity increased.

The response across models is generally consistent. The distribution of answers is similar

with each model. Perhaps developing a greater understanding of one’s personal mission is

established similarly regardless of model design and focus. This similarity of development

between models may suggest the value of peer mentoring relationships in general.

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Question 19

The data gathered from question 19 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model developed a greater ability for participants to articulate how their personal mission

connects with their organizational context in 95.7% of respondents. In contrast, 4.3% indicated

they did not develop a greater ability to articulate how their personal mission connects with their

organizational context from their experience in the cohort (see Table 21).

Table 21

Personal Mission and Organizational Context

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I have a greater ability to articulate how my personal mission connects to my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 22.2% 2 Agree 77.8% 7 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

X-Core

As a result of my experience in X-Core: I have a greater ability to articulate how my personal mission connects to my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 37.5% 3 Agree 62.5% 5 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

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Table 21–Continued. Personal Mission and Organizational Context.

Younique As a result of my experience in Younique: I have a greater ability to articulate how my personal mission connects to my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 66.7% 4 Agree 16.7% 1 Disagree 16.7% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 2

Most definitely. The book God Dreams came along at a good time to help tie the two together.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I have a greater ability to articulate how my personal mission connects to my organization.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 39.1% 9 Agree 56.5% 13 Disagree 4.3% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

The optional responses did not bring much further perspective on how participants

understood the value of their experience in the model to develop a greater ability to articulate

how their personal mission connects with their organizational context. The two responses helped

articulate the strength of these peer mentoring cohorts to develop participants in this way.

The response across models is generally consistent. The distribution of answers is similar

with each model. Perhaps developing a greater ability to articulate how one’s personal mission

aligns with one’s organizational context is established similarly regardless of model design and

202

focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value of peer mentoring

relationships in general.

Question 20

The data gathered from question 20 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model helped confirm the alignment between their current leadership position and their

personal mission in 95.7% of respondents. In contrast, 4.3% indicated they did not confirm the

alignment between their current leadership position and their personal mission from their

experience in the cohort (see Table 22).

The optional responses did not bring much further perspective on how participants

understood the value of their experience in the model to help confirm the alignment between

their current leadership position and their personal mission. The two responses helped articulate

the strength of these peer mentoring cohorts to develop participants in this way. One participant

changed leadership positions after the cohort experience, citing a better alignment with personal

mission and skills. Another respondent articulated that he leverages his leadership role to fulfill

Table 22

Alignment with Current Leadership Position

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I am more convinced that my current leadership position is aligned with my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 3 Agree 66.7% 6 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

203

Table 22–Continued. Alignment with Current Leadership Position.

X-Core As a result of my experience in X-Core: I am more convinced that my current leadership position is aligned with my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 50.0% 4 Agree 37.5% 3 Disagree 12.5% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

I did change jobs following X-Core to a role that is more closely aligned with my vision and skill set

Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I am more convinced that my current leadership position is aligned with my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 33.3% 2 Agree 66.7% 4 Disagree 0.0% 0 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

Great question!! I leverage my position to exercise my mission. Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I am more convinced that my current leadership position is aligned with my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 39.1% 9 Agree 56.5% 13 Disagree 4.3% 1 Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0

answered question 23 skipped question 0

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his personal mission. Both responses show how these participants developed clarity in personal

mission alignment.

The response across models is generally consistent. The distribution of answers is similar

with each model. Perhaps helping to confirm the alignment between one’s current leadership

position and one’s personal mission is established similarly regardless of model design and

focus. This similarity of development between models may suggest the value of peer mentoring

relationships in general.

Question 21

The data gathered from question 21 of the qualitative survey suggests the experience in

each model helped confirm the misalignment between their current leadership position and their

personal mission in 17.4% of respondents. In contrast, 82.6% indicated they did not confirm the

misalignment between their current leadership position and their personal mission from their

experience in the cohort (see Table 23).

Table 23

Misalignment with Current Leadership Position

Convene As a result of my experience in Convene: I am more convinced that my current leadership position is not aligned with my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 0.0% 0 Agree 22.2% 2 Disagree 44.4% 4 Strongly Disagree 33.3% 3

answered question 9 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 0

205

Table 23–Continued. Misalignment with Current Leadership Position.

X-Core As a result of my experience in X-Core: I am more convinced that my current leadership position is not aligned with my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 12.5% 1 Agree 12.5% 1 Disagree 37.5% 3 Strongly Disagree 37.5% 3

answered question 8 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

I prayerfully considered and changed jobs immediately following X-Core Younique

As a result of my experience in Younique: I am more convinced that my current leadership position is not aligned with my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 0.0% 0 Agree 0.0% 0 Disagree 83.3% 5 Strongly Disagree 16.7% 1

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) 1

My current role provides many opportunities to fulfill my personal mission, but there are some areas of disconnect.

Total Sample

As a result of my experience in _______: I am more convinced that my current leadership position is not aligned with my personal mission.

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Strongly Agree 4.3% 1 Agree 13.0% 3 Disagree 52.2% 12 Strongly Disagree 30.4% 7

answered question 23 skipped question 0

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Note, three respondents indicated agreement to both survey question 20 on confirming

alignment with their current position (Table 22) and survey question 21 on confirming

misalignment with their current position (Table 23). The respondents may have either misread

or misunderstood the two opposing questions while taking the survey. This data resulted in a

percentage and count of respondents not equaling 100% of the total sample between the two

survey questions. The researcher used the actual response data in reporting, analysis, and

conclusions.

The optional responses provided further perspective on how participants understood the

value of their experience in the model to help confirm the misalignment between their current

leadership position and their personal mission. The two responses helped articulate the strength

of these peer mentoring cohorts to develop participants’ recognition of misalignment or

alignment with their current position. One participant changed leadership positions after the

cohort experience. Another respondent recognized areas of alignment and misalignment

between his personal mission and current leadership position. Both responses show how these

participants developed clarity in personal mission alignment.

The response across models is varied. Convene had 22.2% agree they recognized a

misalignment, and X-Core had 25% respond the same. In contrast, Younique did not have any

recognize a misalignment. However, there is not enough information from this study to make

any conclusions on the approach to each model and this varied outcome.

Question 22

Question 22 of the qualitative survey sought additional lived experience from

respondents and lead to further narrative on the value of these peer mentoring cohorts toward

developing participants’ understanding of their personal mission. Participants were given an

207

option of skipping this open question, which resulted in 30.4% of the sample responding with

some further information (see Table 24).

The strongest theme from the respondents was the belief that their involvement in the

peer mentoring cohort became the most insightful experience they had in more fully

understanding their personal mission and applying that focus to their context. Three respondents

articulated this value of the cohort. Each stated a deeper understanding of their mission

including strengths and weaknesses. The personal mission understanding resulted in a greater

focus on strengths and delegation of weaknesses.

Table 24

Additional Lived Experiences Pertaining to Personal Mission

Convene Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in Convene, toward your understanding of your personal mission?

Response Count 2

answered question 2 skipped question 7

Still working through my long term personal mission. It is evolving and may lead to new horizons.

X-Core

Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in X-Core, toward your understanding of your personal mission?

Response Count 1

answered question 1 skipped question 7

I have taken in a lot of information over the years, strengths finder, etc. However, I did not truly understand my unique skill set until X-Core, which has allowed me to lean-in to my ability.

208

Table 24–Continued. Additional Lived Experiences Pertaining to Personal Mission

Younique Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in Younique, toward your understanding of your personal mission?

Response Count 4

answered question 4 skipped question 2

no Well worth every bit of time and money we spent. As a pastor, I now understand those parts of my vocation that I am truly best at and those I am not. I am now much more free to function in my sweet spot more of the time and our staff design is changing so people more capable than I in certain areas can take on those functions I use to try to do. It's the first exercise that I've taken that gave me such great insight into my overall mission, and how to translate that into everyday action.

Total Sample

Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in _______, toward your understanding of your personal mission?

Response Count 7

answered question 7 skipped question 16

Two respondents stated an ongoing process of discovering their personal mission. Their

experience in the cohort has helped while they continue to process clarity of mission. In

addition, one respondent believes the commitment to the cohort (time and money) was worth the

investment.

Question 23

Question 23 of the qualitative survey sought additional lived experience from

respondents by asking how the model might be improved and lead to further narrative on the

value of these peer mentoring cohorts toward developing further understanding of participants’

209

personal mission. Participants were given an option of skipping this open question, which

resulted in 21.7% of the sample responding with some further information (see Table 25).

Table 25

Suggestions for Model Improvement

Convene Would you suggest any changes to Convene that would further enhance participants’ understanding of their personal mission?

Response Count 1

answered question 1 skipped question 8

Continued focus on future goals. X-Core

Would you suggest any changes to X-Core that would further enhance participants’ understanding of their personal mission?

Response Count 1

answered question 1 skipped question 7

no Younique

Would you suggest any changes to Younique that would further enhance participants’ understanding of their personal mission?

Response Count 3

answered question 3 skipped question 3

no Optional follow-up to reinforce key practices, e.g. Life Frame Weekly Review No. It was the first time the material was used in a cohort, and it was a great first run.

210

Table 25–Continued. Suggestions for Model Improvement. Total Sample

Would you suggest any changes to _______ that would further enhance participants’ understanding of their personal mission?

Response Count 5

answered question 5 skipped question 18

The information collected from this question did not provide any clear themes. Perhaps

the variance in models presented a diverse response to this question. However, there were a

couple of suggestions made by respondents worth noting. One respondent suggested the model

should focus more on future goals of participants. Another suggested the option of follow-up

beyond the cohort experience, leading to reinforcement of key practices learned during the

cohort experience.

Section Summary

In summarizing the personal mission section of the qualitative survey the following

measures of understanding one’s personal mission seemed to be most developed by participation

in the researched peer mentoring cohort models. The most developed measures included

articulating how their personal mission aligns with their organizational context at 95.7%,

confirming alignment with their current leadership position at 95.7%, and understanding their

personal mission at 91.3%. The least developed measure was confirming misalignment with

their current leadership position at 17.4% (See information on this data on page 206). However,

this measure may be combined with confirming alignment with their current leadership position

to recognize a high alignment between participants’ personal mission and their current leadership

position. In general, the results of this study seem to indicate the experience in a peer mentoring

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cohort provide further understanding of one’s personal mission, which leads to clarity of

vocational alignment for the participants (see Table 26).

Table 26

Personal Mission Summary

Ranked Order for Perceived Development of Understanding Their Personal Mission

Measures Response Percent Agree/Strongly Agree Response Count

Agree/Strongly Agree Articulate how their personal mission connects with their organizational context 95.7% 22

Confirming alignment with current position 95.7% 22 Understanding of personal mission 91.3% 21 Confirming misalignment with current position 17.4% * 4 *

* See information on this data on page 206.

The results, indicated by percentage, are not statistically significant from a quantitative

perspective, rather they provide numerical data to capture a narrative of the lived experience of

participants in the researched peer mentoring cohort models.

Demographic Questions

Question 24.

This demographic question of the qualitative survey sought to confirm each participant in

the survey fit the parameters of this research study. The responses indicate each survey

participant experienced a minimum of six months in their peer mentoring cohort model with the

least amount of time indicated as 12 months. Therefore, the resulting data from the qualitative

survey is valid for the research purpose (see Table 27).

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Table 27

Participation Length

Convene How long did you participate in Convene?

Participant Answer Text

1 3 years 2 8 years 3 2 years + 4 18 months 5 3 years 6 Three years 7 Since June 2014 to present 8 7 years

answered question 8 skipped question 1

Note. The survey was designed to require an answer to this question. However, Survey Monkey seemed to either allow one participant to skip this question or did not record the participant’s response. However, this participant was still vetted to fit the parameters of the study through the selection process with the model leader. X-Core How long did you participate in X-Core?

Participant Answer Text

1 2 years 2 12 months 3 Year 1 and Year 2. Additionally, we’ve been doing core

groups at my firm for two years. 4 1 year 5 1 yr. 6 2 years (Year 1 and Year 2) 7 12 months 8 1 year

answered question 8 skipped question 0

213

Table 27–Continued. Participation Length. Younique How long did you participate in Younique?

Participant Answer Text

1 1 year 2 1 year 3 One year 4 1 year 5 One year cohort 6 12 months

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Total Sample

How long did you participate in _______?

Answer Options Response Percent Response

Count Between 1 and 2 Years 54.5% 12 Between 2 and 3 Years 22.7% 5 3+ Years 22.7% 5

answered question 22 skipped question 1

Question 25.

This demographic question of the qualitative survey sought to confirm each participant in

the survey fit the parameters of this research study. The responses indicate each survey

participant was an executive level leader, thus fitting the criteria. Nevertheless, two responses

need further clarification that they fit the research criteria. The response “I influence more

people than I manage. When I started, I led no one and influence was mediocre” suggests a

management level. Furthermore, this survey participant was vetted to fit the research criteria by

the selection process with the model leader. Also, the response “Angel” represents a unique

214

executive level title for the participant’s company. Therefore, the resulting data from the

qualitative survey is valid for the research purpose (see Table 28).

Table 28

Current Leadership Position

Convene What is your current leadership position?

Participant Answer Text

1 President 2 CEO 3 angel 4 President & CEO of multiple companies 5 Executive Pastor at a large church 6 President 7 President/CEO 8 COO

answered question 8 skipped question 1

X-Core What is your current leadership position?

Participant Answer Text

1 CEO 2 VP of Business Consulting 3 I influence more people than I manage. When I started, I

led no one and influence was mediocre. 4 Manager of Atlanta Athletic Club 5 CEO 6 President and GM, North America 7 Leading a group of peers (5), and a larger group of team

members (20). 8 Executive

answered question 8 skipped question 0

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Table 28–Continued. Current Leadership Position. Younique What is your current leadership position?

Participant Answer Text

1 Pastor 2 Corporate - Senior Director; Ministry – Visionary

Leader/Enabler (consulting); Church – Elder/Vision Caster 3 Senior Pastor; Educator 4 Senior Pastor 5 Church Planter 6 Executive Pastor

answered question 6 skipped question 0

Chapter Summary Chapter 4 presented the sources and procedure of data collection for the research as well

as relevant data and analysis for each of the three research questions. Data for Research

Question 1 provided a final summary of each peer mentoring cohort model included in the

research. Data for Research Question 2 sought the lived experience of the sample pertaining to

the development of leadership competencies from participation in their peer mentoring cohort.

The data revealed strong development of multiple leadership competencies. Data for Research

Question 3 also sought the lived experience of the sample but pertaining to further development

of understanding one’s personal mission because of participation in their peer mentoring cohort.

The data revealed the experience in these peer mentoring cohorts also helps develop

understanding of one’s personal mission.

Chapter 5 will suggest some conclusions from the data and analysis in Chapter 4.

Additionally, Chapter 5 will suggest further research opportunities related to peer mentoring

cohorts developing executive level leaders.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of Chapter 5 is to posit conclusions from the resultant research data and

analysis. The chapter looks at implications, applications, and limitations of the research

findings. Finally, Chapter 5 offers further research opportunities related to peer mentoring

cohorts developing executive level leaders.

Research Purpose

The intent of this qualitative research was to explore, through a phenomenological study,

the leadership development experience of executive level leaders participating in a peer

mentoring cohort model.

Research Questions

The following Research Questions guided this study:

1. What are the similarities and differences of structure between the three researched peer

mentoring cohort models?

2. How do participating leaders describe the value of their peer mentoring cohort

relationships for enhancing their competencies pertinent to their particular leadership

context?

3. What perceived influence do these peer mentoring cohort relationships have on the

participating leaders’ developing understanding of their personal mission?

Research Conclusions

The research findings provided few definitive conclusions. However, the design of the

research was not to offer conclusions; rather it offered a general understanding of the influence

peer mentoring cohort models had on the development of executive level leaders in the sample.

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The researcher sought a narrative from the lived experiences of participants. Given the research

design and goals, the study shows peer mentoring cohorts offer a high value for developing

executive level leaders. The following section will show some specific value of peer mentoring

cohorts per the guiding research questions.

Research Question 1 Conclusions

Research Question 1 sought to summarize each of the included peer mentoring cohort

models. The research provided a summary of each model through an initial literature review

integrated with information gleaned from an interview with a model leader. Finally, a

comparison of the components of each model was completed.

The research revealed similarities between models with a few differences worth noting.

Each mission statement was different, but the essence of each was to develop leaders to increase

their impact. All three models sought holistic personal development rather than simply career

growth. In addition, each model leveraged peer relationships as a critical component of

developing participants.

There are a few differences to note with the three researched models. First, the length for

participation was defined with X-Core and Younique, twelve months for each, while Convene

allowed for open-ended participation. Second, the content and format used within X-Core and

Younique are consistent across all groups in the model while content and format with Convene

varies by group and is guided by the leader. Third, the size of each cohort varied while each

model had some component with a similar size of between six and sixteen participants. Each

model offered varying size groups during their process.

In conclusion, the research question revealed the desired summary of each model and

comparison of model components. Furthermore, the study showed three peer mentoring cohort

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models that represent an emerging phenomenon for developing executive level leaders.

Consistent among the three researched models was a reliance on peer relationships and a mission

for holistic development that includes career, personal, and family development as well as

spiritual, emotional, and technical development.

Research Question 2 Conclusions

Research Question 2 sought a descriptive analysis of the lived experience of peer

mentoring cohort participants pertaining to the value of a peer mentoring cohort to develop

leadership competencies for their context. Leadership competency includes skills, behaviors, or

practices that enhance individuals’ ability to effectively lead in their leadership role. Necessary

competencies vary by context as they are not limited to one particular set but relevant to a

context (Barna, 1993; Bass, 1990; Blizzard, 1956; Boersma, 1988; Goleman et al., 2013; Hersey

et al., 2001; Kiedis, 2009; Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Kouzes & Posner, 2010; Longenecker, 2014;

Nauss, 1994; Woodruff, 2004; Yukl, 2012). The specific leadership competencies included in

the study were task competencies, which include intelligence (general and creative), technical,

intuition, and organizational leadership (Bass, 1990; Yukl, 2012); interpersonal competencies,

found in sub-categories such as empathy, care, emotional intelligence, consistency, timing,

communication, conflict resolution, authenticity, and trust (Bass, 1990; Goleman, et al., 2013;

Yukl, 2012); change competencies including advocating change, envisioning change,

encouraging innovation, and facilitating collective learning; and external-oriented competencies

such as networking, external monitoring, representing, (Yukl, 2012) and life-long learning

(Beblavy et al., 2014; Merriam et al., 2007; Tannenbaum, 1997).

The distributed participant survey provided the data necessary to answer this research

question. From the data, the researcher completed a frequency distribution table per closed

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question per model as well as for the overall sample. A summary analysis was provided per

question including the descriptive narrative provided from the optional open sub-question

following each closed question. In addition, the remaining open questions, those at the end of

the contextualized leadership competencies segment, were analyzed for narrative themes. These

two open questions provided further narrative on the lived experiences pertaining to the

contextualized leadership competencies category.

The following leadership competencies seemed to be most developed by participation in

the researched peer mentoring cohort models. The most developed competencies included

emotional intelligence at 100% (self-awareness at 87% and communication with others at

78.3%), life-long learning at 95.7%, intuitive sense at 95.7%, and empowering others at 95.7%.

The next highest competencies developed in these peer mentoring cohort models, with 91.3% for

each, were creativity to lead, organizational leadership, empathy, developing others, and learning

from others outside one’s organization.

A few competencies may be developed through experience in a peer mentoring cohort

model but were less significantly represented in this research. The competencies articulated as

least likely to be developed were technical competencies at 73.9%, initiating change at 73.9%,

resolving interpersonal conflict at 78.3%, aligning action with espoused values at 82.6%, and

networking outside an organization at 82.6%. It is worth noting each of these were still cited as

being developed somewhat by over seventy percent of respondents.

The results, indicated by percentage, are not statistically significant from a quantitative

perspective; rather they provide numerical data to capture a narrative of the lived experience of

participants in the researched peer mentoring cohort models.

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Further narrative was captured by the open questions through the leadership

competencies segment of the survey. The results confirmed the numerical data shown

previously. In some cases, the open question responses gave a stronger sense of development in

these same areas.

Additionally, a theme emerged through the open questions in both the leadership

competencies and personal mission segments of the survey regarding a suggested change to the

peer mentoring cohort models. There was a stated desire for further follow-up with either peers

or coaches after the cohort concluded. The specific suggestion was for one-on-one coaching

follow-up to further develop leadership competencies and personal mission understanding.

Perhaps this noted theme reveals a strength of Convene over the other two models and suggests

an option for ongoing development in the cohort is desired by participants. Moreover, the

suggestion for follow-up beyond the cohort timeframe may align with the developed competency

of life-long learning. As 95.7% of the sample further developed this leadership competency,

perhaps their desire for continued development was strengthened and led to the feedback for

more follow-up.

The narrative from open questions also highlighted additional value for peer mentoring

cohorts. The value of peer relationships was mentioned by multiple respondents. It is worth

noting one respondent realized the lack of peer groups available within an organization for an

executive level leader, which aligns with the research purpose of this study. Another strong

narrative was the value of foundational biblical and theological instruction from the cohort

experience. Three respondents mentioned the value they perceived of the biblical instruction and

tools designed to help participants lead a business well and develop others.

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Research Question 3 Conclusions

Research Question 3 guided a descriptive analysis of the lived experience of peer

mentoring cohort participants pertaining to the value of a peer mentoring cohort to develop their

understanding of their personal mission. A personal mission is transcendent to oneself and any

one job or role, is often considered a calling, is values-driven and character-driven, guides short-

term and long-term goals or decisions, and articulates service oriented meaning to tasks and roles

(Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Chew et al., 2014; Covey, 2004; Dalton, 2001; Fox, 1994;

Guinness, 1998; Ligo, 2011; Messenger, 2011; Palmer, 2000; Rawat, 2011; Searight & Searight,

2011; Terkel, 1997; Weber, 1930).

The distributed participant survey provided the data necessary to answer this research

question. From the data, the researcher completed a frequency distribution table per closed

question per model as well as the overall sample. A summary analysis was provided per

question including the descriptive narrative provided from the optional open sub-question

following each closed question. In addition, the remaining open questions, those at the end of

the personal mission segment, were analyzed for narrative themes. These two open questions

provided further narrative on the lived experiences pertaining to the personal mission category.

The following measures of understanding one’s personal mission seemed to be most

developed by participation in the researched peer mentoring cohort models. The most developed

measures included participants articulating how their personal mission aligns with their

organizational context at 95.7%, confirming alignment with their current leadership position at

95.7%, and understanding their personal mission at 91.3%. The least developed measure was

confirming misalignment with their current leadership position at 17.4% (See information on this

data on page 206). However, this measure may be combined with confirming alignment with

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their current leadership position to recognize a high alignment between participants’ personal

mission and their current leadership position.

The results, indicated by percentage, are not statistically significant from a quantitative

perspective; rather they provide numerical data to capture a narrative of the lived experience of

participants in the researched peer mentoring cohort models.

Further narrative was captured by the open questions through the personal mission

segment of the survey. The results confirmed the numerical data shown previously. In some

cases, the open question responses gave a stronger sense of development in these same areas.

As stated previously in Research Question 2 Conclusions, a theme emerged through the

open questions in both the leadership competencies and personal mission segments of the survey

regarding a suggested change to the peer mentoring cohort models. There was a stated desire for

further follow-up with either peers or coaches after the cohort concluded. The specific

suggestion was for one-on-one coaching follow-up to further develop leadership competencies

and personal mission understanding. Perhaps this noted theme reveals a strength of Convene

over the other two models and suggests an option for ongoing development in the cohort is

desired by participants. Moreover, the suggestion for follow-up beyond the cohort timeframe,

may align with the developed competency of life-long learning. As 95.7% of the sample further

developed this leadership competency, perhaps their desire for continued development was

strengthened and led to the feedback for more follow-up.

The narrative from open questions also highlighted additional value for peer mentoring

cohorts. The strongest value presented was their involvement in the peer mentoring cohort

became the most insightful experience they had in more fully understanding their personal

mission and applying that focus to their context. The personal mission understanding resulted in

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a greater focus on strengths and delegation of weaknesses. Further value was stated by several

participants as developing clarity in personal mission alignment with their leadership position. A

couple participants changed roles because of their experience in the cohort while others clarified

alignment with their current role.

Research Implications and Applications

Purpose

Leaders are trained in multiple ways as they progress in their career or calling. However,

executive level leaders of most organizations struggle to find the same development offerings as

they experienced early in their career or calling. These executive level leaders can find

themselves isolated and short on mentoring prospects (Litano & Major, 2016; Rokach, 2012).

The result can be a stagnated and unbalanced leadership development (Litano & Major, 2016).

Furthermore, the value of continuous learning is not diminished for executive level

leaders. Tannenbaum (1997) defines continuous learning as the process by which individual or

organizational learning is fostered on an ongoing basis. Leaders at all levels find value in

continuous learning such as improved performance, increased value to an employer, and

increased career flexibility (Eddy et al., 2005).

Particular to this study, executive level leaders can be developed through peer mentoring

relationships. Executive level leaders, who are often isolated, have the context to connect with

one another for encouragement and further leadership development through peer relationships,

either internal or external to one’s organization (Stanley & Clinton, 1992).

Several organizations and informal groups currently employ models of peer mentoring in

a cohort structure, which are designed to foster leadership development for organizational

leaders. These active models suggest an emergent phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts for

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leadership development. However, few studies have been conducted within this emerging

phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts.

The literature review in Chapter 2 showed a potential connection between development-

oriented relationships, adult learning theory and contexts, developing personal leadership factors,

leadership development, and understanding one’s personal mission. Each literature base implied

development through relational proximity. Yet, the literature review found very little research

specific to the development of executive level leaders in peer mentoring cohorts for either

contextualized competencies or personal mission. Thus, a research gap exists without empirical

connection between all above categories.

Kram and Isabella (1985) were one of the first to heavily consider peer mentoring for

career and leadership development in the workplace. Stanley and Clinton (1992) asserted the

benefits of peer mentoring because of a shared reality between participants. Eddy et al. (2005)

and Parker et al. (2008) espoused the relevancy and effectiveness of peer mentoring. Aligning

with the phenomenon of this study, Kroll (2015) conducted one of few research studies on peer

mentoring for executive level leadership development in organizations by focusing on peer group

mentoring for women in leadership.

Given the lack of research in this phenomenon outside the above stated study and the

perceived potential in a peer mentoring cohort for executive level leaders, the researcher sought

to find out what value participants experienced for their leadership development in the three

selected models. This study has provided the lived experience to begin filling the research gap,

by adding to the Kroll (2015) study, which focused on best practices for executive level peer

groups. The resultant data validated the value of peer mentoring cohorts beyond anecdotal

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experiences. Further applications of these findings, which begin to fill the research gap, are

found later in this chapter.

This study captured the structure of three peer mentoring cohort models and the

perceived influence toward participants’ continued leadership development. The goal of the

research study was to discover insight into the value of a peer mentoring cohort for executive

level leaders who need continued leadership development.

The literature review in Chapter 2 of this study considered pertinent categories to the

study including various development-oriented relationships; adult learning theories, models, and

contexts; personal factors for effective leadership; leadership development; facets of a personal

mission; and descriptions of the researched peer mentoring cohort models. The categories

reviewed in Chapter 2 revealed criteria for the context of the study. The biblical and theological

considerations throughout the literature review suggested the concept of development, the

learning of various competencies, and the articulation of a personal mission, specifically aided

by various interpersonal relationships, are foundational biblical principles. These principles

offer a transcendent context and motivation for executive level leaders to seek development.

Moreover, the literature review provided a foundation for the research instruments and resultant

data.

Specific Implications and Applications

General value and transferability. The research findings suggest a general value of

peer mentoring cohort models in developing executive level leaders. Most of the leadership

competencies and measurements of understanding personal mission were developed by a

minimum of 73.9% of participants in the sample. The only exception is confirming

misalignment with their current leadership position at 17.4% (See information on this data on

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page 206). However, this measure may be combined with confirming alignment with their

current leadership position to recognize a high alignment between participants’ personal mission

and their current leadership position.

The implications of the findings are valuable for current practice and future research.

The future research implications will be considered later in the chapter. The study articulates a

narrative of strong value for the participants. Therefore, executive level leaders can be

developed in multiple ways through peer mentoring cohorts and should seek a peer mentoring

cohort.

The nature of qualitative research, such as this study, allows the research findings to be

transferrable to other contexts. The models selected for this study provide a representation of the

emerging phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts. Similarly, the participants in the research

sample are representative of other executive level leaders in similar peer mentoring cohorts.

Finally, the value of developing the included leadership competencies and understanding

personal mission are applicable to other executive level leaders. The literature review showed

the included set of leadership competencies and personal mission to be applicable to any

leadership context while each leadership context defined the priority of need and specifics of the

competencies. Therefore, the researcher can conclude the findings of the study are transferable

to multiple contexts.

An application from the research findings, indicated previously, is the use of peer

mentoring cohorts with various leadership and organizational contexts. Since the study has

shown significant value to continue to develop executive level leaders who are often experienced

leaders, leaders at lower levels of an organization will likely experience at least similar

development through peer mentoring cohorts. In addition, organizational contexts do not seem

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to change the development value of peer mentoring cohorts. For example, Convene and X-Core

offer a peer cohort of leaders from various corporate and non-profit organizations whereas

Younique largely focused on peer mentoring of ministry leaders. These variables within the

research sample did not prove to alter the value of the experience for participants. Further

variables such as non-profit organizations of varying faiths, organizations in different cultures,

and the size of an organization may not alter the value of a peer mentoring cohort.

Specific competency development. If a leader needs development in specific

competencies or personal mission, the study indicates peer mentoring cohorts are a viable option.

Each peer mentoring cohort model included in the study had a mission of holistic development

of the leader. The cohorts were not designed to focus on developing any specific competency.

Younique came the closest to focusing on one development area, personal mission. Still, their

mission and practice developed the leader in multiple competencies, largely from clarity of

personal mission. Yet, a leader could choose to participate in a peer mentoring cohort to develop

one or a select group of competencies. According to the research findings, a wide range of

leadership competencies, established from the literature, are developed through these cohort

experiences. Thus, a leader will develop according to their specific needs.

This research implication might be applicable to individual leaders by providing a context

for specific development. The models included in the study were not designed for developing

one or two select competencies; however, an individual may seek specific peer mentoring in

select competencies. All three included models stated a mission that developed the leader in all

facets of life. The peer mentoring relationships designed within the cohort models provide

opportunity for individualized needs to be addressed. The literature review showed the use of

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mentoring relationships, including peer mentoring, offer flexibility to develop participants

according to their needs.

Similarly, peer mentoring cohorts can be formed for meeting specific development needs.

A couple of long standing examples of this, in a different context from development of executive

level leaders, are Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous. These groups are

leveraging peer mentoring relationships to develop participants’ capability to overcome the

control of addiction. The results of this study, pointing to the value of a peer mentoring cohort

for developing multiple competencies and the long-term success of peer mentoring cohorts in

other contexts, suggest new peer mentoring cohorts can be designed with specific development

goals and successfully achieve those goals.

Stewardship. Stewardship is a concept that marks a transcendent purpose and

responsibility for a leader. Stewardship is defined as “the conducting, supervising, or managing

of something especially: the careful and responsible management of something entrusted to

one’s care” (Merriam-Webster, 2003). The term is also used to refer to the responsible use of

wealth and possessions by Christians (Manser, 2009).

Stewardship is a clear biblical principle. The creation account in Genesis shows a

transfer of authority to mankind for cultivation (Genesis 2:15). Joseph exemplified a steward as

he was given a position of overseer of Potiphar’s household (Genesis 39:1-6). As God gave a

dream to King Nebuchadnezzar, Daniel was given the ability to interpret God’s message. The

message God gave through Daniel’s interpretation was that of God’s sovereignty of all the

kingdoms of the world and every leader, including Nebuchadnezzar:

This is the interpretation, O king: It is a decree of the Most High, which has come upon my lord the king, that you shall be driven from among men, and your dwelling shall be with the beasts of the field. You shall be made to eat grass like an ox, and you shall be wet with the dew of heaven, and seven periods of time shall pass over you, till you know

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that the Most High rules the kingdom of men and gives it to whom he will. And as it was commanded to leave the stump of the roots of the tree, your kingdom shall be confirmed for you from the time that you know that Heaven rules. Therefore, O king, let my counsel be acceptable to you: break off your sins by practicing righteousness, and your iniquities by showing mercy to the oppressed, that there may perhaps be a lengthening of your prosperity. (Daniel 4:24–27)

The final message was stewardship. As God is sovereign, Nebuchadnezzar needed to be a

steward of the leadership role and power he possessed from God by repenting of his sins,

practicing righteousness, and showing mercy to the oppressed (Jamieson et al., 1997; Keil &

Delitzsch, 1996). Later, Daniel was given a stewardship role by King Darius as a high official

over the Babylonian kingdom (Daniel 6:1-3).

Jesus furthered the teaching on stewardship by expressing everyone’s responsibility for

what they have been given (Luke 12:48) and accountability (Luke 16:1-12). Paul asserts his

God-ordained responsibility to preach the gospel to the Gentiles (Colossians 1:24-29; Ephesians

3:1-13). The idea of stewardship for Paul was that of carrying out God’s plan (Louw & Nida,

1996; Robertson, 1997).

Stewardship aligns with the personal mission or calling of a leader. According to the

literature, a personal mission is transcendent to oneself and vocational role and guides short-term

and long-term goals or decisions. Additionally, a personal mission assumes a service oriented

meaning to tasks and roles. Therefore, an executive level leader has a responsibility, which

transcends their own desires, to develop as a life-long learner, so they will continue to serve well

as a leader in the context and capacity specific to them.

An executive level leader holds a responsibility to their current vocational context and

future endeavors to steward the resources they possess. The resources of executive level leaders

can be understood as time, finances, skills, experience, and all aspects of leader development.

As previously mentioned, executive level leaders have fewer opportunities for continued

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development because of their high-level status in an organization. In addition, the value of life-

long learning is articulated in the literature review. Moreover, the results of the study indicate

valuable development through peer mentoring cohorts. This research implies the need for

development and a valuable context of peer mentoring cohorts for executive level leaders.

The application from the concept of stewardship is intentionality. Executive level leaders

have the choice to cease further development and understanding of their personal mission, thus

lacking a stewardship understanding and practice. However, in doing so they will neither follow

a personal mission, nor be effective stewards of the responsibility of their position or resources

they possess. In contrast, executive level leaders can choose to steward their role and resources

well. In doing so, they will become intentional with their continued leader development.

This study has shown the numerous competencies needed for leading effectively, thus

needing to be developed in leaders, and the contexts most effective for development. Leaders

seeking to steward their mission, role and resources will intentionally seek a context for further

development. They might also be aware of the specific competencies they need to develop. The

research findings have indicated peer mentoring cohorts for executive level leaders are valuable

in developing multiple competencies and a further understanding of personal mission. Executive

level leaders are presented with the option to join one of these peer mentoring cohorts. As an

emerging phenomenon, there are numerous cohorts, similar to those included in the study,

available to executive level leaders.

Another research finding, the development of the competency of life-long learning,

95.7% of the sample, suggests an increased desire for continued development because of

experience in a peer mentoring cohort. The increased desire for learning and development will

likely lead to participation in additional peer mentoring cohorts. Therefore, peer mentoring

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cohort participation may lead to future increases in participation and newly formed cohorts. This

implication aligns with the foundational implication of the increasing awareness and ethic of

stewardship.

Additionally, the focus on understanding one’s personal mission might develop the

concept of stewardship in leaders. According to the literature and research findings of this study,

leaders increase effectiveness if they develop clarity of personal mission. If emerging leaders are

shown the value of a personal mission and how it is understood through a peer mentoring cohort,

they may be more likely to engage in a cohort throughout their career.

Continued phenomenon. Perhaps peer mentoring cohorts, now an emerging

phenomenon, will continue as a trend of life-long learning and development for leaders. One of

the implications of this research is espousing how executive level leaders will be developed in

the future.

Leaders have a choice to steward their mission, role, and resources by finding a way to

intentionally develop. Leaders can currently choose to join a peer mentoring cohort found to be

influential for development. However, the trend may be toward more peer mentoring cohorts

for executive level leaders and other leaders. The literature articulates various competencies

required of leaders and suggests models of learning, relational contexts for learning, and how one

learns and develops. Moreover, the research findings of this study have shown a clear value of

peer relationships, specifically those in a peer mentoring cohort for executive level leaders. As

the value of a peer mentoring cohort is recognized broadly, more cohorts will be started.

Empowering others, at 95.7%, and developing others, at 91.3%, are two leadership

competencies found to be developed by most of the sample. The implication of these findings is

an increased focus on development and empowerment of additional leaders at all levels in

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organizations. Perhaps the result will be an increase in initiating peer mentoring cohorts as

executive level leaders realize the value of development for other leaders in their organizations.

One application of this research may be the recognition of peer mentoring cohorts beyond

formal education or early career development. The higher education sector has recognized the

value of peer cohorts for decades. Perhaps, recognizing the value of this context for continued

development, organizations can establish peer mentoring cohorts throughout the levels of the

organization. If a peer mentoring cohort becomes a normal experience early in one’s career,

once leaders reach an executive level they will be more likely to seek the same environment.

For peer mentoring cohort models. The study has provided applicable feedback for the

researched peer mentoring cohort models and other current or future models. All three research

questions of the study have offered implications and applications for other peer mentoring

cohorts.

First, the study has captured a lived experience of participants that indicates value in

developing multiple competencies. Some of the leader competencies and understanding personal

mission were goals explicit to the cohort models while others are being developed through the

experience regardless of model goals. See the Model Comparison Chart (Table 1) in Chapter 4

for the goals and competencies explicit to each model. Perhaps cohort models can present a list

of competencies that have been developed by participants. The results of this study provide data

for the models to describe the value of their cohort model by articulating the exact competencies

that may be developed by participants.

Second, the study did not assert a value of one model over another, and the results did not

indicate a clear difference between the outcome of each model studied. Therefore, a conclusion

can be drawn that the modality and goals of a peer mentoring cohort may be secondary to the

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value of the peer relationships fostered. For example, only one of the researched models,

Younique, held an explicit goal of participants discovering their personal mission. However, all

three were valuable in developing a further understanding of participants’ personal mission.

Furthermore, all three models were shown to develop emotional intelligence, specifically self-

awareness, above any other competency. The literature showed some connection between self-

awareness and personal mission. One can conclude the peer relationships helped these develop

more than the explicit goals and content of the models.

Peer mentoring cohort models may apply this conclusion by finding ways in their model

to further leverage peer relationships. All three models researched are purposely leveraging peer

relationships already. However, one point of feedback from several in the sample was the need

for further follow-up. Perhaps models can build in peer follow-up beyond the current scope of

the model. Convene is unique in its open-ended commitment of time, but the other models are

contained within a set period. Therefore, those models might increase development potential of

their participants by including another phase of peer follow-up.

Third, since participants better understand their personal mission and develop more self-

awareness in these peer mentoring cohorts, perhaps these cohort models are providing a

foundational growth pattern for any leader. The narrative from open questions in the study

revealed a greater development of personal mission and self-awareness, allowing these leaders to

also develop in other competencies. For example, some participants suggested growth in

organizational leadership and strategic delegation as examples of competencies developed

because they established clarity of who they were and their mission. The application for cohort

models may be an explicit recognition of these foundational competencies and orienting their

model goals to make sure participants are growing in these areas.

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Advertisement and recruitment may be an application for the value of these peer

mentoring cohort models concluded from this study. The models included in this research

largely depend on reputation of the organization or organization founder to advertise and recruit

new participants. Some testimonies of participants are also found on their websites.

Additionally, word of mouth from participants likely helps recruit. The results of this study offer

the first research-based assessment of the outcomes from these cohorts.

The included models, and others, may be able to leverage the positive outcomes from this

study to include in advertising and recruiting. The researcher assumed a positive outcome prior

to the study and hoped the included models would benefit from the study results. This

application of the study results is not simply to increase the size and scope of a few peer

mentoring cohort models but rather to increase peer mentoring in general. The result of an

increase in peer mentoring cohorts for executive level leaders, and all leaders, will be widespread

life-long learning and development. The study has shown how development of competencies

and understanding of personal mission allows leaders to be more effective as well as increase the

effectiveness of the organizations in which they lead.

Literature gap and applications. The research provided an initial empirical study of the

phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts for executive level leaders. The findings of this study

provided a level of understanding of the value peer mentoring cohorts have for leadership

development, not previously proven. Understanding the value for leadership development in

peer mentoring cohorts offers credibility to an emerging phenomenon, and one that may prove

beneficial to other contexts. This study presented the value specific to the continued development

of executive level leaders in peer mentoring cohorts. Moreover, the development of leadership

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competencies and understanding of personal mission were empirically connected to the context

of a peer mentoring cohort.

There are many methodologies, such as peer mentoring, implemented in organizations

because there is an assumption of their value. Often methodologies change as popular books and

movements come and go. Furthermore, much of what faith organizations, like local churches, do

methodologically is rooted in biblical and theological principles but has not been empirically

proven to be valuable. This study offered empirical validation of the value of peer mentoring

cohorts, which were only perceived to be valuable previously. Therefore, the understanding

from this study advances the literature base on peer mentoring cohorts. Suggestions on how to

further this research on peer mentoring cohorts are mentioned later in this chapter.

In addition to beginning to fill the existing gap in the literature on peer mentoring

cohorts, the findings offer multiple applications. Primarily, the findings reflect a biblical

worldview foundational to this study. As previously mentioned, the transcendent stewardship

concept is highlighted through the findings of this study. When leaders recognize the value in

peer mentoring cohorts, their transcendent responsibility is to steward their leadership role, gifts,

skills, and opportunity by choosing this viable context for further development. In addition, the

research findings show a relational and communal emphasis in developing individuals. The

literature base suggests relationships are critical to any form of development (see Chapter 2), and

relationships are foundational to a biblical ethos (Acts 18; Deuteronomy 6:5-7; John 13:1-19;

Luke 9; 11:1-13; Matthew 5; 9; 24; Psalm 78:4). Furthermore, this study displayed the strength

and value of communal learning through peer relationships in a cohort also aligned with a

biblical worldview (II Timothy 2:2; 3:10-14; Proverbs 27:17; Titus 1:9; 2).

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The findings of this study addressing the research gap may also be applied to various

contexts. The findings are transferrable to numerous settings, which corporations, non-profit

organizations, graduate schools, seminaries, and churches can leverage.

The corporate and non-profit context can leverage this study by recognizing the value,

beyond anecdotal experience or perception, of peer mentoring cohorts from empirical research.

An emerging research base for peer mentoring cohorts allows corporate and non-profit leaders to

recognize and implement peer groups throughout their organization. Perhaps organizations will

realize the value espoused through empirical research and provide funding and schedule

flexibility for leaders, including executives, to engage in a peer mentoring cohort.

Graduate schools and seminaries may be able to apply the findings to their educational

cohorts. Higher education has used cohorts for a long time, recognizing their value

experientially and through researched findings. However, these cohorts might be able to apply

the findings of this peer mentoring cohort study to foster explicit peer relationships within the

cohort. For example, a doctoral cohort might recognize the specific competencies that can be

developed through peer relationships and create sub-groups within the cohort for specific

developmental goals. Further application of this study in these educational cohorts might allow

an intentional focus on developing students’ understanding of their personal mission.

The local church has employed a small group format, often comprised of peers, for

discipleship purposes. The findings of this study may provide further purpose and intentionality

to these local church small groups. For example, the findings suggest the capacity for such peer

groups to develop a participant’s understanding of their personal mission, or calling. Small

groups in local churches may explicitly address this developmental need, recognizing through

the findings of this study the capacity for this context to develop participants’ personal mission

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clarity and the value such clarity may bring to development of other competencies. Furthermore,

church small groups may apply the findings of this study with an intentional development

orientation. As this study shows, peer mentoring cohorts help develop multiple leadership

competencies. Churches may leverage the small group context for holistic development

including many of the leader competencies included in this study. Each application is connected

to the mission of churches to build community and make disciples of Christ.

Moreover, pastors are considered executive level leaders of their organization. These

executive level leaders can benefit from a peer mentoring cohort just as much as leaders of any

other organization. The sample in this study included several pastors, thus exhibiting the

transferability to this leadership role. One unique aspect of pastoral leadership is the variance in

career trajectory. Some pastors progress through their career to a point of executive level

leadership as a seasoned leader. In contrast, others may graduate from seminary and

immediately take a pastoral position as a young emerging leader. Therefore, a peer mentoring

cohort may be of particular importance to this leadership role as many pastors lack the benefit of

valuable traditional mentoring as they progress in their career.

Research Limitations

The nature of a qualitative study is that research findings are typically not generalizable

to other populations, but rather the research seeks transferability to other contexts (Creswell,

2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). The desire for this study was to conclude with transferrable

findings to inform other leadership development contexts.

Given this unique desired outcome of a qualitative study, there are limitations to

transferability. As the number of peer mentoring models included is limited and the participants

per model are limited, transferability to other contexts will be reduced. However, in a qualitative

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study such as this a large sample size was not necessary to articulate a transferable lived

experience (Creswell, 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).

The final sample was twenty-three participants from the three models selected.

Therefore, the outcome was an adequate sample for this research purpose while limiting

transferability. The research findings are transferrable to other contexts, yet one might consider

additional studies that provide a larger data sample to increase transferability.

Additionally, the study focused on the perception of participants toward their

developmental experience in the model. Their perception may have limitations as their degree of

self-awareness dictated (Goleman et al., 2013). The study did not include the measurement of

participant self-awareness or the inclusion of peer or follower reviews of the participants’

development. Therefore, the study fulfilled the purpose to articulate a lived experience of the

sample but highlighted the need for further studies to solidify the research base (see the Future

Research section to follow).

Furthermore, the study did not review other relational differences in the participants or

variables for participant leadership contexts. For example, this study did not look at the

development point of the individual participant prior to their experience in the cohort. There was

no baseline to compare their development and no information on the difference in development

needs between participants. Moreover, the varying leadership context of each participant was

not considered. A participant’s context partly determines the competencies needed, so the

research base could be furthered by considering participant contexts and how context might

change development requirements.

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Future Research

The research has begun to assess the value of peer mentoring cohorts for executive level

leaders. As stated previously, there is ample research in the literature base on mentoring

relationships, cohorts, leadership, and adult learning but not enough research combining all four

into one phenomenon as this study has done. Moreover, the context of peer mentoring cohorts

for developing executive level leaders has not been adequately researched. One exception is the

Kroll (2015) study on peer mentoring for executive level leadership development in

organizations that focused on peer group mentoring for women in leadership. The researcher has

sought further information beyond the Kroll (2015) study and believes this study has provided a

starting point for future research endeavors.

Longitudinal Study

This study was a phenomenological look at peer mentoring cohorts and their value for

developing executive level leaders. As such, it was a descriptive snapshot in time of the

perceived lived experience of the participants in the sample. A helpful next step would be a

longitudinal study of one, or several, peer mentoring cohorts. This suggested next step could

offer an extension of the narrative from this study. The result will be information to compare

with the current results, suggesting the value of additional time in a peer mentoring cohort.

Additionally, a longitudinal study might reveal the process and pace of development for

participants.

Varied Perspective

As mentioned in the previous section on limitations, this study provided one perspective.

The participants were asked to self-assess the value of their cohort experience in developing

them. Another study could seek additional perspectives. For example, a study might ask the

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perspective of the participant, other peers in their cohort, and those the participants lead. These

varied perspectives might provide confirming data for this study or data that suggests different

results of peer mentoring cohorts.

Quantitative Study

A quantitative study will also further the current research findings. The current study

offered lived experiences and, therefore, a narrative of how valuable these peer mentoring

cohorts were in developing these executive level leaders. A quantitative study will provide a

couple of advantages to further the research base. First, this type of study will allow a researcher

to include a significantly larger sample, thus providing increased data, and the results will shift

from transferability to generalizability. Second, a quantitative study allows for seeking

comparisons or checking on possible relationships between variables. For example, a study

might compare the results of participants experiencing a peer mentoring cohort with those who

have not. Similarly, a quantitative study can look at how the modality of a peer mentoring

cohort relates with developmental outcomes.

Additional Considerations

There are additional considerations that might enhance the research base on peer

mentoring cohorts. The considerations involved in this study included a minimum length of six

months for participation, cohorts designed for executive level leaders, developing leadership

competencies in the leaders’ current context and developing their understanding of their personal

mission.

A few additional considerations might further the research base. The influence of culture

on the value of peer mentoring cohorts will be a valuable consideration. Perhaps peer

relationships hold value in relation to their cultural context or leaders develop competencies

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differently based on cultural influences. A study including culture will target these possible

cultural influences. Another consideration to study is the influence of worldview or faith. Like

cultural influences, individuals’ worldview or faith might impact how they develop, what they

develop, and the context that is ideal for development.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provided a conclusion to the research. Chapter 5 restated the research

purpose, guiding research questions, research conclusions preceded by the context of the

research, implications, applications, limitations, and suggestions for further research.

The results of the study show a viable context for executive level leaders, short on

continued development options, to continue their development in peer mentoring cohorts. This

value affirmed may lead to a continued phenomenon of peer mentoring cohorts for executive

level leaders, and perhaps other leaders of all levels in organizations or career stages. The

researcher asserted stewardship as a transcendent motivation, personal mission defining a

leader’s purpose, and development of leader competencies as the means for effectiveness.

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Appendix A

Expert Panel Invitation Letter

November, 2016 Request for research participation, as an expert for instrument review, with the study titled: A Phenomenological Study of Executive Level Leadership Development in Peer Mentoring Cohort Models. Dear Dr. Parker,

My name is Brian Pinzer. I am a doctoral candidate at Capital Seminary and Graduate School, a division of Lancaster Bible College. I am conducting a research study as part of the requirements of my PhD in Leadership, and I would like to invite you to participate as an expert in reviewing my two designed instruments.

I am studying peer mentoring cohort models for executive level leaders. Specifically, I am seeking to find out the influence peer mentoring relationships have on participants’ leadership competencies in their context and their understanding of a personal mission. If you decide to participate you will be asked to assist in the following ways.

§ Reply to me via email ([email protected]), indicating your desire to participate. § Review the two attached instruments for appropriate content related to the topic and

research questions shown below. o The first instrument is a set of open interview questions for cohort model leaders

to lead toward a description of the model. The literature review has articulated each model (three models selected for research) through public domain information on each model, while these interview questions are designed to further the description by filling in any gaps from public records.

o The second instrument is a 24 question (closed and open) qualitative survey designed for participants in each model. The version attached includes categories and sources undergirding these questions. The online distributed survey will not include this detailed information.

§ Give the researcher feedback on the following questions, via email. o (1) do you believe the questions in your area of expertise will be effective in

gathering accurate qualitative data for the pertinent research question; (2) do you believe any questions are biased or leading; and (3) do you have any suggested questions or elements not currently included.

§ The researcher will then take into account your feedback along with the other experts on the review panel.

This research will benefit executive level leaders, the researched peer mentoring cohort

models, and other peer mentoring cohort models, as a qualitative research base for understanding lived experiences of those participating in peer mentoring. The research will provide a description of how this context has influenced participants’ leadership competencies in their context and their understanding of a personal mission.

Participation in this research, as an expert instrument reviewer, is requested, but optional.

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Furthermore, all feedback you give is CONFIDENTIAL and will be reported anonymously, without attributing to any individual. Therefore, at no point in the research will you be named or your feedback be attributed to you. The data collected during research will be shared in the final write up of the research, but not attributed to any individual. The only name explicit in the research are the model names.

I will be happy to answer any questions you have about the study. You may contact me at ([email protected]) if you have study related questions or problems.

Thank you for your consideration. If you are willing to participate, please send an email to [email protected], indicating your intent to participate as an instrument reviewer. Once you indicate your willingness to participate, please review the two attached instruments and send your feedback to me ([email protected]) prior to December 1, 2016.

With kind regards, Brian Pinzer 14410 Hulfish Way Gainesville, VA 20155 [email protected]

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Appendix B

Model Leader Invitation Letter November, 2016 Request for research participation with the study titled: A Phenomenological Study of Executive Level Leadership Development in Peer Mentoring Cohort Models. Dear Dr. Michael Petty,

I am studying peer mentoring cohort models for executive level leaders. Specifically, I am seeking to find out the influence peer mentoring relationships have on participants’ leadership competencies in their context and their understanding of a personal mission. If you decide to participate, you, and those selected participants in your model, will be asked to assist in the following ways.

§ You, as a leader of your model, will be interviewed for approximately 20-30 minutes on

the phone, asking 7 open-ended questions to describe your model. The interview will be recorded for purposes of transcription. The interview questions are attached to this letter so you can be familiar with the questions ahead of time. These questions are still being reviewed for validation purposes, so a slightly altered version may be used.

§ A summation of the interview will then be sent to you, so you can confirm the accuracy. § In conjunction with the researcher, you will select a number of participants to be asked to

take a brief online survey. The study is qualitative, so only a small number is required to participate, enough to be representative of the model.

§ You will distribute a link to an online survey to selected participants, via email. The survey is only 24 questions and should take participants approximately 10-15 minutes. The survey is attached to this letter so you are aware of what selected participants will be asked. This survey is still being reviewed for validation purposes, so a slightly altered version may be used.

§ You may also be asked, prior to the above research steps, to distribute an initial pilot-test survey to a few participants in your model. This pilot test will seek clarity of the survey instrument prior to the actual research steps.

This research will benefit executive level leaders, your peer mentoring cohort model, and

other peer mentoring cohort models, as a qualitative research base for understanding lived experiences of those participating in peer mentoring. The research will provide a description of how this context has influenced participants’ leadership competencies in their context and their understanding of a personal mission.

Participation in this research is requested, but optional for you and those selected participants. Furthermore, all information gathered from this survey is CONFIDENTIAL and will be reported anonymously, without attributing to any individual. Therefore, at no point in the research will you be named or your answers be attributed to you. The data collected during

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research will be shared in the final write up of the research, but not attributed to any individual. The only name explicit in the research is the model name.

I will be happy to answer any questions you have about the study. You may contact me at ([email protected]) if you have study related questions or problems.

Thank you for your consideration. If you are willing to participate, please send an email to [email protected], indicating your intent to participate in the research and allow participants in your peer mentoring model to be included. Once your confirmation is received and final review of my research instruments are complete, I will be in contact with you, via email, to set up a phone interview time.

With kind regards, Brian Pinzer 14410 Hulfish Way Gainesville, VA 20155 [email protected]

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Appendix C

Pilot Test Instructions and Questions

You have been asked to participate in a pilot test of the following research survey. This pilot test is a critical step in the research process, designed to test for question clarity. Your responses will have the same anonymity and confidentiality as those who take the final survey version. Please answer the survey, as instructed below, and answer the specific pilot test questions at the end. Thank you very much for your participation! Below are the pilot test questions you will be asked at the end of the regular survey.

• Were any questions confusing to understand (if so, which ones)? • Were any of the questions biased or leading (if so, which ones)? • Do you have any further feedback about this survey? • How long did it take you to complete this survey?

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Appendix D

Interview Questions for Peer Mentoring Model Leaders (Draft)

1. What is the mission of your organization? 2. What goals do you have for (Model Name)? 3. How long is the total program? 4. How often, and for how long, do participants meet? 5. How, if at all, does your model leverage the value of peers in their development? 6. What have you learned about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of your model? 7. What else can you tell me about (Model Name), which will help articulate your model?

For Younique only:

8. I noticed on your website that you have made changes to the structure from the original cohort. Why did you decide to make these changes?

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Appendix E

Interview Questions for Peer Mentoring Model Leaders (Final Version)

1. What is the mission of your organization? 2. What goals do you have for (Model Name)?

§ Optional follow-up: Are these goals specific to your leadership, or across all groups in the model?

3. Do you believe (Model Name) helps participants develop leadership competencies pertinent to their leadership context?

§ Optional follow-up: How does (Model Name) help this development? § Optional follow-up: Is this an explicitly desired outcome of the model?

4. Do you believe (Model Name) helps participants develop a further understanding of their personal mission?

§ Optional follow-up: How does (Model Name) help this development? § Optional follow-up: Is this an explicitly desired outcome of the model?

5. How long is the total program? § Optional follow-up: What has been the retention rate for participants?

6. How often, and for how long, do participants meet? § Optional follow-up: What is the average number participating in each meeting?

7. Is there specific content or curriculum your model uses? If so, what? 8. How, if at all, does your model leverage peer relationships?

§ Optional follow-up: Is peer mentoring an explicit strategy? § Optional follow-up: If so, why was peer mentoring chosen as a strategy to

accomplish your mission? 9. What are some ways (Model Name) has benefitted participants’ development as leaders?

§ Optional follow-up: How might (Model Name) be unique from other peer mentoring models in benefitting participants’ development as leaders?

10. What are some weaknesses of (Model Name) in benefitting participants’ development as leaders?

§ Optional follow-up: Given these described weaknesses, how have you taken, or will take steps, to alter the model for improvement?

11. What else can you tell me about (Model Name), which will help articulate your model? For Younique only:

12. I noticed on your website that you have made changes to the structure from the original cohort. Why did you decide to make these changes?

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Appendix F

Peer Mentoring Cohort Participant Survey (Draft as developed, including categories and references)

Contextualized Leadership Competencies: Leadership competency includes skills, behaviors or practices which enhance one’s ability to effectively lead in their leadership role. Necessary competencies vary by context, as they are not limited to one particular set, but relevant to a context (Barna, 1993; Bass, 1990; Blizzard, 1956; Boersma, 1988; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2013; Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson, 2001; Kiedis, 2009; Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Kouzes and Posner, 2010; Longenecker, 2014; Nauss, 1994; Woodruff, 2004; Yukl, 2012). As a result of my experience in (Model Name): Task Competencies include intelligence (general and creative), technical, intuition, and organizational (Bass, 1990; Yukl, 2012).

1. my creativity for my leadership context increased. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

2. some technical competence, pertinent to my role, increased. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

3. I have become more intuitive in my ability to lead in my role. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

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4. my competence to effectively lead my organization was enhanced. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______ Interpersonal competencies are found in sub-categories such as empathy, care, emotional intelligence, consistency, timing, communication, conflict resolution, authenticity, and trust (Bass, 1990; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2013; Yukl, 2012).

5. I am able to feel greater empathy for those in my organization. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

6. an aspect of my emotional intelligence has increased (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, or relationship management). A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

If so, check any that increased.

o I have increased self-awareness. o I am able to recognize and control my emotions. o I am aware of the emotions of others. o I am able to communicate more effectively with others.

7. I have increased my ability to resolve interpersonal conflict.

A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

8. I find my actions more closely align with my espoused values. A) Strongly Agree

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B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

9. I am finding more ways to empower those I lead. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

10. I have increased my role in developing others in my organization. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______ Change and external-oriented competencies (advocating change, envisioning change, encouraging innovation, facilitating collective learning); and external (networking, external monitoring, representing) (Yukl, 2012)

11. I understand better how to initiate change in my organization. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

12. my relational networking with others outside my organization has increased. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

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13. my desire to learn from others outside my organization has increased.

A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______ Competencies (Miscellaneous)

14. I believe I need to continually improve and develop my competencies to lead effectively in my organization. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

15. Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in (Model Name), toward developing leadership competencies for your current position? ____________________________

Personal Mission: A personal mission is transcendent to oneself and any one job or role, often considered a calling, values-driven and character-driven, guides short-term and long-term goals or decisions, and articulates service oriented meaning to tasks and roles (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Chew, Lee, & Ismail, 2014; Covey, 2004; Dalton, 2001; Fox, 1994; Guinness, 1998; Ligo, 2011; Messenger, 2011; Palmer, 2000; Rawat, 2011; Searight & Searight, 2011; Terkel, 1997; Weber, 1930). Please consider the above definition of a personal mission while answering the following questions. As a result of my experience in (Model Name):

16. I have considered a personal mission for the first time. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

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Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

17. I have a greater understanding of my personal mission. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

18. my personal mission has changed. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

19. I have a greater awareness of how my personal mission connects to my organization. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

20. I am more convinced that my current leadership position is aligned with my personal mission. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

21. I am more convinced that my current leadership position is not aligned with my personal mission. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

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Optional: Please give brief insight into why you responded as you did (how, example, etc.) ______

22. Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your

experience in (Model Name), toward your understanding of your personal mission? ____________________________

Demographic Questions:

23. How long did you participate in (Model Name)? ____________________________

24. What is your current leadership position? ____________________________

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Appendix G

Peer Mentoring Cohort Participant Survey (Final Version Distributed to Participants)

* There were three versions distributed through Survey Monkey, each containing the pertinent name of the peer mentoring cohort) Thank you for your valuable time, interest and willingness to participate in this survey. The survey includes only 25 questions and should take you approximately 15 minutes to complete. I greatly appreciate your thoughtful responses. Agreement to Participate The research in which you are about to participate is designed to study the influence peer mentoring cohorts have on leadership development. This research is being conducted by Brian Pinzer for purposes of PhD dissertation related research. In this research, you will answer a 25-question online survey designed to articulate your experience in (Model Name). The research is focused specifically on the influence your peer mentoring relationships have had on your competencies pertinent to your particular leadership context and your understanding of your personal mission (as defined later in the survey). The survey should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. Any information you provide will be held strictly confidential, and at no time will your name be reported, or your name identified with your responses. Participation in this study is totally voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the study at any time. By your completion of this survey, you are giving informed consent for the use of your responses in this research. Risks/Benefits: Participation in this research study assumes a low level of personal risk. As stated above, your responses will remain confidential and anonymous throughout the process. There are questions seeking self-evaluative responses. These questions are not designed to assign value judgement by the researcher, but rather to form a descriptive experience within the cohort model. Although participation in the research largely helps the researcher with this particular study, there is some potential benefit to all participants in the research. First, the peer mentoring cohort models researched will benefit from qualitative data of their model. This data may lead to either justifying the value of participation in the model, or the need for improving the design of the model. Second, as a surveyed participant of the cohort model, you may discover the level of influence the cohort model has had on your development as a leader. Directions: Select your response to most questions by indicating strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. There are also sub-questions below most numbered questions. These open-ended questions provide space to give clarifying information on your previous response. Make sure you answer all numbered questions, and strongly consider answering optional sub-questions, as they only strengthen the research results.

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Contact Information: You are welcome to ask any questions of the researcher or their supervisor.

Researcher: Brian Pinzer, [email protected] Research Supervisor: Gary Bredfeldt, PhD, [email protected]

Contextualized Leadership Competencies: As a result of my experience in (Model Name):

1. my leadership creativity has developed (e.g. creatively cast vision, creatively communicate, creatively problem-solve). A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

2. some technical competence, pertinent to my role, has increased. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

3. I have a better intuitive sense for leading in my role. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

4. my competence to effectively lead my organization has enhanced. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

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5. I have felt greater empathy for those in my organization. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

6. an aspect of my emotional intelligence has developed (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, or relationship management). A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

7. If emotional intelligence has developed, select all of the following aspects that have

increased. o I have increased self-awareness. o I am better able to recognize and control my emotions. o I am more aware of the emotions of others. o I am able to communicate more effectively with others.

8. I have developed in my ability to resolve interpersonal conflict.

A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

9. I find my actions more closely align with my espoused values. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

10. I am finding more ways to empower those I lead. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

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Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______ 11. I have prioritized developing others in my organization.

A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

12. I understand better how to initiate change in my organization. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

13. my relational networking ability with others outside my organization has increased. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______ 14. I am seeking more opportunities to learn from others outside my organization.

A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______ 15. my desire to continually improve and develop my competencies has increased.

A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

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Optional: Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______ 16. Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your

experience in (Model Name), toward developing leadership competencies for your current position? ____________________________

17. Would you suggest any changes to (Model Name) that would further enhance participants’ development of leadership competencies for their current position? _____________________________

Personal Mission: A personal mission, often considered a calling, is transcendent to oneself and any one job or role, and guides short-term and long-term goals or decisions. Please consider the above definition of a personal mission while answering the following questions. As a result of my experience in (Model Name):

18. I have a greater understanding of my personal mission. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______ 19. I have a greater ability to articulate how my personal mission connects to my

organization. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______ 20. I am more convinced that my current leadership position is aligned with my personal

mission. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

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Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______ 21. I am more convinced that my current leadership position is not aligned with my personal

mission. A) Strongly Agree B) Agree C) Disagree D) Strongly Disagree

Optional:

Please give further insight or clarification to your response (how, example, etc.) ______

22. Is there any further information you are willing to share pertaining to the value of your experience in (Model Name), toward your understanding of your personal mission? _____________________________

23. Would you suggest any changes to (Model Name) that would further enhance

participants’ understanding of their personal mission? __________________

24. How long did you participate in (Model Name)? ____________________________

25. What is your current leadership position? _________________________________

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Appendix H Interview Transcripts with Model Leaders

The answers below are not full verbatim transcripts but are a paraphrase of the interviewees’ answers.

Interview with Convene Chair A (December 1, 2016)

1. What is the mission of Convene? If I were to summarize it briefly, it is kind of our tag line, “Build strong businesses that have eternal value.” Which deals with product, people, and purpose, intending to have eternal value that is sustainable and has legacy that follows on to all the people who are involved. Strong businesses create eternal value.

2. What goals do you have for Convene? I am in the process of trying to recruit to fill a second Convene team. For years I

have Chaired a Convene group, and the Lord is leading me to begin a second group. That is why I am working to get a second group up and fully functioning. The second group is already meeting, but we still have a few empty chairs.

Officially these groups are called “chapters” but we call them “teams.” We recognize each team by their number. There are currently about 55 Convene chapters; some Chairs operate two chapters with many operating just one. Total number of Convene members is 500-550 members. The businesses represented by those members are employing a total of about 40,000 employees. We have a combined revenue represented between 7 and 9 billion dollars. These are just numbers, but it is the size of the platform for impact.

§ Interviewer follow-up question: What goals might you have for the impact of Convene members?

The members of Convene are owners, CEO’s, or soon to be in that position in a company. We would love for those people to not only be great business leaders and great Christians but understand how to integrate the Lord’s work into the business. This would mean more than just writing a check to help people. The integration would not only impact the community around you, but it would mean your employees understand the beauty of stewardship. The opportunity to take the integration of faith in the workplace down to your own people, and then have that as a mechanism to reach out and impact the community. For example, many members will take earnings and create a stewardship fund and ask employees to serve on the stewardship committee. The responsibility of that committee is then to listen to the needs of charitable organizations fitting the values of their company and determine how to dispense the fund and be accountable for this process. In the example, you are taking the success of a company, indicating to your employees that part of this profit will go to the community and the Lord’s work, and entrusting your employees to be a part of the process. You are not only impacting the business owner, but the employees and the community in which they operate.

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3. Do you believe Convene helps participants develop leadership competencies pertinent to their leadership context?

I certainly do. One of the first things we do with a new member is ask them to do a survey of what are the attributes required of a CEO and where do you rank. Then I will spend time with them over the first year working on their weaknesses. First, I meet with each member for ninety minutes a month, in what you might call a coaching session. However, it is not really a coaching session, but a probing session, finding out what is working and what is not working. In finding the things that may need some help, it will either set us up for the next one on one time, or we may define the issue and bring it into the monthly group.

In the monthly group meeting we are working on business issues in a leadership development format. We are also working on individual issues, which we discovered in one on one time. Convene is employing two Scriptural elements in that leadership development process; “iron sharpening iron” in the one on one and “the counsel of many” in the large group meetings. Convene also provide a list to Chairs of well experienced and qualified speakers with expertise in various areas. The Chair needs to be aware of what the particular needs of their team might be. A Chair periodically brings in a speaker to their monthly group meeting. I bring in one speaker a quarter.

§ Interviewer follow-up question: Is what you just shared specific to your chapter in Convene, or typical to all Convene chapters?

We all run our chapters a little different. However, all Chairs have access to a large repository of leadership development topics. We work on what we call an Organizational Development Roadmap, which is on the website. It looks at Kingdom purpose, mission, vision, values, strategic issues, and management issues. If you did not have kingdom purpose in it, or one or two of the elements related to strategy, you would find the same kind of Organizational Development Roadmap in any good business school. We go beyond that, because we do ask the members to make sure they understand their God-given purpose and what are they doing in their strategy in way of a ministry action to accomplish these things annually. We have in Convene, material on any topic on the Organizational Development Roadmap. This database is available to all Convene Chairs. They are either created by Convene, or we have had them created for us. You might say it is Convene’s parallel to the Harvard Business Journal, where you can get leadership instruction on any topic. Convene’s database does not just include issues of business but issues of life. The great thing about Convene is that it is not only focused on business and integration of faith in the workplace, but we care about the family and spiritual health of the individual.

4. Do you believe Convene helps participants develop a further understanding of their

personal mission? As a new member, Convene presses them hard to get a good understanding of the

mission, vision, and values of their organization. In that we encourage them that these need to come from them and should reflect the heart and soul of the owner and CEO. Many business owners never really focus on the “why.” The “why” and for “whom” are challenging questions. I will help them do a SWOT meeting with their leadership team to

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make sure they are giving thought to the connection between the organization’s mission, vision, and values and the owner and CEO. I stop them before they push to a conclusion and talk just to the owner, “take what you team has told you and put it through your filter, because this is your vision. You are the Habakkuk. The Lord has put you in the position, you cannot assign that job to somebody else.”

§ Interviewer follow-up question: Is this an explicitly desired outcome of the

model? Convene would have that as a general desire, but different amounts of focus

and approaches in each chapter.

5. How long is the total program? I have operated a Convene team for 10 years and still have some of the original members in it now. I have some members who have dropped out after two or three years and some who signed up but never made the commitment and atrophied away. I do not think anybody has every walked away because they were not getting value from Convene. It is intended to build a trusted community of peers because as long as you are staying in business you can use trusted peers. If you join some other organizations designed for peer mentoring, you cannot be sure that anyone around the table from you holds any similar worldview. The beauty of Convene is everyone has one common denominator; they all love the Lord Jesus Christ. They can count on their partners calling them out if they are not walking with the Lord in a particular business situation.

6. How often, and for how long, do participants meet? We meet monthly as a chapter for a full-day. I then get 90 minutes per member for a one on one meeting. Retreat once a year for some chapters.

7. Is there specific content or curriculum your model uses? If so, what?

The repository mentioned above. The Chair needs to be aware of the needs of members and map out the content needed. In addition, other strong leadership content is used by Chairs. Convene is building relationships with some specific organizations that they resonate with. For example, Convene uses a lot from Institute for Faith, Work, and Economics; Patrick Lencioni; and Andy Stanley.

8. How, if at all, does your model leverage peer relationships? Each one is gifted and talented differently and become aware of leveraging this

diversity in community. He encourages members to have an additional relational meeting with another member(s). This furthers community and leverages the diversity of gifts and talents.

§ Interviewer follow-up question: Is peer mentoring an explicit strategy?

The explicit chosen strategies are “Iron sharpens iron” and “Counsel of many.” The community element is included in the “counsel of many.” Unofficially, peer relationships are utilized to connect one to another. However, peer mentoring is a part of both strategies. Peers offer support and challenge.

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9. What are some ways Convene has benefitted participants’ development as leaders? The style of leaders has developed. For example, some have gone from “command and control” to “servant leader, with empowerment” or judgmental to spirit of forgiveness and empowerment. Leaders have grown in responsibility. Many have grown in personal and family leadership.

10. What are some weaknesses of Convene in benefitting participants’ development as leaders? We need to grow faster, more teams in different larger cities that don’t have a Convene team. I guess you could say, “shame on us.” Not nearly enough of a footprint yet. There is also a great demand for Convene to go international. Not necessarily a weakness in developing leaders, because there is no close definition of what our model is. We are making available as many good leadership development models, integration of faith and work, and best divine practices as we can among the members. If there is great opportunity for developing, we will get to it and provide as part of the model. Again, the biggest issue is, we are not big enough fast enough.

11. What else can you tell me about Convene, which will help articulate your model? Being a Convene Chair is the most enjoyable and rewarding experience (been in business and CEO for years). A Chair is advantaged if a spouse is involved. About every year and a half a one on one time is scheduled with the member’s spouse. We ask “What could Convene be doing to make your spouse better at home, family, kids, etc.?” We are not just concerned about the bottom line of the business, but also the lifeline of the people.

Interview with Convene Chair B (December 6, 2016)

1. What is the mission of Convene? The mission for my chapter is “To assist members in the performance of their companies in a Christ-centered manner.” It is aligned with the Convene statement, but contextualized. The vision for his team, “create a cohesive and supportive team of 16 Christian business leaders that will greatly impact the Washington DC area and beyond for the kingdom of God.” I am not sure if others have this. Convene Chairs have a measure of autonomy in how they run their chapters. However, there is consistency of training of Chairs and continual connection. There are 40 or so Chairs, broken down in support teams, who get together every other week on a conference call to discuss issues, ideas, and work through opportunity and challenge exercises. There is a semi-annual meeting of Chairs for two and a half days (guest speaker, Chairs present topics for consideration, Administrative staff give updates). For example, they shared recently a partnership with Wiley (Lencioni, DISC for leaders, etc.). Then there is an annual leadership conference for two and a half days (300-350 members plus about eighty percent of the Chairs - guest speakers for general topics, Convene member testimonials, breakout sessions for specific topics).

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2. What goals do you have for Convene? Forum day goals for my chapter are “to provide a safe, confidential and high energy

environment; create a community of support; ensure high value and benefit to member businesses; and address two business opportunities every month.” I also have a goal to meet once a month for ono-on-one with each member. They talk about almost anything. A couple examples include follow-up on conversation from Forum day and accountability. My goal, as the Chair, is to serve them personally with what they need or are dealing with (personal, business, spiritual, family).

Some changes locally in my chapter and in Convene reflect realization of the mission. I am changing next year to a half-day Forum day and shifting to two one-on-one meetings each month. Convene is adding executive coaching and consulting services for members and non-members.

§ Interviewer follow-up question: Are these goals specific to your leadership, or across all groups in the model?

These are likely Convene-wide although they are not given a specific set of goals.

3. Do you believe Convene helps participants develop leadership competencies pertinent to

their leadership context? Yes, their Organizational Development Roadmap (mission, vision, strategic planning,

etc.) provides the curricular structure for development. There is a five-year curriculum of content. The idea is for the curriculum to begin at a high level of leadership development and progress through various leadership topics from general to specific. Each team delivers the content differently. Some teams are rigid to the five-year curriculum while others may be flexible. The issue with sticking rigidly with the curriculum is the turnover of members.

Opportunity and challenge discussions offer development of competencies. I also use an overriding theme each year on high level strategic leadership development.

4. Do you believe Convene helps participants develop a further understanding of their

personal mission? Yes, there are some content pieces on personal mission. It is an overriding theme

during monthly on-on-one meetings. There are often obstacles or a new insight into personal mission. For example, I initiated an exercise for three personal goals for the year: one spiritual, one family, and one personal. Members are often so wrapped up in their businesses they fail to plan for their personal life.

5. How long is the total program? It lasts as long as the participant perceives value or stays in a position of leadership.

Members usually don’t leave because they do not perceive value: it is because they left their positon (sell business, business bought out, etc.).

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6. How often, and for how long, do participants meet? The monthly Forum days are typically a full-day or some may be a half-day. The key

is Chairs conduct at least one monthly meeting and at least one monthly one-on-one meeting.

§ Optional follow-up: What is the average number participating in each meeting? There are eight currently on my team while my vision is to have the team

grow to sixteen. The Convene cap is around sixteen while the average is around twelve, which is a good number in case a few cannot make a meeting.

7. Is there specific content or curriculum your model uses? If so, what?

The five-year curriculum, as well as other content from Chairs, as discussed earlier.

8. How, if at all, does your model leverage peer relationships? As the members get to know each other better, they become friends and colleagues;

they are more intimate with this group than any other. Barriers are broken down, and they support one another. A trusted advisor role is created for one another. These trusting relationships aid development of each member through the opportunities and challenges discussions.

9. What are some ways Convene has benefitted participants’ development as leaders?

The whole orientation of Convene is about Christ-centered leadership.

10. What are some weaknesses of Convene in benefitting participants’ development as leaders?

There is a need to have a thorough review of content to determine if it is the most current content out there. Newer content is used by some Chairs, but the overall Convene content needs review.

11. What else can you tell me about Convene, which will help articulate your model?

It has been a great personal experience being affiliated with Convene, and even greater experience affiliated with the members. The challenge is to provide exceptional value worth their time. Convene is presenting coaching to hopefully capture them further into the peer relationships. The value to the Convene member is different than the person getting coaching. The coaching provides a specific development.

Interview with X-Core Leader (December 15, 2016)

1. What is the mission of your organization? The Giant Worldwide mission is “to raise up liberators who will change leadership

culture in every major sector and city in the world.” X-Core is the main way we engage individuals in our process. We work with individuals, teams, and organizations. X-Core is best suited for an individual interested in connecting to a leadership development process. They can connect with others who are interested in becoming more effective in their leadership.

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2. What goals do you have for X-Core? We want to be mission consistent and raise up liberators. We define a liberator as

one who fights for the highest possible good in the lives of those they lead. So, we want raise up those liberating leaders, and then they will go back and have an impact. We articulate our vision as “we want to help people become leaders worth following, which a leader worth following is a liberator. So, we want to help them become leaders worth following, to then build leaders worth following, and then lead organizations everyone wants to work for.” The become and build pieces are a big part of X-Core. The specific vison questions for X-Core are, “how do we get leaders healthy, and how do we multiply that.” The two backstage items going on in our mind are transformation and multiplication. How do we give you a toolkit to multiply the transformation you are experiencing as a leader?

§ Follow-up question: Is X-Core specific to a particular level of organizational

leader? Participants can be any level of leader in their organization. We have had

executive level leaders, mid-level managers, senior level leaders, entrepreneurs, and young emerging leaders.

§ Optional follow-up: Are these goals specific to your leadership, or across all

groups in the model? This is a vision focus for all X-Core groups.

3. Do you believe X-Core helps participants develop leadership competencies pertinent to their leadership context? Yes I do.

§ Optional follow-up: How does X-Core help this development?

We focus on three areas: IQ (leadership competency piece), EQ (emotional intelligence to connect well with people), and PQ (personality quotient focusing on self-awareness and personality). We are intentional about imparting a set of visual tools that create a common language for the participants. We have a set of leadership competencies that need to be in a leader’s toolkit (ie. push/pull communication skill sets dealing with communication patterns and support/challenge matrix helping with the skills of managing and leading effectively, vision communicating change, etc.).

4. Do you believe X-Core helps participants develop a further understanding of their

personal mission? Broadly, by the nature of our program deign, they are helped with that aspect.

Suggesting all leaders should be a liberator, fighting for the highest possible good in the lives of those you lead. More specifically, one of the tools called the peace index deals with the personal mission element. It asks how leaders are doing personally and if they are aligned with what they are supposed to be doing. The participants’ need of clarifying their personal mission may not be shifted by X-Core.

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5. How long is the total program? It is a 12 month program.

6. How often, and for how long, do participants meet?

We meet in quarterly retreats. The first and last retreats are a full 2 days. The middle two retreats are a day and a half long. Between the quarterly retreats are two online core groups. These are a peer learning environment of 6-8 people on average. Additionally, there is a thirty-minute one-on-one meeting per month with a coach. An X-Core group is full at 48 and 20 on the low end.

7. Is there specific content or curriculum your model uses? If so, what?

The retreats are designed around our vision framework, to become, build, and lead, as mentioned earlier. The first two retreats, and the content between those, are focused on the personal leader development aspect of becoming a liberator. Then we get into the build competencies of how to take that and effectively build into the lives of your team and organization. X-Core leaders are provided with a recommended set of tools and content but with flexibility for the leader to deviate from the content based on the needs of the group.

8. How, if at all, does your model leverage peer relationships?

It is the basis for what we do. We have an intentional understanding of proxemics, how spaces should be used. So, in a coaching environment of a Core-group unit of 6-8 is a great opportunity for depth, collaboration, and accountability. We have intentionally structured this with the understanding that the learning is happening peer to peer in these Core groups. It is not just the facilitator being the expert, but is the Sherpa (Mt. Everest analogy). Even though some are subject matter experts, they want to help participants discover and provide support and challenge. Many participants have stated that one of the greatest values in the process is the relationships that were formed.

9. What are some ways X-Core has benefitted participants’ development as leaders?

Some have benefitted from a profound understanding of their personality wiring and nature, thus growing self-awareness. X-Core has helped individuals to learn deeply about their personality wiring, such as their stress behaviors. Furthermore, learning has occurred on how other personalities engage with them, fostering appreciation and understanding of differences in other people. These developing understandings help leaders leverage their team better. There is a host of skills, self-awareness, and intelligence pieces come out of the experience.

10. What are some weaknesses of X-Core in benefitting participants’ development as

leaders? There could be more face to face context to build relationships further. Virtual element is somewhat limiting for building relationships. The geographical spread for each X-Core group was a weakness but has been corrected some by a regional model (adding groups in multiple cities).

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Another weakness may be inclusion of all leader levels being a challenge to participants’ particular needs. This has been articulated by some executive level leaders who were a little surprised other level of leaders were included.

11. What else can you tell me about X-Core, which will help articulate your model?

I cannot think of anything more to add. Interview with Younique Leader (January 14, 2017)

1. What is the mission of your organization? The mission of Auxano is “creating breakthrough clarity with church teams to realize their vision.” His personal mission is “helping people experience more meaningful progress for God’s glory.” The mission of Younique is “catalyze progress in personal calling for the Church, through the Church, to release the Church.”

2. What goals do you have for Younique?

We are looking for an articulated deliverable, the ability for someone to declare their identity. The process to arrive at clarity of their personal calling is the biggest goal. We are trying to measure the enduring nature of our toolbox. We measure breakthroughs, “is there a measureable difference in your life?” We talk about living with more power. We measure the interpretative life, understanding new insights and reasons why God has written your life story as He has.

There are eight deliverables in the Younique life plan. Four deliverables pertaining to identity are life call (mission or purpose statement), life core (core values), life steps (strategy piece for a rhythm you want to step into or resource you want to increase in the next year), life score (storylines in your life you can evaluate at any time). The four deliverables pertaining to direction, which is a three-year vision, a one-year vision, a ninety-day goal, and a “this week approach.”

3. Do you believe Younique helps participants develop leadership competencies pertinent to

their leadership context? Absolutely! A foundational leadership competency is applying self-awareness, or

self-leadership. One must be able to lead themselves before leading others. The Younique toolbox is the most robust toolbox on self-leadership. In addition, Younique teaches on leading from mission, from values, and creating a picture of the future.

4. Do you believe Younique helps participants develop a further understanding of their

personal mission? Yes, by design, Younique stands out by intentionally processing a personal mission,

through assessment and interpretation. Younique offers a robust process to clarify personal mission by commitment of time, assessment efforts, required peer interaction, and experienced coaching.

5. How long is the total program?

Initially 12 moths for the pilot cohort. We now have the process designed with three different journeys. The first two journeys can be done by a day and a half intensives,

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totaling three intensive days. The other option is to do journey one and two in twelve weeks each. The twelve-week journey option consist of a seventy-five-minute video conference once a week for twelve weeks. The first two journeys develop the participants’ life plan. The third journey is a ninety-day application together of the life plan, which was created during journey one and two.

6. How often, and for how long, do participants meet?

The pilot cohort had ten modules or topics processed as a one-month cycle over the course of twelve months. For each module they did a one-way teaching for ninety- minutes, a huddle for 90 minutes together as a whole cohort, then a process group for two hours with 3 or 4 individuals. The goal was to process the one-way teaching in a smaller huddle by discussing the material and asking questions for further understanding. The pilot cohort only had 12 participants, so they discussed as a whole cohort. Then they practiced the content individually for a week or two. After engaging the material for a couple weeks, they met in smaller process groups to discuss the content for personal application and clarity.

7. Is there specific content or curriculum your model uses? If so, what?

Fifty percent of the tools Younique uses are curated for the toolkit and fifty percent are tools Mancini has created for Younique.

8. How, if at all, does your model leverage peer relationships?

Peer relationships are essential to get breakthrough in the learning process. Part of the learning process through peer relationships is to be able to articulate to others. Peer relationships provide accessible and positive accountability among growing friendships with built in peer pressure and means for explicit accountability. Furthermore, you gain more perspective on your life as you are around others gaining perspective on their lives. You gain new insight and perspective from your heritage and other aspects, which is a higher level of learning. In addition, multiple perspectives in a peer cohort offer multiple case studies with each tool and topic discussed and applied. These case studies are pertinent to all members of the cohort because the content of Younique is foundational life issues for everyone. Therefore, the learning for each individual is enhanced through multiple case studies. The multiple case studies are missed in a course or with a one-on- one life coach. It would be more efficient and marketable to do a solely online class, but it would not create the breakthrough we are after in people’s lives.

9. What are some ways Younique has benefitted participants’ development as leaders?

Younique is developing the most fundamental competencies of a leader, self- awareness and self-leadership. The leader’s self-awareness allows them to lead others better. These competencies are prior building blocks for better leadership.

10. What are some weaknesses of Younique in benefitting participants’ development as

leaders? Experiencing Younique requires a lot of time, which some are not able or willing to

commit. The biggest weakness, addressed with refining the model since the pilot cohort, was a lack of small wins in the process. A long journey requires some breakthrough

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moments to keep people going. Therefore, the model changed to shorter, and multiple, journeys.

11. I noticed on your website that you have made changes to the structure from the original

cohort. Why did you decide to make these changes? We made the changes to the model mainly to allow the model to feel faster for

participants, related to the weaknesses expressed previously. We changed from a twelve- month model to a thirty-six-week model with a finish line every twelve weeks. Additionally, we built the training materials as the pilot cohort progressed. Therefore, a refining process during and after the first cohort was necessary.

12. What else can you tell me about Younique, which will help articulate your model?

There is nothing additional to add.

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VITA

Brian S. Pinzer PERSONAL Born: June 8, 1973, Dunkirk, New York Parents: John R. and Patricia D. Pinzer Spouse: S. Rebecca Pinzer, married April 20, 2002

Children: Samuel, Claire, and Silas EDUCATIONAL

Diploma, Paul V. Moore High School, Central Square, New York, 1991 B.S. Bible, Columbia International University, Columbia, South Carolina, 1996 M.A.M. Leadership, Lancaster Bible College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 2012 MINISTERIAL

Student Pastor, Surfside Presbyterian Church, Surfside Beach, South Carolina, 1999-2001 Student Pastor, Broadlands Community Church, Ashburn, Virginia, 2001-2003 Student Pastor, Chapin Presbyterian Church, Chapin, South Carolina, 2004-2010

Director of Development and Discipleship, Living Hope Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Haymarket, Virginia, 2016-

ACADEMIC

Assistant Director of Student Services, Lancaster Bible College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 2010-2012

Associate Dean for Academic Advancement, Capital Seminary and Graduate School, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 2012-2016

Adjunct Professor, Capital Seminary and Graduate School, 2016-