General Psychology

PSY 1010, General Psychology 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit IV Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

4. Describe ways in which humans learn new behaviors. 4.1 Define the functions and effectiveness of the term reinforcement.

4.2 Discuss how operant conditioning is used to change human behavior. 4.3 Describe the three processes of memory and how they are used in one’s daily life.

Course/Unit Learning Outcomes

Learning Activity

4.1

Unit Lesson Chapter 5

Video: Negative Reinforcement Video: Learning

Unit IV Assessment

4.2

Unit Lesson

Chapter 5 Video: How to Make Healthier Choices

Unit IV Assessment

4.3

Unit Lesson Chapter 6

Video: Reason for Forgetting

Unit IV Assessment

Required Unit Resources Chapter 5: Learning

Chapter 6: Memory

In order to access the following resources, click the links below.

View the following videos that supplement the Chapter 5 and 6 reading. The page number is given as a reference to the location of the video in the chapter.

Closed captioning is available by clicking the CC icon in the bottom right corner of the video screen.

 Learning, p. 174

 Negative Reinforcement, p. 189

 How to Make Healthier Choices, p. 200

 Reason for Forgetting, p. 245

UNIT IV STUDY GUIDE

Learning and Memory

PSY 1010, General Psychology 2

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Unit Lesson

Learning

In 1920, Rev. J. A. L. Singh went on a hunting expedition, and he and his party found Kamala (who was approximately 8 years old) and Amala (who was close to 2 years of age). The children were found with their

wolf mother and her three cubs. The group rescued the children, but there was not a happy ending to this

story. In fact, Amala died after only a year living away from the wolves. Kamala, on the other hand, lived until 16, but she struggled to learn speech, and she only mastered a total of 45 words. She spent years being

frightened when she saw humans, and she would even shriek and cry when someone approached her. She was primarily mute except for the two-to-three word sentences that she would string together. Eventually,

Kamala became affectionate, but only after years of extensive attention and therapeutic massage given to her

by Mrs. Singh. Her ability to learn was forever thwarted (Singh & Zingg, 1941).

Is it possible to teach an old dog new tricks? Once one reaches a certain age, does learning cease to occur? Could an individual’s past learning experiences negatively impact his or her ability to learn effectively in the

future? If one can learn a new behavior, can he or she unlearn one as well?

Within this unit, Ciccarelli and White (2020) discuss that two types of conditioning are used to explain

behaviors: classical and operant. Think for a moment. Do you believe that certain actions can be embraced to help one overcome undesirable behaviors or fears? As a matter of fact, numerous researchers posit the

affirmative can take place by utilizing conditioning. For example, if you were bitten by a dog when you were 6 years old, it is quite likely that you could have developed a fear for all dogs based on your experience with

that one dog. The stimulus, is now associated in your memories with the painful (negative) attack. So, how could you overcome this negative connotation with dogs? One strategy would involve systematic

desensitization. This would occur when you were slowly exposed to your fear-evoking stimulus, a dog, but in

a safe environment. In fact, this form of therapy is often compared to extinction, when behavior that previously elicited a certain response is no longer reinforced due to missing consequences. So, what do you think?

Could you learn to overcome a fear from your past by associating it with new thoughts and experiences?

In this unit’s reading, you will learn more about Ivan Pavlov and his breakthrough research on conditioning. Continued exploration of this unit will give more insight into classical conditioning and humankind’s attempts

to shape or influence certain behaviors. In essence, Pavlov purported that certain elements must be present for conditioning to effectively occur. He postulated that an unconditioned response (UCR) is something that

occurs innately due to genetics; it is unlearned. Therefore, when a dog sees food, also called an uncontrolled

stimulus (UCS), his brain is wired to make him salivate (UCR). He was able to eventually get the dogs to salivate by associating the dog food dish, which was previously a neutral stimulus, with food, and this

produced a conditioned response. In essence, the dogs learned to associate the dish with the yummy food.

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning (Adapted from Lacroix, n.d.)

PSY 1010, General Psychology 3

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Ciccarelli and White (2020) also provide critically important information about operation conditioning as well.

As you read this section, begin to explore your thoughts. Have you ever considered what prompts you to approach certain behaviors? Consequently, could certain issues cause you to avoid other actions altogether?

Edward Thorndike’s law of effect argued that individuals are more prone to replicate certain behaviors if they are associated with reinforcement. What are your thoughts? Have you ever given a child a piece of candy to

encourage (reinforce) a particular behavior? Can one also embrace certain actions to alter certain behaviors?

You will learn more about behavior modification techniques that are associated with operant conditioning. Which strategy would you deem as the most effective? Which one do you think has the highest propensity for

creating negative responses? How could you utilize this knowledge to positively shape your educational experiences?

Do you think all people learn the same? Could differing outlooks emerge even when individuals experience the same event? Extensive research has been conducted to explore this issue. In fact, Edward Tolman (1949)

centered his research on latent learning. He explained that six types of learning exist: drive discrimination, field expectancies, cathexis, motor patterns, field-cognitive modes, and equivalence beliefs. To give you an

example of motor patterns, think about an animal that sees food (grass) beyond a fencepost. The animal will repeatedly shake the post in order to attempt to gain access to his luscious meal. Tolman’s varied schools of

thought were influenced by a culmination of work including that performed by Edwin Guthrie, Clark Hull, and

numerous gestaltists.

On a scale of 1–10, how effective is punishment in your estimation? Martin and Pear (2011) explain that individuals often dispense physical punishment as a stimulus in an attempt to elicit discomfort, and

essentially, stop the misbehavior. Various forms of punishment exist from electrical shocks to loud noises,

spankings, and even small pinches. (Do you recall your mom pinching you as a child? Did it work to stop your behavior?) On the other hand, response cost involves removing a certain reinforcement when an unideal

behavior takes place. Think about this. Have you ever received an overdraft banking fee, library fine, or parking ticket? Did these forms of punishment shape your future actions and make you think twice in future

situations?

As you conclude your exploration of this chapter, begin to carefully examine your thoughts about violence.

Does it bother you to view aggressive acts in video games? Do you enjoy watching vicious crime movies? Do you think people can become desensitized to viewing violence? What implications could numbing reactions to

violence have on our children and future generations?

Memory

What did you eat for supper Monday night? What did you do for fun last weekend? Where were you on

September 11, 2001?

Was it difficult to recall the answers to the first two questions? What about the last question? Could you immediately retrieve your memories from that fateful day? If so, you are not alone. Brown and Kulik (1977)

explain that individuals can usually recall vivid memories that are associated with shocking events. This is referred to as a flashbulb memory. Ciccarelli and White (2020) review numerous issues related to memories

and the impact of the power of suggestion. Think about your previous experiences when attempting to recall

certain events. Did specific questioning techniques assist your efforts or influence your memories? When prompted by certain questions, did you begin to recall aspects that never actually took place? Do you think it

is possible to reconstruct a memory with 100% accuracy?

What is 3 x 4? Were you able to quickly answer 12? Did you have an easy or difficult time learning your multiplication facts in elementary school? If you experienced difficulties memorizing these basic facts, how did

that affect your ability to later solve algebraic equations? Do you believe one’s past experiences can thwart

his or her ability to effectively glean new information? Ciccarelli and White (2020) explain that one’s ability to recall a certain memory can be influenced by the performance that is required. For example, the three-box

model of memory, as shown below, is embraced by numerous scholars to explain memory. This model purports that we have three separate memory systems: sensory, short-term, and long-term. These systems

encompass how we process our memories. This model also reinforces that our ability to successfully process

certain thoughts will directly impact our ability to recall the memory effectively. As you explore this unit, challenge yourself to embrace new strategies that can assist your ability to recall information.

PSY 1010, General Psychology 4

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Where did I place my glasses? What was John’s phone number?

Ciccarelli and White (2020) explain that several reasons exist that explain why we forget. In fact, numerous mechanisms can account for our forgetfulness. Which one most accurately is associated with you? Have you

ever attempted to forget a memory on purpose? Do you believe it is possible to suppress a traumatic event but later recall the happenings with 100% accuracy?

What was your favorite toy at two years of age? Did you enjoy drinking chocolate milk after recess when you were in kindergarten? In fact, what is your earliest memory? How old were you, and what were you doing that

day? Do you remember what you were wearing? Do you have a picture of yourself from that memory? Could the picture or stories shared with you by others influence your memories? As you conclude your examination

of this material, you will uncover research that argues many of our Kodak moments are simply stories that we

have reproduced in our minds based on stories that we have heard from others. So, what do you think? Are your memories really your own? Have you been influenced by stories passed on from your family members?

What are you doing now to shape your children’s memories?

References

Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5(1), 73–99.

Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2020). Psychology (6th ed.). Pearson. https://online.vitalsource.com/#/9780135182789

Höpfl, D. (n.d.). Man is afraid of a little dog (ID 107956225) [Illustration]. Dreamstime.

https://www.dreamstime.com /man-afraid-little-dog-clipart-who-image107956225

Iqoncept. (n.d.). What do you think survey poll question (ID 20602105) [Illustration]. Dreamstime.

https://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-photo-what-do-you-think-survey-poll-question- image20602105

Kabanova, V. (n.d.). Pavlov’s dog. Experiments (ID 68085050) [Illustration]. Dreamstime.

https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-illustration-pavlov-s-dog-experiments-illustration-study-

conditioned-reflex-experiment-salivation-image68085050

Martin, G. L., & Pear, J. (2011). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it (9th ed.). Prentice Hall.

Singh, J. A. L., & Zingg, R. M. (1941). Wolf-children and feral man. Harper.

Tolman, E. C. (1949). There is more than one kind of learning. Psychological Review, 56(3), 144–155.

Suggested Unit Resources All videos that are referenced in Chapters 5 and 6 of the eTextbook are available in the following PowerPoint

Presentations. You are encouraged to view each short video for additional insight into each unit’s concepts.

PSY 1010, General Psychology 5

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Chapter 5 PowerPoint Presentation

PDF version of the Chapter 5 PowerPoint Presentation

Chapter 6 PowerPoint Presentation PDF version of the Chapter 6 PowerPoint Presentation

Closed captioning is available for each video by clicking the CC icon in the bottom right corner of the video screen.

Learning Activities (Nongraded)

Nongraded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. You do not have to submit them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further guidance and information.

Test Yourself questions from Chapter 5 are on pp. 214–215 of the eTextbook. You can use these to assess

your understanding of the chapter material.

Test Yourself questions from Chapter 6 are on pp. 256–257 of the eTextbook. You can use these to assess

your understanding of the chapter material.