Abstract and Literature review

A History of child welfare

E d i t e d b y

E v e P. S m i t h & L i s a A. M e r k e l - H o l g u i n

A History of child welfare

First published 1996 by Transaction Publishers

Published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 ThirdAvenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

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Copyright © 1996 by the Child Welfare League of America, Inc.

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Library of Congress Catalog Number: 95-677

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A history of child welfare / edited by Eve P. Smith and Lisa A. Merkel- Holguin.

p. cm. "Original title: Lessons from the past. A history of child welfare (an issue of

the journal Child Welfare). Original publisher, The Child Welfare League of America, Inc., January/February 1995"-Data sheet.

Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-56000-866-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Child welfare-United States-History. I. Smith, Eve P. II. Merkel-

Holguin, Lisa A. HV741.H55 1995 362.7'0973-dc20 95-677

CIP

ISBN 13: 978-1-56000-866-8 (pbk)

C onten ts

Introduction Eve P. Smith and Lisa A. Merkel-Holgutn 1

1. Child W elfare in Fiction and Fact Robert H. Bremner 7

2. The D ilem m a in Saving Children from Child Labor: R eform and C asew ork at O dds w ith Fam ilies' N eeds (1900-1938) Beverly Stadum 21

3. T he Child Welfare R esponse to Youth Violence and H om elessness in the N ineteenth C entury Kristine Nelson 45

4. A n O utrage to C om m on D ecency: H istorical Perspectives on Child N eglect Karen J. Swift 61

5. R osie the Riveter and H er Latchkey Children: W hat A m ericans C an Learn A bout Child D ay Care from the Second W orld War William M. Tuttle, Jr. 83

6. Bring Back the O rphanages? W h at Policym akers of Today C an Learn from the Past Eve P. Smith 107

7. Jan ie Porter Barrett and the Virginia Industrial School for Colored Girls: C om m unity Response to the N eeds of A frican A m erican Children Wilma Peebles-Wilkins 135

8. From Indenture to Fam ily Foster Care: A B rief H istory o f Child Placing Tim Hacsi 155

9. A H istory of Placing-Out: The O rphan Trains Jeanne F. Cook 175

10. From Fam ily D uty to Fam ily Policy: T he Evolution of Kinship Care Rebecca Hegar and Maria Scannapieco 193

11. A doption and D isclosure o f Fam ily Inform ation: A H istorical Perspective E. Wayne Carp 211

12. From "O p eration Brow n B ab y" to "O p p o rtu n ity ": The Placem ent of Children of C olor at the Boys and G irls A id Society of O regon (1944-1977) Patricia M. Collmeyer 235

13. Factors and Events Leading to the P assage o f the Indian Child Welfare A ct Marc Mannes 257

14. The C itizens' Com m ittee for C hildren of N ew York and the Evolution of Child A dvocacy (1945-1972) Mary Jean McDonald 27 7

15. Inform ation Sources on Child W elfare Archives: H ow to Identify, Locate, and U se T hem for Research Murray Wortzel and Laura Delaney Brody 299

Introdu t on

A History o f Child Welfare, a special volu m e com m em orating the Child Welfare League o f A m erica's 75th anniversary, endeavors to (1) illustrate the im portance of, and stim ulate interest in, child w elfare history; (2) dem onstrate th e linkages b etw een historical and current child w elfare practice and policy; and (3) encourage researchers to include child w elfare history in their research per spectives. It is our hope that this historical issue w ill encourage readers to ask them selves a series o f questions: W hat can the child w elfare field learn from its past? H ow does and/or should child w elfare history influence present-day practice and policy? H ow can I incorporate lessons from the past into m y w ork?

O v e ra r c h in g T h e m e s

T he 15 chapters in this volum e cover a range o f social conditions, public policies, and approaches to solving problem s. T hou gh his tory does n ot repeat itself precisely, problem s, controversies about solutions, and certain them es do. For exam ple, our society is cur rently experiencing a recurrence of the kind of social and eco nom ic cond itions th at correlate w ith increasing rates o f child abuse and neglect and an increasing num ber o f children in out- of-hom e care. The public perception th at w e see being resurrected from the past is that m any im poverished fam ilies are a bad influ ence on their children and that the children are better off rem oved from them , w hich is follow ed by controversy and polem ics over w ays to cope w ith the situation.

Som e approaches have been useful, others have not. Success, however, has never m eant that society w ould rem em ber w hat w orked. Som e policy decisions, w hen view ed from a historical perspective, w ere clearly m ade in ignorance. It is evident that the child w elfare system need s to m ake u se o f its ow n past,

1

2 A History of Child Welfare

evaluating the lessons learned, studying past m istakes, and build ing on successes.

T h e C h a p te rs

A lthough it is im possible to cover all the arenas and aspects of the child w elfare field in one volum e, w e have attem pted to pro vide a range of perspectives, and in doing so, w e hope to dem on strate the uses of history.

Child Welfare's Challenge

The book begins w ith four chapters about conditions th at led to the need for child w elfare services, and society's view s of im pov erished fam ilies and children:

• In "C h ild W elfare in F ictio n and F a c t," R obert B rem ner d e s c rib e s th e p o rtra y a l o f c h ild w e lfa re c o n d itio n s in n o v e ls an d s to rie s o f n in e te e n th c e n tu ry E n g lis h an d A m e ric a n lite ra tu re , and p o in ts o u t th a t th e s e s to rie s reflect th en -p revailing view s regard in g th e child w elfare system . P ro m in en t w as th e id e a th a t k e e p in g ch ild re n w ith th eir ow n fam ilies, or p lacin g th em in new fa m i lies th at w ou ld love and care for th em , w as b e st for the ch ild re n .

• The m ovem ent against child labor brought new difficulties for fam ily service w orkers in the first few decades of the tw entieth century. Beverly Stadum 's chapter, "T h e D ilem m a in Saving Children from Child Labor," concerns the actions of children, fam ilies, and social w orkers w ho w ere caught up in the conflict betw een the econom ic pressures of fam i lies w ho needed children's incom es and the im plem enta tion of new child labor policies.

• In "T h e C hild W elfare R esp o nse to Youth V iolence and H o m elessn ess," K ristine N elson com pares the econom ic conditions and social crises of the grow ing num ber of hom e less children and the rates of violence o f the 1850s to those

Introduction 3

o f th e 1980s. N elso n n o tes th at b o th crise s w ere co n se quences of laissez-faire econom ic policies.

• D esp ite research that alm ost alw ays connects neglect w ith problem s of poverty, society continues for the m ost part to blam e m others instead o f w orking tow ard system ic change. In "A n O utrage to C om m on D ecency," K aren Sw ift docu m ents historical connections to present-day view s of child neglect.

Responding to the Need

Solutions to the problem s discussed above w ere as varied as the professionals w ho advocated for them . T he eight chapters in the next section include discussions of child day care, various form s of out-of-hom e care, and adoption.

• W illiam Tuttle, in "R o sie the Riveter and H er Latchkey C hil dren," describes the U.S. governm ent's sw iftness in m ov ing to create and fund a system of child day care during the Second World War, as w ell as food program s for w orking m others and their children. This dem onstration proved that rapid program developm ent and im plem entation for ch il dren and fam ilies is possible w hen the need o f the nation is great enough.

• In "B rin g Back O rphanages? W hat Policym akers of Today C an Learn from the P ast," Eve Sm ith describes th e orphan ages of the nineteenth and early tw entieth centuries, and concludes that inherent difficulties w ould m ake it virtually im p ossib le— or at best, extrem ely exp en sive— to recreate them . She also rem inds us that even in the heyday of or phanages, m any professionals criticized institutional living as n ot being in children's best interests, and preferred fam ily care.

• T he social ethos that evolved during the n ineteenth and early tw entieth centuries led to the developm ent o f institu tio n s b y th e A fric a n A m e ric a n com m u nity. S tru g g lin g

4 A History of Child Welfare

against racism and segregation, A frican A m erican w om en pursued the developm ent of child w elfare facilities for A f rican A m erican children. W ilm a Peebles-W ilkins describes the nature of such developm ents w ith her chapter, "Ja n ie Porter Barrett and the Virginia Industrial School for Col ored G irls."

• Turning to the subject o f fam ily foster care, Tun H acsi, in "F ro m Indenture to Foster C are," affords an overview of the history o f ou t-of-hom e care, stressing m ajor societal changes that led to program changes. H e show s how con flicting and difficult-to-reconcile goals and beliefs contrib ute to the current shape of governm ent-funded care.

• Jean n e Cook, in "A H istory of Placing-O ut: T he O rphan Trains," describes the program of the C hildren's A id Soci ety, w hich sent approxim ately 150,000 children to hom es in w estern states betw een 1853 and 1929. The Society deliber ately rem oved children from the reach of p arents—ostensi bly for the good of the children.

• A n e w —and y et very o ld —form o f fam ily foster care re ceiving m u ch atten tion o f late is kinship care. In "F ro m Fam ily D uty to Fam ily Policy," R ebecca H egar and M aria Scann apieco describe the evolu tion of inform al and for m al kinship care—the full-tim e nu rtu ring and protection o f children separated from their parents and living w ith relatives. K in ship care, esp ecially in child p lacem en t, is expanding.

• O ver the history of child w elfare practice, adoption has not escaped its share of controversy. Two chapters dem onstrate the evolution of program and policies. In "A doption and D isclosure of Fam ily Inform ation," E. W ayne Carp presents a picture of the cyclical nature—m ore openness, less open n ess—of adoption disclosure policies concerning children's m edical and social backgrounds. H e concludes that in re sponse to law suits b y adoptive parents accusing agencies o f failing to provide inform ation or fraudulently m isrepre

Introduction 5

senting children's backgrounds, it is likely th at the current trend tow ard fuller disclosure policies w ill continue.

• Patricia Collm eyer, in "F ro m 'O p eration Brow n Bab y' to 'O p p ortun ity,'" traces the history of m inority placem ents and transracial adoption from 1944 to 1977 at the Boys and G irls A id Society o f Oregon. A s the need for adoptive fam i lies becam e apparent, the agency first recruited hom es in m inority com m unities and th en began to accept C aucasian parents for children o f color, a practice advocated by som e today and looked on w ith disfavor by others.

Advocating f o r Change

Historically, advocacy groups have often b een responsible for, or contributed to, m ajor policy change. M arc Marines, in "F acto rs and Events Leading to the Passage of the Indian C hild W elfare A c t," d e s c rib e s th e lo n g an d to rtu o u s p a th th a t le d to th e legislation's passage. O n a sim ilar note, M ary Jean M cD onald, in her chapter, "T h e C itizens' C om m ittee for C hildren of N ew York and the Evolution of Child A dvocacy (1945-1972)," docum ents the w axing and then w aning effectiveness over tim e of one kind o f child ad vocacy organization, th e C itizen 's C om m ittees for C hildren of N ew York, Inc. She describes the shifts in advocacy organizations, including agenda changes, strategy and goal m odi fications, and the im portance of inform al, unofficial contacts b e tw een advocates and officials.

Finally, to encourage further study of child w elfare history, w e conclude this volum e w ith "In form ation Sources o n Child Welfare A rchives" by M urray W ortzel and Laura D elaney Brody. The authors offer sources and practical suggestions for those w ho w ould like to further pursue this fascinating area o f study.

S p e c ia l A c k n o w le d g m e n ts

The editors are especially thankful to m em bers o f the Social Wel fare H istory G roup of the Council on Social W ork Education. This

6 A History of Child Welfare

group of scholars, practitioners, and supporters of historical re search on social w elfare issues helped b ring to birth this inter esting body o f w ork through a special sym posium in M arch 1992. Lastly, the editors w ish to thank the contributors, external re view ers, Child Welfare editors, and all those w ho offered their help and support.

Eve P. Sm ith, D.S.W. University o f Windsor School o f Social Work

Lisa A. M erkel-H olguin, M.S.W. Child Welfare League o f America

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Richmond, M. E. (1913). A story of nine hundred and eighty-five widows known to certain charity organization societies in 1910. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Richmond, M. E. (1917). Social diagnosis. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Rothman, D. (1981). The state as parent: Social policy in the progressive era. In W. Gaylin , I. Glasser , S. Marcus , & D. Rothman (Eds.), In doing good: The limits of benevolence (pp. 67-95). New York: Pantheon Books. Scott, R. J. (1985). The battle over the child: Child apprenticeship and the Freedmen’s Bureau in North Carolina. In N. R. Hiner & J. M. Hawes (Eds.), Growing up in America: Children in historical perspective (pp. 193-207). Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Stadum, B. (1992). Poor women and their families: Hard working charity cases, 1900-1930. Albany, NY: State University of New York. Szasz, M. C. (1985). Federal boarding schools and the Indian child, 1920-1960. In N. R. Hiner & J. M. Hawes (Eds.), Growing up in America: Children in historical perspective (pp. 209-218). Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Taylor, F. (1944). The long road: Fortieth anniversary report of the National Child Labor Committee. New York: National Child Labor Committee. Taylor, G. (1906). Parental responsibility for child labor. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 2(2), 96-98. Tentler, L. (1981). The world of work for working class daughters, 1900-1930. In M. Albin & D. Cavallo (Eds.), Family life in America (pp. 184-202). St. James, NY: Revisionary Press. Trattner, W. I. (1968). Homer Folks: Pioneer in social welfare. New York: Columbia University Press. Trattner, W. I. (1970). Crusade for the children: A history of the National Child Labor Committee and child labor reform in America. Chicago: Quadrangle Books. United States Bureau of Labor. (1910-1913). Report on the condition of woman and child wage earners in the United States. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection 1930. (1933). Dependent and neglected children: Report of the committee on socially handicapped, dependency and neglect. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company. Woods, R. A. , & Kennedy, A. J. (1913). Young working girls: A summary of evidence from two thousand social workers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Zelizer, V. A. (1985). Pricing the priceless child: The changing social value of children. New York: Basic Books.

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From “Operation Brown Baby” to “Opportunity”: The Placement of Children of Color at the Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon Another child rescued. (1901, June 25). The Morning Oregonian, p. 7. Adoption agency places New York baby in Portland home. (1972, December 16). The Oregonian, p. Bl. Bogle, K. (1993, June 24). Taped interview by author. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon. (1944-1977). Adoption casefiles. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon. (1895). Flyer. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon. (1972-1977). Interagency and minority placement files. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon. (1885-1977). Meeting minutes of the Board of Trustees. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon. (1944-1972). Minority adoptions file box. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon. (1961-1962). Negro adoptive home committee files. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon. (1967-1977). Opportunity files. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Boys and Girls Aid Society of Oregon. (1982, Winter). Quest for roots uncovers dramatic tale... with a happy ending. Newsletter, p. 6. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Fricke, H. (1965). Interracial adoption: The little revolution. Social Work, 10,92-97. Furor over whites adopting blacks. (1972, April 12). The New York Times, p. 38. Group said fighting mixed race adoptions. (1973, September 18). The Oregonian, p. C7. Hodges, V. (1968, October 19). Taped interview by author. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Hutchinson, F. (1993, November 30). Interview by author. Minority group adoption praised as courageous race relations step. (1968, April 24). The Oregonian, p. B7. Mogran, M.E. (1993, September 20). Taped interview by author. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Neubauer, A. (1992, October 6). Taped interview by author. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Olds, C. (1993, September 23). Taped interview by author. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Polier, J.W. (1960). Attitudes and contradictions in our culture. Child Welfare, 39,1-7. Rosacker, M. (1993, October 14). Taped interview by author. BGAS Archives, Portland, OR. Royer, C. (Author and narrator). (1968). Run, Jimmy, Run [16mm film]. KOIN TV production. She says Young is bad. (1901, July 6). The Morning Oregonian, p. 8. Stimmel, E.R. (1993, October 26). Interview by author. Stimmel, S. (1961-1977). Correspondence about interracial adoption files. BGAS Archives. Sullivan, A. (1994). “Update... On Transracial Adoption.” Children’s Voice, 3,4-5+. Transracial adoption placements triple. (1971, July 16). Eugene Register Guard, p. A15.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1963). U.S. census of population: 1960, vol 1, Characteristics of the population, part 39, Oregon (p. 26). Washington, DC: U.S. Govemement Printing Office. Young, W. M. Jr. , (1968). Tell it like it is. Social Casework, 49,207-212.

Factors and Events Leading to the Passage of the Indian Child Welfare Act Blanchard, E. (1977). The question of best interest. In S. Unger (Ed.), The destruction of American Indian families (pp. 57-60). New York: Association on American Indian Affairs. Blanchard, E. L. , & Barsh, R.L. (1980). What is best for tribal children? A response to Fischler. Social Work, 25,350-357. Center for Social Research and Development, University of Denver. (1975). Legal and jurisdictional problems in the delivery of SRS child welfare services on Indian reservations (CD-01526). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Cohen, F. (1982). Handbook of federal Indian law. Charlottesville, VA: Michie, Bobbs-Merrill. Coolidge, D. (1977). “Kid catching” on the Navajo Reservation: 1930. In S. Unger (Ed.), The destruction of American Indian families (pp. 18-21). New York: Association on American Indian Affairs. Coontz, S. (1988). The social origins of private life: A history of American families 1600-1900. New York: Verso. Cross, T. L. (1986). Drawing on cultural traditions in Indian child welfare practice. Social Casework, 67,283-289. Fanshel, D. (1972). Far from the reservation: The transracial adoption of American Indian children. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Fischler, R. S. (1980). Protecting American Indian children. Social Work, 25,341-349. Gordon, L. (1988). Heroes of their own lives: The politics and history of family violence. New York: Viking Penguin, Inc. Kessel, J. A. , & Robbins, S. P. (1984). The Indian Child Welfare Act: Dilemmas and needs. Child Welfare, 63,225-232. Marines, M. (1990). Leadership in administering Indian human Services. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University. Marines, M. (1993). Seeking the balance between child protection and family preservation in Indian child welfare. Child Welfare, 72,141-150. Meriam, L. , Brown, R. A. , Cloud, H. R. , Dale, E. E. , Duke, E. , Edwards, H. E. , McKenzie, F. A. , Mark, M. L. , Ryan, W. C. Jr., & Spillman, W. J. (1928). The problem of Indian administration. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Office of Human Development. (1976). Indian child welfare: A state-of-the-field study (OHD 76-30095). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Children’s Bureau. Plantz, M. C. , Hubbell, R. , Barrett, B. J. , & Dobrec, A. (1988). Indian child welfare: A status report—Final report of the survey of Indian child welfare and implementation of the Indian Child Welfare Act and section 428 of the Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980. CSR Incorporated and Three Feathers Associates (105-82-1602). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. Prucha, F .P. (1975). Documents of United States Indian policy. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Task Force Four: Federal, State, and Tribal Jurisdiction. (1976). Final report to the American Indian Policy Review Commission. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Unger, S. (1977). The destruction of American Indian families. New York: Association on American Indian Affairs. U.S. House of Representatives Report, No. 95-1386. (1978). Establishing standards for the placement of Indian children in foster homes to prevent the breakup of Indian families and for other purposes. Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. U. S. Senate Hearings (1974). Problems that American Indian families face in raising their children and how these problems are affected by federal action or inaction. Washington, DC: U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Indian Affairs of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. U.S. Senate . (1977). The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1977. Report No. 95-597. Washington, DC: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs.

The Citizens’ Committee for Children of New York and the Evolution of Child Advocacy (1945-1972) Bender, T. (1992, October 24). For better or worse, it happens in New York first. New York Newsday, pp. 33-36. Bernstein, B. (1991, July 16). Interview by author. Bing, S. R. , & Richart, D. W. (1987). Fairness is a kid’s game: A background paper for emerging state-based child advocacy organizations. Prepared for the Lilly Endowment, Inc., Indianapolis, IN. Carr, C. (1946, August 4). Speech broadcast on WQXR. In papers of Dr. Viola W. Bernard, Hammer Health Sciences Library, Columbia University, files marked “Correspondence, 1945-1949.” CCC. (n.d.). Milestones in the CCC’s history of concern and achievement in child care issues. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1970, November 7). Minutes of the meeting of the Task Force on Social Services. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1968a, May 20). Minutes of the meeting of the Ad Hoc Committee on CCC Goals and Priorities. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1968b, April 30). Minutes of the meeting of the Ad Hoc Committee on CCC Goals and Priorities. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1965). Twentieth anniversary report, 1944-1964. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1964, April 10). Minutes of the meeting of the Board of Directors. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1958). Modern prescription drugs: A report on their impact on the family budget. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1955). New York City’s foster care program and the 1954 forecast on population trends. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1954). The uprooted: Children in need of foster care. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1953a). Annual report, 1952-53. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1953b). Activities of the institutional and foster care section, December 1946-June 1952. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1952). Annual report, 1951-52. CCC library files, New York. CCC. (1946). First annual report of the CCC. CCC Library Files, New York. Cohen, S. (1964). Progressives and urban school reform: The Public Education Association of New York City, 1895-1954. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. de Schweinitz, K. (1943). England’s road to social security. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, Inc. Dicker, S. (Ed.). (1990). Stepping stones: Successful advocacy for children. New York: Foundation for Child Development. Geertz, C. (1983). Local knowledge. New York: Basic Books. Gottehrer, B. (1975). The mayor’s man. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company. Hall, H. (1971). Unfinished business in neighborhood and nation. New York: The Macmillan Company. Hays, S. (1987). The politics of environmental administration. In L. Galambos (Ed.), The new American state: Bureaucracies and policies since World War II (pp. 21-53). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Jenkins, J. C. (1987). Nonprofit organizations and policy advocacy. In Walter W. Powell (Ed.), The nonprofit sector: A research handbook (pp. 302-321). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Kahn, A. (1991, September 15). Interview by author. Kahn, A. , Kamerman, S. , & McGowan, B. (1972). Child advocacy: Report of a national baseline study. New York: Columbia University School of Social Work. Lash, T. (1956, May 28). Memorandum to members of the CCC. Lowell, S. (1991, July 16). Interview by author. Matusow, A. (1984). The unraveling of America: A history of liberalism in the 1960s. New York: Harper and Row. McDonald, M. J. (1993). The Citizens’ Committee for Children and the evolution of child advocacy, 1945-72 (Published Ph.D. dissertation, New York University.)

Mnookin, R. , Burt, R. , Chambers, D. , Wald, M. S. , Sugarman, S. , Zimring, F. E. , & Solomon, R. L. (1985). In the interest of children: Advocacy, law reform, and public policy. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co. Muncy, R. (1991). Creating a female dominion in American reform: 1890-1935. New York: Oxford University Press. Payton, R. (1991, November). Philanthropy in a liberal education. Paper presented at Indiana University Center on Philanthropy Colloquium, Indianapolis, IN. Romanofsky, P. (1977). Saving the lives of the city’s foundlings: The Joint Committee and New York City child care methods, 1860-1907. New York Historical Society Quarterly, 51(1-2), 49-68. Sayre, W. , & Kaufman, H. (1950). Governing New York City: Politics in the metropolis. New York: The Russell Sage Foundation. She can’t mind her own business. (1945, December 3). New York Post. Sklar, K.K. (1990). Who funded Hull House? In Kathleen D. McCarthy (Ed.), Lady bountiful revisited: Women, philanthropy, and power (pp. 105-110). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Sobie, M. (1987). The creation of juvenile justice: A history of New York’s children’s laws. Albany, NY: New York Bar Foundation. Steiner, G. (1976). The children’s cause. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.

Information Sources on Child Welfare Archives: Howto Identify, Locate, and Use Them for Research Ash, L. (1993). Subject collections: A guide to special book collections and subject emphases as reported by university, college, public, and special libraries and museums in the United States and Canada (7th ed., rev. and enl.). New Providence, NJ: R.R. Bowker. Balay, R. (Ed.), & Sheehy, E.P. (Special ed. advisor). (1992). Guide to reference books. Supplement to the tenth edition. Chicago: American Library Association. Barbeau, E.J. , & Lohmann, R.A. (1992). The agency executive director as keeper of the past. Administration in Social Work, 16(2), 15-26. Barker, R.L. (1991). The social work dictionary (2nd ed.). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Berengarten, S. (1986). The school’s role in establishing a new field of practice: Psychiatric social work/mental health services. In S. Berengarten (Ed.), The Columbia University School of Social Work: A history of social pioneering. Proceedings of the first Oral History Day for entering students, September 18, 1986 (p. 6). New York: Columbia University School of Social Work. Books & Periodicals Online. (1994). New York: Library Alliance. Bremner, R. H. (Comp. & Ed.). (1970-1974). Children and youth in America: A documentary history. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Brown, J. (1960). Child welfare classics. Social Service Review, 34,195-202. Chadwyck-Healey. (n.d.fl). How to use the national inventory of documentary sources in the United States in your research (publisher brochure). Alexandria, VA: Chadwyck-Healey. Chadwyck-Healey. (n.d.b). The National Archives. The records of the Children’s Bureau (publisher brochure). Alexandria, VA: Chadwyck-Healey. Chambers, C. A. (1977). Archives of social welfare. In J.B. Turner (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (17th ed.). (pp. 80-84). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers . Columbia University Oral History Research Office. (1979). The oral history collection of Columbia University. E. B. Mason & L. M. Starr (Eds.). New York: Oral History Research Office. CUSSW Alumni Association Committee on School History. (1990). The oral history project [videorecording]. New York: Columbia University School of Social Work. Hinding, A. , Bower, A.S. , & Chamber, C.A. (Eds.). (1979). Women’s history sources: A guide to archives and manuscript collections in the United States. New York: R.R. Bowker. Klaassen, D. J. , & Steinwall, S. D. (1987). Archives of social welfare. In A. Minahan (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work (18th ed.) (pp. 150-156). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Library of Congress. (1962). National union catalog of manuscript collections. Ann Arbor, MI: J.W. Edwards. Meckler, A.M. , & McMullin, R. (Eds.). (1975). Oral history collections. New York: Bowker. National inventory of documentary sources in the United States [microfiche]. (1985). Part 1—Federal Records. Records of the Children’s Bureau. Teaneck, NJ: Chadwick-Healey. New York (N.Y.). Orphanmasters. (1902-1907). The minutes of the orphanmasters of New Amsterdam, 1655 to 1663. New York: F. P. Harper. Parr, G. J. (1977). Case records as sources for social history. Archivaria, 4,122-136. Research Libraries Information Network (RLIN). [Online]. Mountain View, CA: Research Libraries Group, Inc. (Producer) File: amc. Schneider, D.M. (1938). The history of public welfare in New York State, 1609-1866. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sheehy, E. P. (1986). Guide to reference books (10th ed.). Chicago: American Library Association. Social sciences index. (1974/75). New York: H. W. Wilson Co. Social work abstracts. (1994-). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers. Trattner, W. I. , & Achenbaum, W. A. (Eds.). (1983). Social welfare in America: An annotated bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. United States Children’s Bureau. (1993). The Children’s Bureau, documentary sources from the National Archives. Alexandria, VA: Chadwyck-Healey. United States Children’s Bureau. (1988/1989). The records of the Children’s Bureau, 1912-1969 [microfilm]. Alexandria, VA: Chadwyck-Healey. United States National Historical Publications and Records Commission. (1988). Directory of archives and manuscript repositories in the United States (2nd ed.). Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press. United States National Historical Publications Commission. (1961). A guide to archives and manuscripts in the United States. P.M. Hamer (Ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. University of Minnesota. Social Welfare History Archives Center. (1970). Descriptive inventories of collections in the Social Welfare History Archives Center. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Corp.