software engineering methodology (Information systems)

Project Management for Engineering, Business

and Technology FIFTH EDITION

Project Management for Engineering, Business and Technology, 5th edition, addresses project management across all industries. First covering the essential background, from origins and philosophy to methodology, the bulk of the book is dedicated to concepts and techniques for practical application. Coverage includes project initiation and proposals, scope and task definition, scheduling, budgeting, risk analysis, control, project selection and portfolio management, program management, project organization, and all-important “people” aspects—project leadership, team building, conflict resolution and stress management.

The Systems Development Cycle is used as a framework to discuss project management in a variety of situations, making this the go-to book for managing virtually any kind of project, program or task force. The authors focus on the ultimate purpose of project management—to unify and integrate the interests, resources, and work efforts of many stakeholders, as well as the planning, scheduling, and budgeting needed to accomplish overall project goals.

This new edition features:

• Updates throughout to cover the latest developments in project management methodologies • New examples and 18 new case studies to help students develop their understanding and put

principles into practice • A new chapter on agile project management and lean • Expanded coverage of program management, stakeholder engagement, buffer management, and

managing virtual teams and cultural differences in international projects. • Alignment with PMBOK terms and definitions for ease of use alongside PMI certifications • Cross-reference to IPMA, APM, and PRINCE2 methodologies • Extensive instructor support materials, including an Instructor’s Manual, PowerPoint slides,

answers to chapter review questions, problems and cases, and a test bank of questions.

Taking a technical yet accessible approach, Project Management for Business, Engineering and Technology, 5th edition, is an ideal resource and reference for all advanced undergraduate and graduate students in project management courses as well as for practicing project managers across all industry sectors.

John Nicholas, PhD, is Professor of Operations Management at Loyola University, Chicago, USA.

Herman Steyn, PhD, is a Professor in the Graduate School of Technology Management, University of Pretoria, South Africa where he specializes in project management.

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“As a Professor who has taught Project Engineering for the last 14 years, I have also performed large scale Project Engineering throughout my first career (over 20 years) in Aerospace, Defense and Information Technology. When deciding on a textbook for my graduate Project Engineering class, I looked long and hard. I wasn’t finding what I was looking for and was going to write my own, until I found Project Management for Engineering, Business and Technology. This is the textbook I would have written. It is robust, complete and easy to follow. The graphics, charts and figures are all very descriptive and real. And my students like the paperback nature of the book. I highly recommend this textbook for anyone teach- ing Engineering, Business or Technology Project Management/Engineering. I also recommend it as a ‘keeper’ for students who will be guiding projects in the future.”

Mark Calabrese, University of Central Florida, USA

“The publication of the 5th edition of Project Management for Engineering, Business and Technology by John Nicholas and Herman Steyn is an important milestone in a continuing conversation between the authors and the current and future practitioners of project management around the world. This book has long been a comprehensive but accessible publication that provides valuable insights into the strategic and day-to- day management of projects both large and small. There are numerous publications in this field but Nicholas and Steyn have found the balance between the needs of experienced practitioners looking for ways to improve project outcomes, and the needs of students who are new to the project management field. The concepts are clearly and logically laid out, and the language is appropriate for a wide range of audiences. It continues to be a benchmark in a crowded field of publications offering both practical and strategic insights into the art and craft of project management.”

Barrie Todhunter, University of Southern Queensland, Australia

“I have been using the earlier editions of this book in my Project Management teaching to working executives of a major engineering company employing close to 40000 people in various types of pro- jects. I have evaluated the current 5th edition of the book from the perspective of (a) a teaching resource (b) study material and (c) as a resource for case studies and references. I find that the 5th edition has been thoroughly revamped and incorporates several relevant resources and is presented in a very lucid and structured way. I have absolutely no hesitation in recommending this book as a standard resource for teaching students in a university set up and/or for working executives in a project environment. The book is also a good resource as a study material for certification courses.”

Krishna Moorthy, Ex-Dean, Larsen & Toubro Institute of Project Management, India

“Project Management for Engineering, Business and Technology is one of the most comprehensive textbooks in the field. Nicholas and Steyn explain the matter in a readable and easy-to-understand way, illustrated with interesting examples. The authors combine the ‘hard matter’ of project management with relevant behavioural aspects. Overall, a useful work for anyone new to the field or as reference for the more advanced project manager.”

Martijn Leijten, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands

“Project management plays a vital role in achieving project objectives. Projects bring change and project management is recognised as the most effective way to managing such change. This book encourages readers to become interested and involved in the change towards renewed project management and management of projects.”

Benita Zulch, University of the Free State, South Africa

“A very comprehensive text. An excellent mix of materials to enable students to learn techniques and engage in discussion of scenarios.”

Richard Kamm, University of Bath, UK

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Project Management for Engineering, Business

and Technology FIFTH EDITION

John M. Nicholas Loyola University Chicago

Herman Steyn University of Pretoria

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Fifth edition published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2017 John Nicholas and Herman Steyn

The right of John Nicholas and Herman Steyn to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Fourth edition published by Routledge 2012 Third edition published by Elsevier Inc. 2008

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-138-93735-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-93734-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-67631-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Joanna by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/nicholas

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To Sharry, Julia, Joshua, and Abigail J.M.N.

To Karen and Janine H.S.

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1 NICHOLAS_FM-Intro.indd 6 23/11/2016 11:06

Brief Contents

Introduction 1

PART I: PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS 19 1 What Is Project Management? 21 2 Systems Approach 42

PART II:  PROJECT LIFE CYCLE 65 3 Project Life Cycle and Project Conception 67 4 Project Definition and System Definition 109

PART III: SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURES FOR PLANNING AND CONTROL 153 5 Basic Project Planning Techniques 155 6 Project Schedule Planning and Networks 190 7 Advanced Project Network Analysis and Scheduling 232 8 Cost Estimating and Budgeting 275 9 Project Quality Management 316 10 Project Risk Management 346 11 Project Execution, Monitoring, and Control 385 12 Project Evaluation, Communication, Implementation, and Closeout 430 13 Agile Project Management and Lean 453

PART IV:  ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR 481 14 Project Organization Structure and Integration 483 15 Project Roles and Stakeholders 515 16 Managing Participation, Teamwork, and Conflict 541

PART V:  PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN THE CORPORATE CONTEXT 567 17 Meta-Management of Projects and Program Management 569 18 Project Selection and Portfolio Management 604 19 International Project Management 628

Appendix A: RFP for Midwest Parcel Distribution Company 659 Appendix B: Proposal for Logistical Online System Project (LOGON) 663 Appendix C: Project Evaluation Plan for Logistical Online System 670

Index 686

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Contents

Preface xvii Acknowledgements xix About the Authors xxi

Introduction 1 I.1 In the Beginning... 1 I.2 What Is a Project? 3 I.3 All Projects are Not the Same 4 I.4 Project Management: The Need 7 I.5 Project Goal: Time, Cost, and Performance 8 I.6 Project Management: The Person, The Team, The Methodology 9 I.7 Project Management Standards of Knowledge and Competencies 10 I.8 About This Book 10 I.9 Study Project 11 Appendix: Relation Between Professional Standards and Chapters of This Book 12 Review Questions 16 Case I.1 The Denver Airport 16 Questions About the Case 18 Endnotes 18

PART I: PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS 19 1 What Is Project Management? 21

1.1 Functions of Management 21 1.2 Features of Project Management 22 1.3 Evolution of Project Management 23 1.4 Where is Project Management Appropriate? 24 1.5 Management by Project: A Common Approach 26 1.6 Different Forms of Project-Related Management 27 1.7 Project Environments 29 1.8 New Product and Systems Development Projects 30 1.9 Construction Projects 32 1.10 Service-Sector Projects 33 1.11 Public-Sector and Governmental Projects and Programs 34 1.12 Miscellaneous Projects 36 1.13 Summary 37 Review Questions 37 Questions About the Study Project 38 Case 1.1 Disaster Recovery at Marshall Field’s 38 Case 1.2 Flexible Benefits System Implementation at Shah Alam Medical Center 40 Endnotes 40

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2 Systems Approach 42 2.1 Systems and Systems Thinking 42 2.2 Systems Concepts and Principles 43 2.3 Systems Approach 48 2.4 Systems Engineering 51 2.5 Project Management: A Systems Approach 54 2.6 Summary 55 Review Questions 55 Questions About the Study Project 56 Case 2.1 Glades County Sanitary District 57 Case 2.2 Life and Death of an Aircraft Development Project 58 Case 2.3 Jubilee Line Extension Project 59 Case 2.4 Santa Clara County Traffic Operations System and Signal

Coordination Project 61 Endnotes 62

PART II: PROJECT LIFE CYCLE 65 3 Project Life Cycle and Project Conception 67

3.1 Project Life Cycle 67 3.2 Systems Development Cycle 68 3.3 Phase A: Conception 73 3.4 Project Feasibility 74 3.5 The Project Proposal 84 3.6 Project Contracting 90 3.7 Summary 97 Appendix: Kinds of Contracts 97 Review Questions 104 Questions About the Study Project 105 Case 3.1 West Coast University Medical Center 105 Case 3.2 X-Philes Data Management Corporation: RFP Matters 106 Case 3.3 Proposal Evaluation for Apollo Spacecraft 106 Case 3.4 Contract Mess-Up at Polanski Developers 107 Endnotes 107

4 Project Definition and System Definition 109 4.1 Phase B: Definition 109 4.2 Project Definition 112 4.3 Phased (Rolling Wave) Project Planning 114 4.4 System Definition 118 4.5 Summary 127 Appendix A: Stages of Systems Engineering 128 Appendix B: Quality Function Deployment 141 Review Questions 146 Questions About the Study Project 147 Case 4.1 Star-Board Construction and Santaro Associates:

Requirements Snafu 147 Case 4.2 Revcon Products and Welbar, Inc.: Client–Contractor Communication 148 Case 4.3 Lavasoft.com: Interpreting Customer Requirements 149 Case 4.4 Proposed Gold Mine in Canada: Phased Project Planning 150 Endnotes 151

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|  xiCONTENTS

PART III: SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURES FOR PLANNING AND CONTROL 153 5 Basic Project Planning Techniques 155

5.1 Planning Steps 155 5.2 The Project Execution Plan 156 5.3 Scope and Statement of Work 159 5.4 Work Definition 161 5.5 Project Organization and Responsibilities 168 5.6 Scheduling 170 5.7 Planning and Scheduling Charts 172 5.8 Line of Balance (Linear Scheduling Method) 177 5.9 Procurement Management 179 5.10 Summary 182 Review Questions 182 Questions About the Study Project 184 Case 5.1 Barrage Construction Company: Sean’s WBS 184 Case 5.2 Startrek Enterprises, Inc.: Deva’s Project Plan 185 Case 5.3 Walter’s Project Plan 186 Case 5.4 Planning the Boca Implementation at Kulczyński Products 187 Endnotes 188

6 Project Schedule Planning and Networks 190 6.1 Network Diagrams 190 6.2 The Critical Path 195 6.3 Converting to Gantt Calendar Schedules 202 6.4 Management Schedule Reserve 203 6.5 Alternative Relationships 204 6.6 Scheduling with Resource Constraints 209 6.7 Criticisms of Network Methods 216 6.8 Summary 217 Appendix A: AOA Diagrams 218 Appendix B: Alternate Scheduling Method: Project Starts at Day 1 220 Review Questions and Problems 221 Questions About the Study Project 225 Case 6.1 Network Diagram for a Large Construction Project 226 Case 6.2 Melbourne Construction Company, A 228 Case 6.3 Melbourne Construction Company, B 229 Case 6.4 Melbourne Construction Company, C 230 Endnotes 231

7 Advanced Project Network Analysis and Scheduling 232 7.1 CPM and Time-Cost Tradeoff 232 7.2 Variability of Activity Duration 238 7.3 PERT 241 7.4 Allocating Resources and Multiple Project Scheduling 251 7.5 Theory of Constraints and Critical Chain Method 252 7.6 TOC Method for Allocating Resources to Multiple Projects 260 7.7 Discussion and Summary 262 Summary List of Symbols 263 Review Questions and Problems 264 Questions About the Study Project 268

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Case 7.1 Bridgecon Contractors 268 Case 7.2 LOGON Project 270 Case 7.3 Papua Petera Village Project 271 Endnotes 272

8 Cost Estimating and Budgeting 275 8.1 Cost Estimates 275 8.2 Cost Escalation 276 8.3 Cost Estimating and the Systems Development Cycle 280 8.4 Cost Estimating Process 281 8.5 Elements of Estimates and Budgets 288 8.6 Project Cost Accounting Systems 292 8.7 Budgeting Using Control (or Cost) Accounts 293 8.8 Cost Summaries 295 8.9 Cost Schedules and Forecasts 298 8.10 Life Cycle Costs 306 8.11 Summary 308 Review Questions and Problems 309 Questions About the Study Project 311 Case 8.1 Life Cycle Costs for Fleet of Tourist Spaceships 312 Case 8.2 Estimated Costs for the Chunnel Project 312 Case 8.3 Fiona’s Estimate for the Gorgy Project 313 Case 8.4 Melbourne Construction Company, D 314 Endnotes 314

9 Project Quality Management 316 9.1 The Concept of Quality 316 9.2 Project Quality Management Processes 320 9.3 Techniques for Quality Assurance in System Development 324 9.4 Techniques for Quality Control 335 9.5 Summary 338 Review Questions 338 Questions About the Study Project 339 Case 9.1 Ceiling Panel Collapse in the Big Dig Project 339 Case 9.2 FIFA 2010 World Cup South Africa 341 Case 9.3 Airbag Adversity 344 Endnotes 344

10 Project Risk Management 346 10.1 Risk Concepts 346 10.2 Risk Identification 347 10.3 Risk Assessment 353 10.4 Risk Response Planning 360 10.5 Risk Monitoring and Response 366 10.6 Project Management Is Risk Management 366 10.7 Summary 370 Appendix: Risk Analysis Methods 370 Review Questions and Problems 375 Questions About the Study Project 378 Case 10.1 The Sydney Opera House 379

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|  xiiiCONTENTS

Case 10.2 Infinity & Beyond, Inc. 380 Case 10.3 The Nelson Mandela Bridge 381 Endnotes 383

11 Project Execution, Monitoring, and Control 385 11.1 Phase C: Execution 385 11.2 Detail Design Stage 385 11.3 Production/Build Stage 389 11.4 Monitoring and Control Process 390 11.5 Work Packages and Control Accounts 392 11.6 Project Monitoring and Control Emphasis 395 11.7 Performance Analysis and Earned Value Management 400 11.8 Issue Management 414 11.9 Change Control 416 11.10 Contract Administration 419 11.11 Problems with Monitoring and Controlling Projects 420 11.12 Summary 420 Summary of Variables 421 Review Questions and Problems 421 Questions About the Study Project 425 Case 11.1 Cybersonic Project 426 Case 11.2 SA Gold Mine: Earned Value After a Scope Change 427 Case 11.3 Change Control Process at Dynacom Company 428 Endnotes 428

12 Project Evaluation, Communication, Implementation, and Closeout 430 12.1 Project Evaluation 430 12.2 Project Communication Management 432 12.3 Project Management Information Systems 435 12.4 Informal Communication 439 12.5 Implementation Stage 440 12.6 Project Termination and Closeout 441 12.7 Project Summary Evaluation 445 12.8 After the Project—Phase D: Operation 447 12.9 Summary 448 Review Questions 448 Questions About the Study Project 449 Case 12.1 Status Report for the LOGON Project 450 Case 12.2 SLU Information Central Building 450 Case 12.3 Formal and Informal Communication 451 Endnotes 452

13 Agile Project Management and Lean 453 13.1 Traditional Project Management 453 13.2 Agile Project Management, APM 455 13.3 Scrum 457 13.4 APM Controversy 465 13.5 Lean Production and Project Management 466 13.6 Summary 474

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Review Questions 475 Questions about the Study Project 476 Case 13.1 Grand Entry for Accent, Inc. 477 Case 13.2 Technology to Track Stolen Vehicles 479 Endnotes 480

PART IV: ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR 481 14 Project Organization Structure and Integration 483

14.1 Formal Organization Structure 483 14.2 Organizational Design by Differentiation and Integration 484 14.3 Requirements of Project Organizations 487 14.4 Integration of Subunits in Projects 487 14.5 Liaison Roles, Task Forces, and Teams 488 14.6 Project Expeditors and Coordinators 489 14.7 Pure Project Organizations 491 14.8 Matrix Organizations 493 14.9 Selecting an Organization Form for Projects 496 14.10 Project Office and PMO 498 14.11 Integration in Large-Scale Projects 500 14.12 Integration in Systems Development Projects 504 14.13 Concurrent Engineering 505 14.14 Summary 508 Review Questions 509 Questions about the Study Project 510 Case 14.1 Organization for the LOGON Project 511 Case 14.2 Pinhole Camera and Optics, Inc.: Why Do We Need a Project Manager? 511 Case 14.3 Implementing a Matrix Structure in an R&D Laboratory 512 Endnotes 514

15 Project Roles and Stakeholders 515 15.1 The Project Manager 516 15.2 Project Management Authority 519 15.3 Project Manager Qualifications 522 15.4 Filling the Project Management Role 526 15.5 Roles in the Project Team 527 15.6 Roles Outside the Project Team 530 15.7 Project Stakeholder Engagement 531 15.8 Summary 534 Review Questions 535 Questions About the Study Project 536 Case 15.1 The LOGON Project 537 Case 15.2 Selecting a Project Manager at Nuwave Products Company 537 Case 15.3 Stakeholders in Boston’s Big Dig 538 Endnotes 539

16 Managing Participation, Teamwork, and Conflict 541 16.1 Leadership in Project Management 542 16.2 Participative Management 543 16.3 Teams in Project Management 544 16.4 The Team-Building Approach 547

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16.5 Improving Ongoing Work Teams 548 16.6 Building New Teams 549 16.7 Intergroup Problem Solving 551 16.8 Virtual Teams 552 16.9 Conflict 555 16.10 Managing Group Conflict 558 16.11 Managing Emotional Stress 559 16.12 Summary 562 Review Questions 562 Questions About the Study Project 563 Case 16.1 Wilma Keith 564 Case 16.2 Mars Climate Orbiter Spacecraft 565 Endnotes 565

PART V: PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN THE CORPORATE CONTEXT 567 17 Meta-Management of Projects and Program Management 569

17.1 Project Management Maturity and Maturity Models 569 17.2 Project Management Methodology 572 17.3 Managing Project Knowledge 577 17.4 Project Management Office 582 17.5 Program Management 586 17.6 Program Phases 587 17.7 Program Management Themes 588 17.8 Program Organization 590 17.9 Special Considerations 591 17.10 Summary 593 Review Questions 594 Questions About the Study Project 595 Case 17.1 Maxim Corporation America (MCA) 595 Case 17.2 Motorola’s M-Gate Methodology and the RAZR Project 597 Case 17.3 Tecknokrat Company 598 Case 17.4 Mercury Exploration Program 599 Endnotes 601

18 Project Selection and Portfolio Management 604 18.1 Project Portfolio Management 604 18.2 Framework for Project Selection and Portfolio Management 607 18.3 Methods for Assessing Individual Projects 609 18.4 Methods for Comparing and Selecting Projects 613 18.5 Integrating the Gating Process and Portfolio Management 620 18.6 Summary and Discussion 621 Review Questions and Problems 622 Question About the Study Project 624 Case 18.1 Consolidated Energy Company 624 Case 18.2 Proposed Cement Factory for PCS Company 625 Endnotes 626

19 International Project Management 628 19.1 International Projects 628 19.2 Problems Managing International Projects 629

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19.3 Local Institutions and Culture 630 19.4 Local Stakeholders 636 19.5 Geo-National Issues 636 19.6 Project Manager 638 19.7 Local Representative 640 19.8 Top Management, Steering Committee, and PMO 640 19.9 Team and Relationship Building 641 19.10 Project Definition 642 19.11 Project Monitoring 647 19.12 Communication 648 19.13 Risks and Contingencies 649 19.14 Summary 650 Review Questions 651 Questions About the Study Project 652 Case 19.1 Mozal Project—International Investment in an Undeveloped Country 652 Case 19.2 Spirit Electronics’ Puerto Rico Office 655 Endnotes 657

APPENDIX A RFP for Midwest Parcel Distribution Company 659 APPENDIX B Proposal for Logistical Online System Project (LOGON) 663 APPENDIX C Project Execution Plan for Logistical Online System 670

Index 686

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Preface

When people see or use something impressive—a bridge arching high over a canyon, a space probe touching down on a distant planet, an animated game so realistic you think you’re there, or a nifty phone/camera/computer the size of your hand—they sometimes wonder, “How did they do that?” By they, of course, they are referring to the creators, designers, and builders, the people who created— thought up and made—those things. Seldom do they wonder about the leaders and managers, the people who organized and led the efforts that brought those astounding things from concept to reality and without whom most neat ideas would never have been achieved. This book is about them—the manag- ers of project managers, the mostly unsung heroes of engineering, business, and technology who stand outside the public eye but ultimately are responsible for practically everything that requires collective human effort.

The project manager is but one of many people involved in the creation of society’s products, systems, and artifacts, yet it is he or she who gets the others involved and organizes and directs their efforts so everything comes out right. Occasionally, the manager and the creator happen to be the same: Burt Rutan, Woody Allen, and Gutzon Borglum are examples; their life work—in aerospace, motion pictures, and monumental sculptures, respectively—represent not only creative or technological genius, but leadership and managerial talent as well.

In the last several decades businesses have expanded from domestic, nationalistic enterprises and markets into multinational, global enterprises and markets. As a result, from a business perspective there is more of everything to contend with—more ideas, competitors, resources, constraints, and, certainly, more people doing and wanting things. Technology is advancing and products and processes evolving at a more rapid pace; as a result, the life cycles of most things in society are getting shorter. This “more of everything” has had a direct impact on the conduct of projects—including projects to develop products, systems, or processes that compete in local, domestic, and international markets; projects to create and implement new ways of meeting demand for energy, recreation, housing, communication, transporta- tion, and food; and projects to answer basic questions in science and resolve grave problems such as disease, pollution, global warming, and the aftermath of natural disasters. All of this project activity has spurred a growing interest in improved ways to plan, organize, and guide projects to better meet the needs of customers, markets, and society within the bounds of limited time and resources.

Associated with this interest is the growing need to educate and train project managers. In the past—and still today—project managers were chosen for some demonstrated exceptional capability, although not necessarily managerial. If you were a good engineer, systems analyst, researcher, architect, or accountant, eventually you would become a project manager. Somewhere along the way, presumably, you would pick up the “other” necessary skills. The flaw in this reasoning is that project management encompasses a broad range of skills—managerial, leadership, interpersonal—that are much different from and independent of skills associated with technical competency. And there is no reason to presume that the project environment alone will provide the opportunity for someone to “pick up” these other necessary skills.

As a text and handbook, this book is about the “right” way to manage projects. It is intended for advanced undergraduate and graduate university students and practicing managers in engineering, busi- ness, and technology. As the title says, it is a book about principles and practice, meaning that the topics in it are practical and meant to be applied. It covers the big picture of project management—origins,

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xviii  | PREFACE

applications, and philosophy, as well as the nitty-gritty, how-to steps. It describes the usual project man- agement topics of schedules, budgets, and controls, but also the human side of project management, including leadership and conflict.

Why a book on project management in engineering and business and technology? In our experi- ence, technology specialists such as engineers, programmers, architects, chemists, and so on, involved in “engineering/technology projects” often have little or no management or leadership training. This book, which includes many engineering and technology examples, provides somewhat broad exposure to business concepts and management specifics to help these specialists get started as managers and leaders.

What about those people involved in product development, marketing, process improvement, and related projects commonly thought of as “business projects”? Just as technology specialists seldom receive formal management training, students and practitioners of business rarely get formal exposure to practices common in technology projects. For them, this book describes not only how “business” pro- jects are conducted, but also the necessary steps in the conception and execution of engineering, system development, construction, and other “technology” projects. Of course, every technology project is also a business project: it is conducted in a business context and involves business issues such as customer satisfaction, resource utilization, deadlines, costs, and profits.

Virtually all projects—engineering, technology, and business—originate and are conducted in a similar way, in this book conceptualized using a methodology called the Systems Development Cycle (SDC). The SDC serves as a general framework for discussing the principles and practices of project man- agement, and illustrating commonalities and differences among a wide variety of projects.

This book is an outgrowth of the authors’ combined several decades of experience teaching project management at Loyola University Chicago and University of Pretoria to business and engineering stu- dents, preceded by several years’ experience in business and technology projects, including for aircraft design and flight test, large-scale process facility construction, and software applications development and process improvement. This practical experience gave us an appreciation not only for the business- management side of project management, but also for the human-interpersonal side as well. We have seen the benefits of good communication, trust, and teamwork, as well as the costs of poor leadership, emotional stress, and group conflict. In our experience, the most successful projects are those where leadership, trust, communication, and teamwork flourished, regardless of the formal planning and control methods and systems in place. This book largely reflects these personal experiences. Of course, comprehensive coverage of project management required that we look much beyond our own experi- ence and draw upon the published works of many others and the wisdom and suggestions of colleagues and reviewers.

In this fifth edition we have revised and added material to incorporate new topics of interest, current examples, and the growing body of literature in project management. Among significant new additions are a chapter on agile project management and lean production, extended coverage of program manage- ment, as well as 18 new end-of-chapter case studies. The Introduction includes tables that relate sec- tions of the book to the most-common project management knowledge areas and methodologies: PMI PMBOK, IPMA, APM, and PRINCE2. Books tend to grow in size with each new edition; to combat that all chapters have been rewritten to make everything more readable and concise. Despite the inclusion of new material, we’ve held the page count to roughly what it was in the previous edition.

Our goal in writing this book is to provide students and practicing managers the most practical, current, and interesting text possible. We appreciate hearing your comments and suggestions. Please send them to us at [email protected] and [email protected].

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Acknowledgments

Like most projects, writing a book reflects the contributions of many people. We want to acknowl- edge and give special thanks to those who contributed the most. First, thanks to our research assistants. Research assistants in general do a lot of work—academic as well as gofer, and without their toiling efforts most professors would accomplish far less. We were fortunate to have had the assistance of several such bright and capable people, particularly Elisa Denney, Hollyce James, Diane Petrozzo, Miguel Velasco, Gaurav Monga, Cary Morgan, Louis Schwartzman, and Brian Whelan.

Special thanks to current and former colleagues at Loyola University Chicago and the University of Pretoria. In Chicago, thanks to Dr. Gezinus Hidding for his enthusiasm and contributions to the field of project management; and to Drs. Enrique Venta, Harold Dyck, Samuel Ramenofsky, and Donald Meyer, and Elaine Strnad, Paul Flugel, John Edison, Sharon Tylus, and Debbie Gillespie for their suggestions and support for this and earlier editions. In Pretoria, thanks to Dr. Tinus Pretorius for encouraging education and research in project management at the Graduate School of Technology Management and for sup- porting the work on this book. I (Herman) also want to express appreciation to Dr. Giel Bekker, Philip Viljoen, Dr. Taryn Bond-Barnard, Dr. Pieter Pretorius, Dr. Krige Visser, Corro van Waveren, Dr. Michael Carruthers and Dr. Marie-Louise Barry for their direct and indirect contributions to this book and for all I have learned from them. I (John) want to acknowledge the influence of three of my professors, Dr. Charles Thompson and Dr. Gustave Rath at Northwestern University, and Dr. Dick Evans at the University of Illinois, whose philosophies and teachings helped shaped this book. I also want to thank Chris Phares and Bob Zimmerman, dear friends and project managers extraordinaire, for ongoing sharing of their wisdom on the meaning and significance of project leadership.

Special thanks also to our wives Sharry and Karen. Sharry provided numerous suggestions to the first edition and helped reduce the amount of “techno-jargon” in the book; she managed the home front and freed up time so that I (John) could pursue and complete this project. Karen provided wifely support and encouragement; as in the case of so many other projects I (Herman) have been involved in, my contribu- tion to this project would never have materialized had not it been for her support.

Thanks also to Amy Laurens and the folks at Routledge and Taylor and Francis, and special thanks to Holly Davis for her ongoing support throughout preparation of this fifth edition.

Other colleagues, students, and friends, some mentioned in the endnotes throughout the book, provided support, encouragement, and reference materials; to them also we say thank you. Despite the assistance of so many people and our own best efforts, there are still likely to be omissions or errors. We had final say and accept responsibility for them.

John M. Nicholas Herman Steyn

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About the Authors

JOHN NICHOLAS is Professor Operations Management and Project Management in the Quinlan School of Business at Loyola University Chicago. He is an active teacher, writer, and researcher in project man- agement and production management, and conducts executive seminars and consults on project man- agement and process improvement. John is the author of numerous academic and technical publications, and five books including Lean Production for Competitive Advantage (2011) and The Portal to Lean Production (2006). He has held the positions of team lead and engineer on aircraft development projects at Lockheed- Martin Corporation, team lead and business systems analyst on operations projects at Bank America, and researcher on energy-environmental research projects at Argonne National Laboratory. He has a BS in aeronautical and astronautical engineering and an MBA in operations research from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and a PhD in industrial engineering and applied behavioral science from Northwestern University.

HERMAN STEYN is Professor of Project Management in the Graduate School of Technology Management, University of Pretoria, South Africa. He has been involved in projects in industry since 1975, has managed a variety of large and small engineering projects (system, product, and process development) in the minerals, defense and nuclear industries, and has also managed programs and project portfolios. In 1996 he was appointed to his current position at the University of Pretoria where he initiated a masters’ program in project management. Besides supervising project management research and teaching gradu- ate project management courses, Herman has conducted more than 200 seminars and workshops on project management. He has a bachelor’s degree and graduate diploma in metallurgical engineering, an MBA, and a PhD in engineering management.

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Introduction

I.1 In The Beginning…

Sometime during the third millennium bc, workers on the Great Pyramid of Cheops set the last stone in place. They must have felt jubilant, for this event represented a milestone of sorts in one of human- ity’s grandest undertakings. Although much of the ancient Egyptians’ technology is still a mystery, the enormity and quality of the finished product remains a marvel. Despite the lack of sophisticated machin- ery, they were able to raise and fit some 2,300,000 stone blocks, weighing 2 to 70 tons apiece, into a structure the height of a modern 40-story building. Each facing stone was set against the next with an accuracy of 0.04 inch (1 mm), and the base, which covers 13 acres (52,600 m2), deviates less than 1 inch (25 mm) from level (Figure I.1).1

Equally as staggering was the number of workers involved. To quarry the stones and transport them down the Nile, about 100,000 laborers were levied. In addition, 40,000 skilled masons and attendants were employed in preparing and laying the blocks and erecting or dismantling the ramps. Public works were essential to keep the working population employed and fed, and it is estimated that no less than 150,000 women and children also had to be housed and fed.2 But just as mind-boggling was the mana- gerial ability exercised by the Egyptians throughout the 20-year duration of the pyramid construction. Francis Barber, a nineteenth-century pyramid scholar, concluded that:

It must have taken the organizational capacity of a genius to plan all the work, to lay it out, to  provide for emergencies and accidents, to see that the men in the quarries, on the boats and  sleds, and  in  the mason’s and smithies shops were all continuously and usefully employed,  that the means of transportation was ample  ...  that the water supply was ample  ... and that  the sick reliefs were on hand.3

Building the Great Pyramid is what we today would call a large-scale project. It stands among numerous projects from early recorded history that required massive human works and managerial competency. Worthy of note are the managerial and leadership accomplishments of Moses. The Biblical account of the exodus of the Hebrews from the bondage of the Egyptians gives some perspective on the preparation, organization, and execution of this tremendous undertaking. Supposedly Moses did a magnificent job of personnel selection, training, organization, and delegation of authority.4 The famed ruler Solomon also was the “manager” of great projects. He transformed the battered ruins of many

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2  | INTRODUCTION

ancient cities and crude shantytowns into powerful fortifications. With his wealth and the help of Phoenician artisans, Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem. Seven years went into the construction of the Temple, after which Solomon took 13 years more to build a palace for himself. He employed a workforce of 30,000 Israelites to fell trees and import timber from the forests of Lebanon.5 That was almost 3,000 years ago.

With later civilizations, notably the Greeks and Romans, projects requiring extensive planning and organizing escalated. To facilitate their military campaigns and commercial interests, the Romans constructed networks of highways and roads throughout Europe, Asia Minor, Palestine, and northern Africa so that all roads would “lead to Rome.” The civilizations of Renaissance Europe and the Middle and Far East undertook river engineering, construction of aqueducts, canals, dams, locks, and port and harbor facilities. With the spread of modern religions, construction of temples, monasteries, mosques, and massive urban cathedrals was added to the list of projects.

With the advent of industrialization and electricity, projects for the construction of railroads, electrical and hydro-electrical power facilities and infrastructures, subways, and factories became commonplace. In recent times, development of large systems for communications, defense, transportation, research, and information technology have spurred different, more complex kinds of project activity.

As long as people do things, there will be projects. Many projects of the future will be similar to those in the past. Others will be different either in terms of increased scale of effort or more advanced technology. Representative of the latter are two recent projects, the English Channel tunnel (Chunnel) and the International Space Station. The Chunnel required tremendous resources and took a decade to complete. The International Space Station (Figure I.2) required development of new technologies and the efforts of the US, Russian, European, Canadian, and Japanese space agencies.

Figure I.1 The Great Pyramid of Cheops, an early (circa 2500bc) large-scale project. Photo courtesy of iStock.

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|  3INTRODUCTION

I.2 What Is a Project?

From these examples it is clear that humankind has been involved in project activities for a long time. But why are these considered “projects” while other human activities, such as planting and harvesting a crop, stocking a warehouse, issuing payroll checks, or manufacturing a product, are not?

What is a project? This is a question we will cover in much detail later. As an introduction though, below are listed some characteristics that warrant classifying an activity as a project.6

1. A project has a defined goal—a purpose with well-defined end-items, deliverables, results, or products to achieve specific benefits.

2. It is unique; it requires doing something different than was done previously. It is a one-time activity, never to be exactly repeated again.

3. It is a temporary organization that seeks to accomplish the goal within a scheduled time frame. 4. It utilizes people and other resources from different organizations and functions. 5. Given that each project is unique, it carries unfamiliarity and risk.

The examples described earlier are for familiar kinds of projects such as construction (pyramids) and technology development (space station). In general, the list of activities that qualify as projects is long and includes many that are commonplace. Weddings, remodeling a home, and moving to another house are projects; so are company audits, major litigations, corporate relocations, and projects; and so are efforts to develop new products and implement new systems. Military campaigns also qualify as projects; they are temporary, unique efforts directed toward a specific goal. The Normandy Invasion in World War II on June 6, 1944 is an example:

The technical ingenuity and organizational skill that made the landings possible was stagger- ing. The invasion armada included nearly 5,000 ships of all descriptions protected by another 

Figure I.2 The International Space Station, a modern large-scale project. Photo courtesy of NASA.

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4  | INTRODUCTION

900  warships.  The  plan  called  for  landing  150,000  troops  and  1500  tanks  on  the  Normandy  coast in the first 48 hours.7

Most artistic endeavors are projects, too. Composing a song or symphony, writing a novel, or making a sculpture are one-person projects. Some artistic projects also require the skills of engineers and builders, for example Mount Rushmore, the Statue of Liberty, and the Eiffel Tower.

Many efforts at saving human life and recovering from man-made or natural disasters become projects. Examples are the massive cleanup following the Soviet nuclear accident at Chernobyl, and rescue and recovery operations following disastrous earthquakes in Chile, Haiti, China, Pakistan, Mexico, Turkey, and elsewhere, the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004, and the Ebola outbreak in western Africa in 2014.

Figure I.3 shows diverse project endeavors and examples of well-known projects, and where the projects fall with respect to complexity and uncertainty. Complexity is measured by the magnitude of the effort—the number of groups and organizations involved and the diversity of skills or expertise needed to accomplish the work. Time and resource commitments tend to increase with complexity.

Uncertainty is measured roughly by the difficulty in predicting the final outcome in terms of the dimensions of time, cost, and technical performance. In most projects there is some uncertainty in one or two dimensions (e.g. weddings); in complex projects there is uncertainty in all three dimensions (e.g. the space station).

Generally, the more often something is done, the less uncertainty there is in doing it. This is simply because people learn by doing and so improve their efforts—the “learning curve” concept. Projects that are very similar to previous ones and about which there is abundant knowledge have lower uncertainty. These are found in the lower portion of Figure I.3 (e.g. weddings, highways, dams, system implementation). Projects with high uncertainty are in the upper portion of the figure.

When the uncertainty of a project drops to nearly zero, and when the project effort is repeated a large number of times, then the work is usually no longer considered a project. For example, building a skyscraper is definitely a project, but mass construction of prefabricated homes more closely resembles a scheduled, repetitive operation than a project. The first flight to the South Pole by Admiral Byrd was a project, but modern daily supply flights to bases there are not. When in the future tourists begin taking chartered excursions to Mars, trips there will not be considered projects either. They will just be ordinary scheduled operations.

The cost curve in Figure I.3 indicates that a project’s expense tends to increase roughly in proportion to its complexity and uncertainty. Cost, represented in terms of time or economic value, is at the level of tens or hundreds of labor hours for projects with low complexity and uncertainty, but increases to millions and billions of hours for projects with the greatest complexity and uncertainty.

In all cases, projects are conducted by organizations that after the project is completed go on to do something else (construction companies) or are disbanded (Admiral Byrd’s crew, the Mars exploration team). In contrast, repetitive, high-certainty activities (prefabricated housing, supply flights, and tourist trips to Antarctica or Mars) are performed by permanent organizations that do the same thing repeatedly, with little changes in operations other than scheduling. Because projects are not repetitive is the reason they must be managed differently.

I.3 All Projects are Not the Same8

Besides Figure I.3, another way to illustrate the diversity in projects is with the so-called NTCP model, which classifies projects and their end-results or products into four dimensions, each with three or four possible levels. The dimensions and levels are:

• Novelty: This represents how new the project end-item or product is to customers and potential users and how well defined are its initial product requirements. It includes three levels:

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6  | INTRODUCTION

• Derivative—the project end-item or product is an extension or improvement of an existing product or system; e.g. new features to an existing car model;

• Platform—the end-item or product is a new generation of an existing product line in a well- established market; e.g. a new car model;

• Breakthrough—the end-item or product is new to the world; e.g. the first mobile telephone, the first 3M Post-it notes.

• Technology: This represents the project’s technological uncertainty and whether it is new or mature. It addresses the question of how much new technology is required to create, build, manufacture and enable the use of the product and how much technical competency is needed by the project manager and the team. It has four levels: • Low-tech—involves only well-established technologies; • Medium-tech—uses mainly existing technologies, but also limited use of some new technology or

new features; e.g. automotive and appliances industries; • High-tech—uses technologies that are mostly new to the firm but already exist and are available

at project initiation; typical of many defense and computer projects; is synonymous with “high-risk”;

• Super-high-tech—relies on new technologies that do not exist at project initiation. The project goal is well defined, but the solution is not; e.g. landing a man on the moon; is often synonymous with “very high-risk.”

• Complexity: This measures the complexity of the product and the project organization. There are three levels: • Assembly—the project involves combining a collection of elements, components, and modules

into a single unit or entity that performs a single function; e.g. developing a new coffee machine or creating a department to manage a single function (such as payroll);

• System—involves a complex collection of interactive elements and subsystems that jointly perform multiple functions to meet specific operational needs; e.g. a new car, new com- puter, entirely new business;

• Array—the project involves a large variety of dispersed systems (a system of systems, or “super system”) that function together to achieve a common purpose; e.g. national communi- cations network, mass transit infrastructure, regional power generation and distribution network, an entire corporation.

• Pace: This refers to time available for the project—the urgency or criticality of meeting the project’s time goals. There are four levels: • Regular—no urgency; time is not critical to immediate success; • Fast/competitive—complete project in adequate time to address market opportunities, create a

strategic positioning, or form a new business unit; e.g. launching a new drug, introducing a new product line;

• Time-critical—complete project by a specific deadline; missing the deadline means project failure; e.g. Y2K projects; construction of facilities for the Olympic Games; launch of space probe to a comet;

• Blitz—a crisis project; the criterion for success is solving a problem as fast as possible; e.g. save people from a sinking ship.

All projects can be characterized according to the four dimensions. In Figure I.4, each of the dimensions is represented by a quadrant on the graph. The diamond-shaped profiles show the four dimensions for two examples, the Apollo lunar program and the space shuttle program.

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|  7INTRODUCTION

I.4 Project Management: The Need

Although mankind has been involved in projects since the beginning of recorded history, obviously the nature of projects and the environment have changed. Many modern projects involve technical complex- ity and challenges in terms of assembling and directing large temporary organizations while subject to constrained resources, limited time schedules, and environmental uncertainty. An example is the NASA Pathfinder Mission to land and operate a rover vehicle on the surface of Mars. Such a project is unparal- leled not only in terms of technical difficulty and organizational complexity, but also in terms of the requirements imposed on it. In ancient times, the requirements were flexible. If the Pharaohs needed more workers, then more slaves or more of the general population were conscripted. If Renaissance builders ran out of funding during construction of a cathedral, the work was stopped until more funds could be raised (one reason why cathedrals took decades or centuries to complete). If a king ran out of money while building a palace, he simply raised taxes. In cases where additional money or workers could not be found or the project delayed, then the scale of effort or quality of workmanship was reduced to accommodate the constraints.

In the Pathfinder project, many of the requirements were inflexible: the mission team was challenged with developing and landing a vehicle on Mars in less than 3 years’ time and on a $150 million budget, which was less than half the time and 1/20th the cost of the last probe NASA had landed on Mars. The project involved advanced research and development and explored new areas of science and engineering. Technical performance requirements could not be compromised; to do so would increase the risk to undertakings that were already very risky.

Figure I.4 Shenhar and Dvir’s NTCP Diamond model contrasting the Apollo and space shuttle  programs. Source: Shenhar A. and Dvir D. Reinventing Project Management: The Diamond Approach to Successful Growth and Innovation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press; 2007.  

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8  | INTRODUCTION

Constraints and uncertainty in project work are not restricted to large-scale governmental science programs. They are common in everyday business and technology where organizations continually strive to develop and implement new products, processes, and systems, and to adapt to changing requirements in a changing world. Consider Dalian Company’s development of “Product J,” a product development project that exemplifies what companies everywhere must do to be competitive and survive. Product J is a promising but radically new idea. To move the idea from a concept to a real product will require the involvement of engineers and technicians from several Dalian divisions and suppliers. Product J will require meeting tough technical challenges, launching the product well ahead of the competition, and doing it for a cost the company can afford.

Another example is Shah Alam Hospital’s installation of a new employee benefits plan. The project would involve developing new policies, training staff workers, familiarizing 10,000 employees with the plan, and installing a new computer network and database, and require active participation from personnel in human resources, financial service, and information systems, as well as experts from two consulting firms. It typifies “change” projects everywhere—projects initiated in response to changing needs and with the goal of transforming the organization’s way of doing things.

Finally, consider that virtually every company has or will have a website. Behind each site are multiple projects to develop or enhance the website and to integrate electronic business technology into the company’s mainstream marketing and supply-chain operations. Such projects are also examples of organizations’ need to change, in this case to keep pace with advances in information technology and business processes.

Activities such as these examples defy traditional management approaches for planning, organization, and control. They are representative of activities that require modern methods of project management to meet difficult technological or market-related performance goals in spite of limited time and resources.

I.5 Project Goal: Time, Cost, and Performance

The goal of virtually every project can be conceptualized in terms of hitting a target that floats in three-dimensional space—the dimensions being cost, time, and performance (Figure I.5). Cost is the

Cost

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Figure I.5 Three-dimensional project goal. Source: Adapted from Rosenau M., Successful Project Management. Belmont, CA: Lifetime Learn- ing  Publications; 1981, p, 16.

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|  9INTRODUCTION

specified or budgeted cost for the project. Time is the scheduled period over which the work is to be done. Performance is what the project end-item, deliverables, or final result must do; it includes whatever the project customer, end-user, and other stakeholders consider necessary or important. The target represents a goal to deliver a certain something to somebody by a certain date and for a certain cost. The purpose of project management is to hit the target—i.e., to achieve the goal of the project.9

But technological complexity, changing markets, and an uncontrollable environment make it dif- ficult to hit the target. Time, cost, and technical performance are interrelated, and exclusive emphasis on any one will likely undermine the others. In trying to meet schedules and performance requirements, costs increase; conversely, in trying to contain costs, work performance erodes and schedules slip. In earlier times, one or two aspects of the goal were simply allowed to slide so that the “most fixed” could be met. Most projects, as the Pathfinder, Dalian Company, and Shah Alam Hospital examples show, do not have this luxury. Project management offers a way to maintain focus on all three dimensions and to control the tradeoffs among them.

I.6 Project Management: The Person, The Team, The Methodology

Three key features distinguish project management from traditional forms of management: the person, the team, and the methodology.

The most prominent feature about project management is the role of the project manager—the individual who has overall responsibility to plan, direct, and integrate the efforts of everyone involved in the project (stakeholders) to achieve the project goal. In the role of project manager, one person is held accountable for the project and is totally dedicated to achieving its goals. The project manager coordi- nates the efforts of every functional area and organization in the project and oversees the planning and control of costs, schedules, and work tasks. As we will discuss later, numerous other parties (stakehold- ers) are involved in and crucial to project management; nonetheless, the role of project manager is a key feature that distinguishes project- from non-project management.

Doing a project is a team effort, and project management means bringing individuals and groups together to form the team and directing them toward the common goal. The team will often consist of people and groups from different functional areas and organizations. Depending on the project, the size and composition of the team may fluctuate; usually the team disbands after the project is completed.

The project manager and project team typically perform work in phases according to a “project management methodology.” This methodology provides for integrative planning and control of projects, which according to Archibald refers to

the  pulling  together  of  all  important  elements  of  information  related  to  (1)  the  products  or  results  of  the  project,  (2)  the  time,  and  (3)  the  cost,  in  funds,  manpower,  or  other  key  resources … for all (or as many as practical) phases of the project. [It] requires continual revi- sion of future plans, comparison of actual results with plans, and projection of total time and  cost at completion through interrelated evaluation of all elements of information.10

As a project proceeds from one phase to the next, the project manager relies on the methodology to (1) identify the project tasks, (2) identify the required resources and the costs, (3) establish priorities, (4) plan and update schedules, (5) monitor and control end-item quality and performance, and (6) measure project performance.11

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10  | INTRODUCTION

I.7 Project Management Standards of Knowledge and Competencies

Project management has become a recognized vocation supported by several professional organiza- tions around the world. These organizations have advanced project management by establishing stand- ards, guidelines, and certifications. Among the more well-known of these organizations are IPMA (International Project Management Association), APM Group (Association for Project Management), and PMI (Project Management Institute). The PMI is based in the US and is the largest of these organi- zations; the IPMA, based in the Netherlands, is an international group of national project management associations in Europe, Africa, Asia and North and South America; the APM is based in the UK.

These professional organizations have gathered the accepted best practices of project manage- ment and published them as standards or “bodies of knowledge” (BOKs) and competencies for the profession.12 Although none of the standards or BOKs covers everything about project management, they have become recognized norms about what minimally a project management professional should know. The organizations also offer levels of qualification and certification that include, for example, PMI’s PMP (Project Management Professional) certification; APM’s APMP (APM professional), and IPMA’s CPMA (Certified Project Management Associate). PMI’s and APM’s certifications are “body of knowledge- based”; IPMA’s certifications are “competency-based.” Another certification popular in Europe and particularly the UK is based upon PRINCE2 (PRojects IN Controlled Environments, Version 2), a meth- odology for managing projects originated by the UK Office of Government Commerce.13

For readers interested in professional certification, Tables I.1 through Table I.4 in the Appendix to the chapter show the correspondence between the knowledge areas, competencies expected, and methods from PMI, IPMA, APM, and PRINCE, and chapters in this book most relevant to them.

I.8 About This Book

Philosophy and Objectives

As a philosophy and an approach, project management is broader and more sophisticated than tra- ditional management of repetitive activities. It has roots in many disciplines, including management science, systems theory, accounting, operations management, organizational design, law, and applied behavioral science. What has evolved, and will continue to evolve, are a philosophy, approach, and set of practices, the sum total of which comprise project management. Some managers fail to understand this, believing that application of techniques alone, such as “Gantt charts,” “PERT,” or “matrix management” (all explained later) make for successful project management. Project management is much more than these.

C.P. Snow wrote an essay entitled “Two Cultures” about the cultural gap that separates scientists from the rest of society.14 Managers and management scholars also tend to separate the world into either of two perspectives: (1) the “quantitativists” tend to view projects in terms of costs, dates, and economic variables; (2) the “behaviorists” view projects in terms of peoples’ behavior, skills, and attitudes, and systems of organization.

The intent of this book is to give a balanced view that emphasizes both the behaviorist and quantitativist sides of project management. The philosophy of this book is that for managers to “do” project management, they must gain familiarity with four topical areas: system methodology; systems development process; management methods, procedures, and systems; and organization and human behavior; correspondingly, the objectives of this book are to cover in depth:

1. The principles and philosophy that guide project management practice. 2. The logical sequence of stages in the life of a project.

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|  11INTRODUCTION

3. The methods, procedures, and systems for defining, planning, scheduling, controlling, and organ- izing project activities.

4. The organizational, managerial, and human behavioral issues in project management.

In recent years the scope of project management has grown to encompass more than the management of individual projects, recognizing that project success involves more than the skills and talent of a good project manager; hence, a final objective of the book is to cover:

5. Responsibilities of the organization for assuring effective project management and successful projects.

Organization of This Book

Beyond this introductory chapter, the book is divided into five main sections. The first section is devoted to the basic concepts of project management. This section describes project management principles, systems methodologies, and the systems approach—the philosophy that underlies project management. Also covered are the origins and concepts of project management, situations where it is needed, and examples of applications. The second section describes the logical process in the creation and life of a system. Called the Systems Development Cycle, it is the sequence of phases through which all human-made systems move from birth to death. The cycle is described in terms of its relation to projects and project manage- ment. The third section is devoted to methods and procedures for planning, scheduling, cost estimating, budgeting, resource allocation, controlling, and terminating a project. The topics of resource planning, computer and web-based project management, and project evaluation are also covered. The fourth section is devoted to project organizations, teams, and the people in projects. It covers forms of project organiza- tion, roles and responsibilities of project managers and team members, styles of leadership, and methods for managing teamwork, conflict, and emotional stress. The last section covers topics that lie beyond the project manager but are crucial for project success and, more broadly, the success of the organizations and communities that sponsor and undertake projects. It also covers a topic that spans most other topics in this book but requires special attention, managing projects in different countries.

The five stated objectives of this book are roughly divided among chapters in the book’s five sections:

1. Basic concepts and systems philosophy: Chapters 1 and 2. 2. Systems development and project life cycle: Chapters 3 and 4. 3. Methods, procedures, and systems for planning and control: Chapters 5 through 13. 4. Organization, management, and human behavior: Chapters 14 through 16. 5. The corporate context and international project management: Chapters 17 through 19.

Three Appendices provide examples of topics mentioned throughout the book: request for proposal (Appendix A), project proposal (Appendix B), and project execution plan (Appendix C).

I.9 Study Project

The best way to learn about project management is to actually participate in it or, failing that, to witness it. At the end of every chapter in this book are two kinds of questions: the first kind are the usual chapter review questions, the second are called “Questions About the Study Project.” The latter are intended to be applied to a particular project of the reader’s choosing. This will be called the “study project.” The purpose of these questions and the study project is to help the reader relate concepts from each chapter to real-life situations.

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12  | INTRODUCTION

The study project questions can be used in two ways:

1. For readers who are currently working in projects as managers or project team members, the ques- tions can be related to their current work. The questions serve to increase the reader’s awareness of key issues surrounding the project and to guide managers in the conduct of project management.

2. For readers who are currently full- or part-time students, the questions can be applied to “real-life” projects they are permitted to observe and research. Many business firms and government agencies are happy to allow student groups to interview managers and collect information about their pro- jects. Though secondhand, this is nonetheless an excellent way to learn about project management practice (and mismanagement).

Assignment

Select a project to investigate. It should be a “real” project; that is, a project that has a real purpose and is not contrived just so you can investigate it. It can be a current project or one already completed; which- ever, it must be a project for which you can readily get information.

If you are not currently involved in a project as a team member, then you must find one for which you have permission to study (collect data and interview people) as an “outsider.” The project should include a project team (minimum of five people) with a project leader and be at least 2 or 3 months in duration. It should also have a specific goal in terms of a target completion date, a budget limit, and a specified end-item result or product. In general larger projects afford better opportunity to observe the concepts of project management than smaller ones.

If you are studying a project as an outsider it is also a good idea to do it in a team with three to six people and an appointed team leader (i.e., perform the study using a team). This, in essence, becomes your project team—a team organized for the purpose of studying a project. You can then readily apply many of the planning, organizing, team building, and other procedures discussed throughout the book as practice and to see how they work. This “hands-on” experience with your own team combined with what you learn from the project you are studying, will give you a fairly accurate picture about problems encountered and management techniques used in real-life project management.

APPENDIX: RELATION BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS AND CHAPTERS OF THIS BOOK

Table I.1 PMI Project Management Bodies of Knowledge and Process Groups

PMBOK GUIDE AND TEN KNOWLEDGE AREAS CHAPTERS ADDRESSING THESE AREAS

MOST RELEVANT RELATED

  1. Introduction  0, 1 15, 16   2. Organizational influence & project life cycle  3, 14, 16 I, 2, 4, 5, 13, 14–17   3. Project management processes   3, 13   4. Project integration management* 4, 11  2, 5, 9, 12, 14, 19   5. Project scope management* 4, 5, 11 2, 13, 19   6. Project schedule management* 6, 7, 11 5, 13, 19   7. Project cost management* 8, 11 19   8. Project quality management* 9 11, 13   9. Project resource management* 6, 16 7, 11, 14, 15, 19

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|  13INTRODUCTION

Table I.2 IPMA Project Management Competencies

ICB - IPMA COMPETENCE BASELINE CHAPTERS ADDRESSING THESE COMPETENCIES

MOST RELEVANT RELATED

1. Technical competencies     1.01 Project management success   3, 5, 9 1.02 Interested parties 15 1, 3, 19  1.03 Project requirements & objectives 4, 5 2, 11, 19 1.04 Risk & opportunity 10 7, 11, 18, 19 1.05 Quality 9 11, 13 1.06 Project organization 14, 15 13, 16, 19  1.07 Teamwork 16 13 1.08 Problem resolution 16 2, 9, 10 1.09 Project structures 5, 14 1, 4, 8, 13, 15 1.10 Scope & deliverables 4, 5 2, 3, 13 1.11 Time & project phases 3, 4, 6, 7 3 1.12 Resources 5, 6, 7 8, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19 1.13 Cost & finance 8 – 1.14 Procurement & contract 3, 5 11, 19 1.15 Changes  11 13 1.16 Control & reports 11 13, 19 1.17 Information & documentation 9, 12 1.18 Communication 11, 12 19 1.19 Startup 3, 4 16 1.20 Closeout 12  

2. Behavioral competencies     2.01 Leadership 16 15, 19  2.02 Engagement   15, 16 2.03 Self-control   16

10. Project communications management* 11, 12 13, 19 11. Project risk management* 10 7, 11, 18, 19 12. Project procurement management* 3, 5 11 13. Project stakeholder engagement* 15 1, 2, 3, 19 14. Appendix X3: Interpersonal & behavioral skills 16   *Knowledge area

Process Groups     Initiating Process Group  3, 4 Planning Process Group  5, 6, 7, 8 9, 10, 13, 19 Executing Process Group  11 13, 19  Monitoring and Controlling Process Group 11 12, 13, 19 Closing Process Group  12  

Table I.1 (Continued)

PMBOK GUIDE AND 10 KNOWLEDGE AREAS CHAPTERS ADDRESSING THESE AREAS

MOST RELEVANT RELATED

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14  | INTRODUCTION

2.04 Assertiveness   16 2.05 Relaxation   16 2.06 Openness   16 2.07 Creativity   9, 10 2.08 Results orientation   16 2.09 Efficiency 5–9, 11, 16 2.10 Consultation   5, 16 2.11 Negotiation   3, 16 2.12 Conflict & crisis 16   2.13 Reliability   5–9, 16 2.14 Values appreciation   16 2.15 Ethics   16

3. Contextual competencies   3.01 Project orientation I, 1, 17 3.02 Program orientation 17 1 3.03 Portfolio orientation 18 1 3.04 Project, program & portfolio implementation 18 17 3.05 Permanent organization 4, 14, 17 3.06 Business   14, 17–19 3.07 Systems, products & technology 2, 3, 4 9 3.08 Personnel management   6, 16, 19 3.09 Health, security, safety & environment 3 4, 10 3.10 Finance   8, 11, 18 3.11 Legal   3, 19

Table I.3 APM Project Management Knowledge Areas

APMP QUALIFICATION 37 KNOWLEDGE AREAS CHAPTERS ADDRESSING THESE AREAS

MOST RELEVANT RELATED

Project management in context     1.1 Project management  1 I, 17, 19  1.2 Programme management 17 1 1.3 Portfolio management 18 1 1.4 Project context 1 2 1.5 Project sponsorship 15 19 1.6 Project office 17 14

Planning the strategy     2.1 Project success & benefits management 3 9 2.2 Stakeholder management 15 1–3, 19 2.4 Project management plan 4 5–10 2.5 Project risk management 10 7, 11, 18, 19 2.6 Project quality management 9 11, 13 2.7 Health and safety 3 4, 10

Table I.2 (Continued)

ICB - IPMA COMPETENCE BASELINE CHAPTERS ADDRESSING THESE COMPETENCIES

MOST RELEVANT RELATED

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|  15INTRODUCTION

Table I.3 (Continued)

Executing the strategy     3.1 Scope management 4, 5, 11 2, 13, 19  3.2 Scheduling 6, 7 5, 11, 13, 19  3.3 Resource management 5–7 8, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19 3.4 Budgeting & cost management 8 11, 19  3.5 Change control 11 13  3.6 Earned value analysis 11   3.7 Information management & reporting 12 19 3.8 Issue management 11  

Techniques     4.1 Requirements management 4, 5 2, 11, 13, 19 4.3 Estimating 8   4.7 Configuration management 8 2, 11

Business and commercial     5.1 Business case  3   5.4 Procurement 3, 5 11

Organisation and governance     6.1 Project life cycles 3 13, 17  6.5 Handover and closeout 12   6.6 Project reviews 12 9, 13  6.7 Organizational structure 14   6.8 Organizational roles 15   6.9 Methods and procedures 17 13 6.10 Governance of project management 17, 18  

People and the profession     7.1 Communication 12   7.2 Teamwork 16 13  7.3 Leadership 16 15, 19  7.4 Conflict management 16   7.5 Negotiating   3, 16

Table I.4 PRINCE2 Methodology: Principles, Themes, Processes

PRINCE 2 CHAPTERS ADDRESSING PRINCIPLES, THEMES, PROCESSES

MOST RELEVANT RELATED

1. Seven principles     Continued business justification 18       Learn from experience 17 4, 13      Defined roles and responsibilities 15       Manage by stages 3 2, 4     Manage by exception 9        Focus on products 4, 5, 9       Tailor to suit the project environment 1 I, 17

APMP QUALIFICATION 37 KNOWLEDGE AREAS CHAPTERS ADDRESSING THESE AREAS

MOST RELEVANT RELATED

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16  | INTRODUCTION

Review Questions

1. Look at websites, newspapers, magazines, or television for examples of projects. Surprisingly, a great number of newsworthy topics relate to current and future projects, or to the outcome of past projects. Prepare a list of these topics.

2. Prepare a list of activities that are not projects. What distinguishes them from project activities? Which activities are difficult to classify as projects or non-projects?

3. Because this is an introductory chapter, not very much has been said about why projects must be managed differently from ordinary “operations,” and what constitutes project manage- ment—the subject of this book. Now is a good time to speculate about these: Why do you think projects and non-projects need to be managed differently? What do you think are some additional or special considerations necessary for managing projects?

CASE I.1 THE DENVER AIRPORT15

When the Denver Airport project was initiated in 1989, the planned 4-year timeframe seemed adequate. However, despite abundant political backing and adequate funding, the project suffered a 16-month delay and a $1.5 billion cost overrun. The NTCP model can be used in retrospect to explain the root cause of much of the project’s unsatisfactory performance. With 20-20 hindsight one may argue that a relatively simple NTCP analysis of the project and its sub-projects at an early stage (and adjusting the management style accordingly) might have significantly improved performance.

To enable aircraft turnaround around in less than 30 minutes as requested by United Airlines, one of the airport’s largest tenants, an automated baggage sorting and handling system was

2. Seven themes     Business case 3        Organization 5, 14 1, 4, 8, 13, 15     Quality 9 11,13      Plans 5 6–10     Risk 10 7, 11, 18, 19      Change 11  9, 13     Progress 11 11, 19  3. Seven processes     Starting up a project 3, 4 16     Directing a project 11 12, 13, 19      Initiating a project  3, 4       Managing a stage boundary 4       Controlling a stage 11       Managing product delivery 11       Closing a project  12  

Table I.4 (Continued)

PRINCE 2 CHAPTERS ADDRESSING PRINCIPLES, THEMES, PROCESSES

MOST RELEVANT RELATED

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|  17INTRODUCTION

necessary to improve efficiency over the traditional manual handling system. In December 1991 BAE Automatic Systems was contracted to design and implement the automated system in an estimated 2.5-year timeframe.

By August 1994 the system was 11 months late and was severely hampering airport opera- tions. Management decided to build an alternative, more traditional baggage system as a backup at an additional $50 million cost, and only United would use the BAE system for its own terminal concourse. In January 1995 a full-scale practice run of the BAE system was successfully executed, and in February 1995 the airport was opened—16 months late.

Building the airport was mostly a typical large construction project; in terms of NTCP it would be classified as follows: Novelty—Platform; Technology—Low-tech; Complexity—Array; Pace— Fast/Competitive. The snag in the project was that one element—the automatic baggage-handling system: it was new technology and, thus, riskier than the rest of the project, a risk that was not considered. The system was the first of its kind (it had been used before only on a much smaller scale) and required several design cycles and intensive testing. It therefore should have been con- sidered “High-tech” and managed accordingly. As discussed later in the book, high-risk projects need to be managed differently from low-risk projects. The NTCP profiles of the total project and the baggage-handling system are illustrated in Figure I.6.

Figure I.6 “Diamond” profiles for the Denver Airport and for the Baggage- Handling System. Source: Shenhar A. and Dvir D. Reinventing Project Management: The Diamond Approach to Successful Growth and Innovation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Busi- ness School Press; 2007.

Airport Construction

Project

Pace

Technology

Complexity

Novelty

Automatic Bag– Handling System

Break- through

PlatformDerivative Regular

Low-tech

Super-high tech

High-tech

Medium-tech

Fast/Competitive

Time-critical

Blitz

Array System Assembly

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18  | INTRODUCTION

Questions About the Case

1. In what ways should High-tech projects be managed differently from Low-tech ones? 2. BAE Automatic Systems is a reputable high-technology corporation and was familiar with

building automated baggage-handling systems. What might have convinced them to accept a schedule of 2.5 years for designing and construction of the baggage-handling system?

3. If an NTCP analysis had been done and the profile of the baggage-handling system identified, what should the project manager have done to help ensure project success?

4. Explain how the NTCP model makes provision for 144 different types of projects.

Endnotes

  1.  Tompkins P. Secrets of the Great Pyramids. New York, NY: Harper & Row; 1976, pp. 233–234; Poirier R. The Fifteen Wonders of the World. New York, NY: Random House; 1961, pp. 54–67.

  2.  Ibid., pp. 227–228.   3.  Barber F. The Mechanical Triumphs of the Ancient Egyptians. London, UK: Tribner; 1900.   4.  George C.S. The History of Management Thought. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1968, p. 11.   5.  Potok C. Wanderings. New York, NY: Fawcett Crest; 1978, pp. 154–162.   6.  See Archibald R.D. Managing High-Technology Projects. New York, NY: Wiley; 1976, p. 19; Meredith J. and Mantel 

S. Project Management: A Managerial Approach, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Wiley; 1995, pp. 8–9; Roman D. Managing Projects: A Systems Approach. New York, NY: Elsevier; 1986.

  7.  See Terraine J. The Mighty Continent. London, UK: BBC; 1974, pp. 241–242.    8.  This section is adapted from: Shenhar A. and Dvir D. Reinventing Project Management: The Diamond Approach to

Successful Growth and Innovation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2007. Since publication of  the book, the NTCP model has been revised: “Breakthrough” has been split into New-to-Market, and New-to- World; to “Complexity” the level of Component has been added below Assembly.

  9.  See Rosenau M.D. Successful Project Management. Belmont, CA: Lifetime Learning; 1981, pp. 15–19. 10.  Archibald, Managing High-Technology Projects, pp. 6–7. 11.  Kerzner H. Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Organizing, and Controlling, 10th edn. Hoboken, 

NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2009, p. 16. 12.  APM Body of Knowledge, 6th edn. Association for Project Management, 2013; IPMA Competence Baseline: ICB, 

International Project Management Association. Available for download at http://ipma.ch/certification/compe- tence/ipma-competence-baseline/ (accessed December 30, 2014); A Guide To The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), 5th edn. Project Management Institute, 2013. 

13.  Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2, 2009 edn. Office of Government Commerce. Available for download  at https://www.prince2.com/downloads (accessed December 30, 2014).

14.  Snow C.P. The Two Cultures and a Second Look. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1969. 15.  Shenhar  A.  and  Dvir  D.  Reinventing Project Management: The Diamond Approach to Successful Growth and

Innovation. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press; 2007.

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