HF week's
KevinLiang
8.pptx1
Brigham & Ehrhardt
Financial Management:
Theory and Practice 14e
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2
Chapter 15
Capital Structure Decisions
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3
Topics in Chapter
Overview and preview of capital structure effects
Business versus financial risk
The impact of debt on returns
Capital structure theory, evidence, and implications for managers
Example: Choosing the optimal structure
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4
Value = + + ··· +
FCF1
FCF2
FCF∞
(1 + WACC)1
(1 + WACC)∞
(1 + WACC)2
Free cash flow
(FCF)
Market interest rates
Firm’s business risk
Market risk aversion
Firm’s
debt/equity
mix
Cost of debt
Cost of equity
Weighted average
cost of capital
(WACC)
Net operating
profit after taxes
Required investments
in operating capital
−
=
Determinants of Intrinsic Value: The Capital Structure Choice
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5
Basic Definitions
V = value of firm
FCF = free cash flow
WACC = weighted average cost of capital
rs and rd are costs of stock and debt
ws and wd are percentages of the firm that are financed with stock and debt.
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6
How can capital structure affect value?
V
=
∑
∞
t=1
FCFt
(1 + WACC)t
WACC= wd (1-T) rd + wsrs
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7
A Preview of Capital Structure Effects
The impact of capital structure on value depends upon the effect of debt on:
WACC
FCF
(Continued…)
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8
Business Risk: Uncertainty in EBIT, NOPAT, and ROIC
Uncertainty about demand (unit sales).
Uncertainty about output prices.
Uncertainty about input costs.
Product and other types of liability.
Degree of operating leverage (DOL).
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9
What is operating leverage, and how does it affect a firm’s business risk?
Operating leverage is the change in EBIT caused by a change in quantity sold.
The higher the proportion of fixed costs relative to variable costs, the greater the operating leverage.
(More...)
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10
Higher operating leverage leads to more business risk: small sales decline causes a larger EBIT decline.
(More...)
Sales
$
Rev.
TC
F
QBE
EBIT
}
$
Rev.
TC
F
QBE
Sales
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11
Operating Breakeven
Q is quantity sold, F is fixed cost, V is variable cost, TC is total cost, and P is price per unit.
Operating breakeven = QBE
QBE = F / (P – V)
Example: F=$200, P=$15, and V=$10:
QBE = $200 / ($15 – $10) = 40.
(More...)
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12
Business Risk versus Financial Risk
Business risk:
Uncertainty in future EBIT, NOPAT, and ROIC.
Depends on business factors such as competition, operating leverage, etc.
Financial risk:
Additional business risk concentrated on common stockholders when financial leverage is used.
Depends on the amount of debt and preferred stock financing.
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13
Consider Two Hypothetical Firms Identical Except for Debt
| Firm U | Firm L | |
| Capital | $20,000 | $20,000 |
| Debt | $0 | $10,000 (12% rate) |
| Equity | $20,000 | $10,000 |
| Tax rate | 40% | 40% |
| EBIT | $3,000 | $3,000 |
| NOPAT | $1,800 | $1,800 |
| ROIC | 9% | 9% |
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14
Impact of Leverage on Returns
| Firm U | Firm L | |
| EBIT | $3,000 | $3,000 |
| Interest | 0 | 1,200 |
| EBT | $3,000 | $1,800 |
| Taxes (40%) | 1 ,200 | 720 |
| NI | $1,800 | $1,080 |
| ROIC | 9.0% | 9.0% |
| ROE (NI/Equity) | 9.0% | 10.8% |
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15
Why does leveraging increase return?
More cash goes to investors of Firm L.
Total dollars paid to investors:
U: NI = $1,800.
L: NI + Int = $1,080 + $1,200 = $2,280.
Taxes paid:
U: $1,200
L: $720.
In Firm L, fewer dollars are tied up in equity.
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16
Impact of Leverage on Returns if EBIT Falls
| Firm U | Firm L | |
| EBIT | $2,000 | $2,000 |
| Interest | 0 | 1,200 |
| EBT | $2,000 | $800 |
| Taxes (40%) | 800 | 320 |
| NI | $1,200 | $480 |
| ROIC | 6.0% | 6.0% |
| ROE | 6.0% | 4.8% |
| Leverage magnifies risk and return! |
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17
Capital Structure Theory
MM theory
Zero taxes
Corporate taxes
Corporate and personal taxes
Trade-off theory
Signaling theory
Pecking order
Debt financing as a managerial constraint
Windows of opportunity
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18
MM Theory: Zero Taxes
| Firm U | Firm L | |
| EBIT | $3,000 | $3,000 |
| Interest | 0 | 1,200 |
| NI | $3,000 | $1,800 |
| CF to shareholder | $3,000 | $1,800 |
| CF to debtholder | 0 | $1,200 |
| Total CF | $3,000 | $3,000 |
| Notice that the total CF are identical for both firms. |
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19
MM Results: Zero Taxes: VL = VU
MM assume: (1) no transactions costs; (2) no restrictions or costs to short sales; and (3) individuals can borrow at the same rate as corporations.
MM prove that if the total CF to investors of Firm U and Firm L are equal, then arbitrage is possible unless the total values of Firm U and Firm L are equal:
VL = VU.
Because FCF and values of firms L and U are equal, their WACCs are equal.
Therefore, capital structure is irrelevant.
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20
MM Theory: Corporate Taxes
Corporate tax laws allow interest to be deducted, which reduces taxes paid by levered firms.
Therefore, more CF goes to investors and less to taxes when leverage is used.
In other words, the debt “shields” some of the firm’s CF from taxes.
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21
MM Result: Corporate Taxes: VL = VU + TD
MM show that the total CF to Firm L’s investors is equal to the total CF to Firm U’s investor plus an additional amount due to interest deductibility:
CFL = CFU + rdDT.
What is value of these cash flows?
Value of CFU = VU
MM show that the value of rdDT = TD
Therefore, VL = VU + TD.
If T=40%, then every dollar of debt adds 40 cents of extra value to firm.
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22
Value of Firm, V
0
Debt
VL
VU
Under MM with corporate taxes, the firm’s value increases continuously as more and more debt is used.
TD
MM relationship between value and debt when corporate taxes are considered.
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23
Miller’s Theory: Corporate and Personal Taxes
Personal taxes lessen the advantage of corporate debt:
Corporate taxes favor debt financing since corporations can deduct interest expenses.
Personal taxes favor equity financing, since no gain is reported until stock is sold, and long-term gains are taxed at a lower rate.
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24
Miller’s Model with Corporate and Personal Taxes
VL = VU + 1− D
Tc = corporate tax rate.
Td = personal tax rate on debt income.
Ts = personal tax rate on stock income.
(1 - Tc)(1 - Ts)
(1 - Td)
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25
Tc = 40%, Td = 30%, and Ts = 12%.
VL = VU + 1− D
= VU + (1 - 0.75)D
= VU + 0.25D.
Value rises with debt; each $1 increase in debt raises L’s value by $0.25.
(1 - 0.40)(1 - 0.12)
(1 - 0.30)
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26
Conclusions with Personal Taxes
Use of debt financing remains advantageous, but benefits are less than under only corporate taxes.
Firms should still use 100% debt.
Note: However, Miller argued that in equilibrium, the tax rates of marginal investors would adjust until there was no advantage to debt.
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27
Trade-off Theory
MM theory ignores bankruptcy (financial distress) costs, which increase as more leverage is used.
At low leverage levels, tax benefits outweigh bankruptcy costs.
At high levels, bankruptcy costs outweigh tax benefits.
An optimal capital structure exists that balances these costs and benefits.
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28
Tax Shield vs. Cost of Financial Distress
Value of Firm, V
0
Debt
VL
VU
Tax Shield
Distress Costs
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29
Signaling Theory
MM assumed that investors and managers have the same information.
But, managers often have better information. Thus, they would:
Sell stock if stock is overvalued.
Sell bonds if stock is undervalued.
Investors understand this, so view new stock sales as a negative signal.
Implications for managers?
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30
Pecking Order Theory
Firms use internally generated funds first, because there are no flotation costs or negative signals.
If more funds are needed, firms then issue debt because it has lower flotation costs than equity and not negative signals.
If more funds are needed, firms then issue equity.
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31
Debt Financing and Agency Costs
One agency problem is that managers can use corporate funds for non-value maximizing purposes.
The use of financial leverage:
Bonds “free cash flow.”
Forces discipline on managers to avoid perks and non-value adding acquisitions.
(More...)
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32
Debt Financing and Agency Costs
A second agency problem is the potential for “underinvestment”.
Debt increases risk of financial distress.
Therefore, managers may avoid risky projects even if they have positive NPVs.
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33
Investment Opportunity Set and Reserve Borrowing Capacity
Firms with many investment opportunities should maintain reserve borrowing capacity, especially if they have problems with asymmetric information (which would cause equity issues to be costly).
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34
Market Timing Theory
Managers try to “time the market” when issuing securities.
They issue equity when the market is “high” and after big stock price run ups.
They issue debt when the stock market is “low” and when interest rates are “low.”
The issue short-term debt when the term structure is upward sloping and long-term debt when it is relatively flat.
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35
Empirical Evidence
Tax benefits are important
At optimal capital structure, $1 debt adds about $0.10 to $0.20 to value on average.
For average firm financed with 25% to 30% debt, this adds about 3% to 6% to the total value.
Bankruptcies are costly– costs can be up to 10% to 20% of firm value.
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36
Empirical Evidence (Continued)
Firms have targets, but don’t make quick corrections when stock price changes cause their debt ratios to change.
Average speed of adjustment from current capital structure is about 30% per year.
Speed is about 50% per year for firms with high cash flow.
Speed is about 70% for firms with high cash flow that are above target.
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37
Empirical Evidence (Continued)
Lost value from being above target is bigger than lost value from being below target.
When above target, distress costs rise very rapidly.
Sometimes companies will deliberately increase debt to above target to take advantage of unexpected investment opportunity.
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38
Empirical Evidence (Continued)
After big stock price run ups, debt ratio falls, but firms tend to issue equity instead of debt.
Inconsistent with trade-off model.
Inconsistent with pecking order.
Consistent with windows of opportunity.
Many firms, especially those with growth options and asymmetric information problems, tend to maintain excess borrowing capacity.
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39
Implications for Managers
Take advantage of tax benefits by issuing debt, especially if the firm has:
High tax rate
Stable sales
Low operating leverage
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40
Implications for Managers (Continued)
Avoid financial distress costs by maintaining excess borrowing capacity, especially if the firm has:
Volatile sales
High operating leverage
Many potential investment opportunities
Special purpose assets (instead of general purpose assets that make good collateral)
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41
Implications for Managers (Continued)
If manager has asymmetric information regarding firm’s future prospects, then avoid issuing equity if actual prospects are better than the market perceives.
Always consider the impact of capital structure choices on lenders’ and rating agencies’ attitudes
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42
Choosing the Optimal Capital Structure: Example
b = 1.0; rRF = 6%; RPM = 6%.
Cost of equity using CAPM:
rs = rRF +b (RPM)= 6% + 1(6%) = 12%
Currently has no debt: wd = 0%.
WACC = rs = 12%.
Tax rate is T = 40%.
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43
Current Value of Operations
Expected FCF = $30 million.
Firm expects zero growth: g = 0.
Vop = [FCF(1+g)]/(WACC − g)
Vop = [$30(1+0)]/(0.12 − 0)
Vop = $250 million.
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44
Other Data for Valuation Analysis
Company has no ST investments.
Company has no preferred stock.
100,000 shares outstanding
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45
Current Valuation Analysis
| Vop | $250 |
| + ST Inv. | 0 |
| VTotal | $250 |
| − Debt | 0 |
| S | $250 |
| ÷ n | 10 |
| P | $25.00 |
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46
Investment bankers provided estimates of rd for different capital structures.
| wd | 0% | 20% | 30% | 40% | 50% |
| rd | 0.0% | 8.0% | 8.5% | 10.0% | 12.0% |
| If company recapitalizes, it will use proceeds from debt issuance to repurchase stock. | |||||
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47
The Cost of Equity at Different Levels of Debt: Hamada’s Formula
MM theory implies that beta changes with leverage.
bU is the beta of a firm when it has no debt (the unlevered beta)
b = bU [1 + (1 - T)(wd/ws)]
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48
The Cost of Equity for wd = 20%
Use Hamada’s equation to find beta:
b = bU [1 + (1 - T)(wd/ws)]
= 1.0 [1 + (1-0.4) (20% / 80%) ]
= 1.15
Use CAPM to find the cost of equity:
rs= rRF + bL (RPM)
= 6% + 1.15 (6%) = 12.9%
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49
The WACC for wd = 20%
WACC = wd (1-T) rd + wce rs
WACC = 0.2 (1 – 0.4) (8%) + 0.8 (12.9%)
WACC = 11.28%
Repeat this for all capital structures under consideration.
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50
Beta, rs, and WACC
| wd | 0% | 20% | 30% | 40% | 50% |
| rd | 0.0% | 8.0% | 8.5% | 10.0% | 12.0% |
| ws | 100% | 80% | 70% | 60% | 50% |
| b | 1.000 | 1.150 | 1.257 | 1.400 | 1.600 |
| rs | 12.00% | 12.90% | 13.54% | 14.40% | 15.60% |
| WACC | 12.00% | 11.28% | 11.01% | 11.04% | 11.40% |
| The WACC is minimized for wd = 30%. This is the optimal capital structure. | |||||
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51
Corporate Value for wd = 20%
Vop = [FCF(1+g)]/(WACC − g)
Vop = [$30(1+0)]/(0.1128 − 0)
Vop = $265.96 million.
Debt = DNew = wd Vop
Debt = 0.20(265.96) = $53.19 million.
Equity = S = ws Vop
Equity = 0.80(265.96) = $212.77 million.
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52
Value of Operations, Debt, and Equity
| wd | 0% | 20% | 30% | 40% | 50% |
| rd | 0.0% | 8.0% | 8.5% | 10.0% | 12.0% |
| ws | 100% | 80% | 70% | 60% | 50% |
| b | 1.000 | 1.150 | 1.257 | 1.400 | 1.600 |
| rs | 12.00% | 12.90% | 13.54% | 14.40% | 15.60% |
| WACC | 12.00% | 11.28% | 11.01% | 11.04% | 11.40% |
| Vop | $250.00 | $265.96 | $272.48 | $271.74 | $263.16 |
| D | $0.00 | $53.19 | $81.74 | $108.70 | $131.58 |
| S | $250.00 | $212.77 | $190.74 | $163.04 | $131.58 |
| Value of operations is maximized at wd = 30%. |
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53
Anatomy of a Recap: Before Issuing Debt
| Before Debt | |
| Vop | $250 |
| + ST Inv. | 0 |
| VTotal | $250 |
| − Debt | 0 |
| S | $250 |
| ÷ n | 10 |
| P | $25.00 |
| Total shareholder | |
| wealth: S + Cash | $250 |
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54
Issue Debt (wd = 20%), But Before Repurchase
WACC decreases to 11.28%.
Vop increases to $265.9574.
Firm temporarily has short-term investments of $53.1915 (until it uses these funds to repurchase stock).
Debt is now $53.1915.
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55
Anatomy of a Recap: After Debt, but Before Repurchase
| Before Debt | After Debt, Before Rep. | |
| Vop | $250 | $265.96 |
| + ST Inv. | 0 | 53.19 |
| VTotal | $250 | $319.15 |
| − Debt | 0 | 53.19 |
| S | $250 | $265.96 |
| ÷ n | 10 | 10 |
| P | $25.00 | $26.60 |
| Total shareholder | ||
| wealth: S + Cash | $250 | $265.96 |
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56
After Issuing Debt, Before Repurchasing Stock
Stock price increases from $25.00 to $26.60.
Wealth of shareholders (due to ownership of equity) increases from $250 million to $265.96 million.
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57
The Repurchase: No Effect on Stock Price
The announcement of an intended repurchase might send a signal that affects stock price, and the previous change in capital structure affects stock price, but the repurchase itself has no impact on stock price.
If investors thought that the repurchase would increase the stock price, they would all purchase stock the day before, which would drive up its price.
If investors thought that the repurchase would decrease the stock price, they would all sell short the stock the day before, which would drive down the stock price.
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58
Remaining Number of Shares After Repurchase
DOld is amount of debt the firm initially has, DNew is amount after issuing new debt.
If all new debt is used to repurchase shares, then total dollars used equals
(DNew – DOld) = ($53.19 - $0) = $53.19.
nPrior is number of shares before repurchase, nPost is number after. Total shares remaining:
nPost = nPrior – (DNew – DOld)/P
nPost = 10 – ($53.19/$26.60)
nPost = 8 million.
(Ignore rounding differences; see Ch15 Mini Case.xls for actual calculations).
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59
Anatomy of a Recap: After Rupurchase
| Before Debt | After Debt, Before Rep. | After Rep. | |
| Vop | $250 | $265.96 | $265.96 |
| + ST Inv. | 0 | 53.19 | 0 |
| VTotal | $250 | $319.15 | $265.96 |
| − Debt | 0 | 53.19 | 53.19 |
| S | $250 | $265.96 | $212.77 |
| ÷ n | 10 | 10 | 8 |
| P | $25.00 | $26.60 | $26.60 |
| Total shareholder | |||
| wealth: S + Cash | $250 | $265.96 | $265.96 |
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60
Key Points
ST investments fall because they are used to repurchase stock.
Stock price is unchanged.
Value of equity falls from $265.96 to $212.77 because firm no longer owns the ST investments.
Wealth of shareholders remains at $265.96 because shareholders now directly own the funds that were held by firm in ST investments.
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61
Intrinsic Stock Price Maximized at Optimal Capital Structure
| wd | 0% | 20% | 30% | 40% | 50% |
| rd | 0.0% | 8.0% | 8.5% | 10.0% | 12.0% |
| ws | 100% | 80% | 70% | 60% | 50% |
| b | 1.000 | 1.150 | 1.257 | 1.400 | 1.600 |
| rs | 12.00% | 12.90% | 13.54% | 14.40% | 15.60% |
| WACC | 12.00% | 11.28% | 11.01% | 11.04% | 11.40% |
| Vop | $250.00 | $265.96 | $272.48 | $271.74 | $263.16 |
| D | $0.00 | $53.19 | $81.74 | $108.70 | $131.58 |
| S | $250.00 | $212.77 | $190.74 | $163.04 | $131.58 |
| n | 10 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 5 |
| P | $25.00 | $26.60 | $27.25 | $27.17 | $26.32 |
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62
Shortcuts
The corporate valuation approach will always give the correct answer, but there are some shortcuts for finding S, P, and n.
Shortcuts on next slides.
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63
Calculating S, the Value of Equity after the Recap
S = (1 – wd) Vop
At wd = 20%:
S = (1 – 0.20) $265.96
S = $212.77.
(Ignore rounding differences; see Ch15 Mini Case.xls for actual calculations).
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64
Number of Shares after a Repurchase, nPost
At wd = 20%:
nPost = nPrior(VopNew−DNew)/(VopNew−DOld)
nPost = 10($265.96 −$53.19)/($265.96 −$0)
nPost = 8
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65
Calculating PPost, the Stock Price after a Recap
At wd = 20%:
PPost = (VopNew−DOld)/nPrior
nPost = ($265.96 −$0)/10
nPost = $26.60
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66
Optimal Capital Structure
wd = 30% gives:
Highest corporate value
Lowest WACC
Highest stock price per share
But wd = 40% is close. Optimal range is pretty flat.
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