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Communities  of  practice     1   A  brief  introduction  –  V  April  15,  2015  

   

Communities  of  practice   a  brief  introduction  

  Etienne  and  Beverly  Wenger-­‐Trayner  

  A  group  of  internal  auditors  in  the  public  sector  from  different  countries  in  Eastern   Europe  and  Central  Asia  were  having  their  34th  official  meeting.  For  seven  years  now   they  had  been  coming  together  to  hear  how  others  in  the  region  were  engaged  in   internal  audit  and  to  create  manuals  and  other  publications  that  they  felt  were  missing   from  their  profession.    Only  a  few  of  the  original  members  were  still  part  of  the  group,   but  the  shared  work,  stories,  and  artifacts  created  over  time  gave  their  meetings  a  sense   of  continuity  and  purpose.  If  you  were  a  fly-­‐on-­‐the  wall  at  one  of  their  events  you  would   notice  how  new  members  were  warmly  welcomed  into  “the  family”,  how  many  people   stepped  up  to  take  initiative  or  share  their  war  stories,  and  how  ambitious  core  members   were  to  advance  the  practice  of  internal  audit  in  the  public  sector  in  the  region.  Evening   events,  organized  by  the  host  country,  were  always  lively  -­‐  with  singing,  dancing  and  the   singing  of  a  hymn  composed  and  sung  by  members.  

-­‐ The  PEMPAL  Internal  Auditors  Community  of  Practice   -­‐  

   

The  term  "community  of  practice"  is  of  relatively  recent  coinage,  even  though  the   phenomenon  it  refers  to  is  age-­‐old.  The  concept  has  turned  out  to  provide  a  useful   perspective  on  knowing  and  learning.  A  growing  number  of  people  and  organizations  in   various  sectors  are  now  focusing  on  communities  of  practice  as  a  key  to  improving  their   performance.    

This  brief  and  general  introduction  examines  what  communities  of  practice  are  and  why   researchers  and  practitioners  in  so  many  different  contexts  find  them  useful  as  an   approach  to  knowing  and  learning.  

What  are  communities  of  practice?   Communities  of  practice  are  formed  by  people  who  engage  in  a  process  of  collective   learning  in  a  shared  domain  of  human  endeavor:  a  tribe  learning  to  survive,  a  band  of   artists  seeking  new  forms  of  expression,  a  group  of  engineers  working  on  similar   problems,  a  clique  of  pupils  defining  their  identity  in  the  school,  a  network  of  surgeons   exploring  novel  techniques,  a  gathering  of  first-­‐time  managers  helping  each  other  cope.   In  a  nutshell:  

Communities  of  practice  are  groups  of  people  who  share  a  concern  or  a   passion  for  something  they  do  and  learn  how  to  do  it  better  as  they   interact  regularly.  

 

Communities  of  practice     2   A  brief  introduction  –  V  April  15,  2015  

Note  that  this  definition  allows  for,  but  does  not  assume,  intentionality:  learning  can  be   the  reason  the  community  comes  together  or  an  incidental  outcome  of  member's   interactions.  Not  everything  called  a  community  is  a  community  of  practice.  A   neighborhood  for  instance,  is  often  called  a  community,  but  is  usually  not  a  community   of  practice.  Three  characteristics  are  crucial:  

  1. The  domain:  A  community  of  practice  is  not  merely  a  club  of  friends  or  a  network  of  

connections  between  people.  It  has  an  identity  defined  by  a  shared  domain  of   interest.  Membership  therefore  implies  a  commitment  to  the  domain,  and   therefore  a  shared  competence  that  distinguishes  members  from  other  people.   (You  could  belong  to  the  same  network  as  someone  and  never  know  it.)  The   domain  is  not  necessarily  something  recognized  as  “expertise”  outside  the   community.  A  youth  gang  may  have  developed  all  sorts  of  ways  of  dealing  with   their  domain:  surviving  on  the  street  and  maintaining  some  kind  of  identity  they  can   live  with.  They  value  their  collective  competence  and  learn  from  each  other,  even   though  few  people  outside  the  group  may  value  or  even  recognize  their  expertise.  

  2. The  community:  In  pursuing  their  interest  in  their  domain,  members  engage  in  joint  

activities  and  discussions,  help  each  other,  and  share  information.  They  build   relationships  that  enable  them  to  learn  from  each  other;  they  care  about  their   standing    with  each  other.    A  website  in  itself  is  not  a  community  of  practice.  Having   the  same  job  or  the  same  title  does  not  make  for  a  community  of  practice  unless   members  interact  and  learn  together.  The  claims  processors  in  a  large  insurance   company  or  students  in  American  high  schools  may  have  much  in  common,  yet   unless  they  interact  and  learn  together,  they  do  not  form  a  community  of  practice.   But  members  of  a  community  of  practice  do  not  necessarily  work  together  on  a   daily  basis.  The  Impressionists,  for  instance,  used  to  meet  in  cafes  and  studios  to   discuss  the  style  of  painting  they  were  inventing  together.  These  interactions  were   essential  to  making  them  a  community  of  practice  even  though  they  often  painted   alone.  

  3. The  practice:  A  community  of  practice  is  not  merely  a  community  of  interest-­‐-­‐

people  who  like  certain  kinds  of  movies,  for  instance.  Members  of  a  community  of   practice  are  practitioners.  They  develop  a  shared  repertoire  of  resources:   experiences,  stories,  tools,  ways  of  addressing  recurring  problems—in  short  a   shared  practice.  This  takes  time  and  sustained  interaction.  A  good  conversation   with  a  stranger  on  an  airplane  may  give  you  all  sorts  of  interesting  insights,  but  it   does  not  in  itself  make  for  a  community  of  practice.  The  development  of  a  shared   practice  may  be  more  or  less  self-­‐conscious.  The  “windshield  wipers”  engineers  at   an  auto  manufacturer  make  a  concerted  effort  to  collect  and  document  the  tricks   and  lessons  they  have  learned  into  a  knowledge  base.  By  contrast,  nurses  who  meet   regularly  for  lunch  in  a  hospital  cafeteria  may  not  realize  that  their  lunch  discussions   are  one  of  their  main  sources  of  knowledge  about  how  to  care  for  patients.  Still,  in   the  course  of  all  these  conversations,  they  have  developed  a  set  of  stories  and  cases   that  have  become  a  shared  repertoire  for  their  practice.  

  It  is  the  combination  of  these  three  elements  that  constitutes  a  community  of  practice.   And  it  is  by  developing  these  three  elements  in  parallel  that  one  cultivates  such  a   community.  

Communities  of  practice     3   A  brief  introduction  –  V  April  15,  2015  

What  do  communities  of  practice  look  like?   Communities  develop  their  practice  through  a  variety  of  activities.  The  following   table  provides  a  few  typical  examples:  

Problem  solving   “Can  we  work  on  this  design  and  brainstorm  some  ideas;   I’m  stuck.”  

Requests  for  information   “Where  can  I  find  the  code  to  connect  to  the  server?”   Seeking  experience   “Has  anyone  dealt  with  a  customer  in  this  situation?”   Reusing  assets   “I  have  a  proposal  for  a  local  area  network  I  wrote  for  a  

client  last  year.  I  can  send  it  to  you  and  you  can  easily   tweak  it  for  this  new  client.”  

Coordination  and   synergy  

“Can  we  combine  our  purchases  of  solvent  to  achieve  bulk   discounts?”  

Building  an  argument   “How  do  people  in  other  countries  do  this?  Armed  with  this   information  it  will  be  easier  to  convince  my  Ministry  to   make  some  changes.”  

Growing  confidence   “Before  I  do  it,  I’ll  run  it  through  my  community  first  to  see   what  they  think.”  

Discussing  developments   “What  do  you  think  of  the  new  CAD  system?  Does  it  really   help?”  

Documenting  projects   “We  have  faced  this  problem  five  times  now.  Let  us  write  it   down  once  and  for  all.”  

Visits   “Can  we  come  and  see  your  after-­‐school  program?  We   need  to  establish  one  in  our  city.”  

Mapping  knowledge  and   identifying  gaps  

“Who  knows  what,  and  what  are  we  missing?  What  other   groups  should  we  connect  with?”  

  Communities  of  practice  are  not  called  that  in  all  organizations.  They  are  known  under   various  names,  such  as  learning  networks,  thematic  groups,  or  tech  clubs.       While  they  all  have  the  three  elements  of  a  domain,  a  community,  and  a  practice,  they   come  in  a  variety  of  forms.  Some  are  quite  small;  some  are  very  large,  often  with  a  core   group  and  many  peripheral  members.  Some  are  local  and  some  cover  the  globe.  Some   meet  mainly  face-­‐to-­‐face,  some  mostly  online.  Some  are  within  an  organization  and   some  include  members  from  various  organizations.  Some  are  formally  recognized,  often   supported  with  a  budget;  and  some  are  completely  informal  and  even  invisible.     Communities  of  practice  have  been  around  for  as  long  as  human  beings  have  learned   together.  At  home,  at  work,  at  school,  in  our  hobbies,  we  all  belong  to  communities  of   practice,  a  number  of  them  usually.  In  some  we  are  core  members.  In  many  we  are   merely  peripheral.  And  we  travel  through  numerous  communities  over  the  course  of  our   lives.       In  fact,  communities  of  practice  are  everywhere.  They  are  a  familiar  experience,  so   familiar  perhaps  that  it  often  escapes  our  attention.  Yet  when  it  is  given  a  name  and   brought  into  focus,  it  becomes  a  perspective  that  can  help  us  understand  our  world   better.  In  particular,  it  allows  us  to  see  past  more  obvious  formal  structures  such  as   organizations,  classrooms,  or  nations,  and  perceive  the  structures  defined  by   engagement  in  practice  and  the  informal  learning  that  comes  with  it.  

Communities  of  practice     4   A  brief  introduction  –  V  April  15,  2015  

Where  does  the  concept  come  from?   Social  scientists  have  used  versions  of  the  concept  of  community  of  practice  for  a  variety   of  analytical  purposes,  but  the  origin  and  primary  use  of  the  concept  has  been  in   learning  theory.  Anthropologist  Jean  Lave  and  Etienne  Wenger  coined  the  term  while   studying  apprenticeship  as  a  learning  model.  People  usually  think  of  apprenticeship  as  a   relationship  between  a  student  and  a  master,  but  studies  of  apprenticeship  reveal  a   more  complex  set  of  social  relationships  through  which  learning  takes  place  mostly  with   journeymen  and  more  advanced  apprentices.  The  term  community  of  practice  was   coined  to  refer  to  the  community  that  acts  as  a  living  curriculum  for  the  apprentice.   Once  the  concept  was  articulated,  we  started  to  see  these  communities  everywhere,   even  when  no  formal  apprenticeship  system  existed.  And  of  course,  learning  in  a   community  of  practice  is  not  limited  to  novices.  The  practice  of  a  community  is  dynamic   and  involves  learning  on  the  part  of  everyone.  

Where  is  the  concept  being  applied?   The  concept  of  community  of  practice  has  found  a  number  of  practical  applications  in   business,  organizational  design,  government,  education,  professional  associations,   development  projects,  and  civic  life.       Organizations.  The  concept  has  been  adopted  most  readily  by  people  in  business   because  of  the  recognition  that  knowledge  is  a  critical  asset  that  needs  to  be  managed   strategically.  Initial  efforts  at  managing  knowledge  had  focused  on  information  systems   with  disappointing  results.  Communities  of  practice  provided  a  new  approach,  which   focused  on  people  and  on  the  social  structures  that  enable  them  to  learn  with  and  from   each  other.  Today,  there  is  hardly  any  organization  of  a  reasonable  size  that  does  not   have  some  form  communities-­‐of-­‐practice  initiative.  A  number  of  characteristics  explain   this  rush  of  interest  in  communities  of  practice  as  a  vehicle  for  developing  strategic   capabilities  in  organizations:   § Communities  of  practice  enable  practitioners  to  take  collective  responsibility  for  

managing  the  knowledge  they  need,  recognizing  that,  given  the  proper  structure,   they  are  in  the  best  position  to  do  this.  

§ Communities  among  practitioners  create  a  direct  link  between  learning  and   performance,  because  the  same  people  participate  in  communities  of  practice  and   in  teams  and  business  units.  

§ Practitioners  can  address  the  tacit  and  dynamic  aspects  of  knowledge  creation  and   sharing,  as  well  as  the  more  explicit  aspects.  

§ Communities  are  not  limited  by  formal  structures:  they  create  connections  among   people  across  organizational  and  geographic  boundaries.  

From  this  perspective,  the  knowledge  of  an  organization  lives  in  a  constellation  of   communities  of  practice  each  taking  care  of  a  specific  aspect  of  the  competence  that  the   organization  needs.  However,  the  very  characteristics  that  make  communities  of   practice  a  good  fit  for  stewarding  knowledge—autonomy,  practitioner-­‐orientation,   informality,  crossing  boundaries—are  also  characteristics  that  make  them  a  challenge   for  traditional  hierarchical  organizations.  How  this  challenge  is  going  to  affect  these   organizations  remains  to  be  seen.  

  Government.  Like  businesses,  government  organizations  face  knowledge  challenges  of   increasing  complexity  and  scale.  They  have  adopted  communities  of  practice  for  much   the  same  reasons,  though  the  formality  of  the  bureaucracy  can  come  in  the  way  of  open   knowledge  sharing.  Beyond  internal  communities,  there  are  typical  government  

Communities  of  practice     5   A  brief  introduction  –  V  April  15,  2015  

problems  such  as  education,  health,  and  security  that  require  coordination  and   knowledge  sharing  across  levels  of  government.  There  also,  communities  of  practice   hold  the  promise  of  enabling  connections  among  people  across  formal  structures.  And   there  also,  there  are  substantial  organizational  issues  to  overcome.     Education.  Schools  and  districts  are  organizations  in  their  own  right,  and  they  too  face   increasing  knowledge  challenges.  The  first  applications  of  communities  of  practice  have   been  in  teacher  training  and  in  providing  isolated  administrators  with  access  to   colleagues.  There  is  a  wave  of  interest  in  these  peer-­‐to-­‐peer  professional-­‐development   activities.  But  in  the  education  sector,  learning  is  not  only  a  means  to  an  end:  it  the  end   product.  The  perspective  of  communities  of  practice  is  therefore  also  relevant  at  this   level.  In  business,  focusing  on  communities  of  practice  adds  a  layer  of  complexity  to  the   organization,  but  it  does  not  fundamentally  change  what  the  business  is  about.  In   schools,  changing  the  learning  theory  is  a  much  deeper  transformation.  This  will   inevitably  take  longer.  The  perspective  of  communities  of  practice  affects  educational   practices  along  three  dimensions:   § Internally:  How  to  organize  educational  experiences  that  ground  school  learning  in  

practice  through  participation  in  communities  around  subject  matters?   § Externally:  How  to  connect  the  experience  of  students  to  actual  practice  through  

peripheral  forms  of  participation  in  broader  communities  beyond  the  walls  of  the   school?    

§ Over  the  lifetime  of  students:  How  to  serve  the  lifelong  learning  needs  of  students   by  organizing  communities  of  practice  focused  on  topics  of  continuing  interest  to   students  beyond  the  initial  schooling  period?  

From  this  perspective,  the  school  is  not  the  privileged  locus  of  learning.  It  is  not  a  self-­‐ contained,  closed  world  in  which  students  acquire  knowledge  to  be  applied  outside,  but   a  part  of  a  broader  learning  system.  The  class  is  not  the  primary  learning  event.  It  is  life   itself  that  is  the  main  learning  event.  Schools,  classrooms,  and  training  sessions  still  have   a  role  to  play  in  this  vision,  but  they  have  to  be  in  the  service  of  the  learning  that   happens  in  the  world.     Associations.  A  growing  number  of  associations,  professional  and  otherwise,  are  seeking   ways  to  focus  on  learning  through  reflection  on  practice.  Their  members  are  restless  and   their  allegiance  is  fragile.  They  need  to  offer  high-­‐value  learning  activities.  The  peer-­‐to-­‐ peer  learning  activities  typical  of  communities  of  practice  offer  a  complementary   alternative  to  more  traditional  course  offerings  and  publications.     Social  sector.  In  the  civic  domain,  there  is  an  emergent  interest  in  building  communities   among  practitioners.  In  the  non-­‐profit  world,  for  instance,  foundations  are  recognizing   that  philanthropy  needs  focus  on  learning  systems  in  order  to  fully  leverage  funded   projects.  But  practitioners  are  seeking  peer-­‐to-­‐peer  connections  and  learning   opportunities  with  or  without  the  support  of  institutions.  This  includes  regional   economic  development,  with  intra-­‐regional  communities  on  various  domains,  as  well  as   inter-­‐regional  learning  with  communities  gathering  practitioners  from  various  regions.     International  development.  There  is  increasing  recognition  that  the  challenge  of   developing  nations  is  as  much  a  knowledge  as  a  financial  challenge.  A  number  of  people   believe  that  a  communities-­‐of-­‐practice  approach  can  provide  a  new  paradigm  for   development  work.  It  emphasizes  knowledge  building  among  practitioners.  Some   development  agencies  now  see  their  role  as  conveners  of  such  communities,  rather   than  as  providers  of  knowledge.  

Communities  of  practice     6   A  brief  introduction  –  V  April  15,  2015  

  The  web.  New  technologies  such  as  the  Internet  have  extended  the  reach  of  our   interactions  beyond  the  geographical  limitations  of  traditional  communities,  but  the   increase  in  flow  of  information  does  not  obviate  the  need  for  community.  In  fact,  it   expands  the  possibilities  for  community  and  calls  for  new  kinds  of  communities  based   on  shared  practice.     The  concept  of  community  of  practice  is  influencing  theory  and  practice  in  many   domains.  From  humble  beginnings  in  apprenticeship  studies,  the  concept  was  grabbed   by  businesses  interested  in  knowledge  management  and  has  progressively  found  its  way   into  other  sectors.  It  has  now  become  the  foundation  of  a  perspective  on  knowing  and   learning  that  informs  efforts  to  create  learning  systems  in  various  sectors  and  at  various   levels  of  scale,  from  local  communities,  to  single  organizations,  partnerships,  cities,   regions,  and  the  entire  world.     Myths  about  communities  of  practice   The  diversity  of  types  of  communities  across  different  sectors  has  shown  that  there  is  no   one-­‐recipe-­‐fits-­‐all,  despite  some  of  the  claims  that  are  made  about  them.  Here  are  some   of  the  assertions  or  “myths”  that  have  won  some  acclaim,  in  part  due  to  the   interpretation  of  early  theoretical  writing  about  them.       Communities  of  practice  are  always  self-­‐organizing   False.  Some  communities  do  self-­‐organize  and  are  very  effective.  But  most  communities   need  some  cultivation  to  be  sure  that  members  get  high  value  for  their  time.       There  are  no  leaders  in  a  true  community  of  practice   Mostly  false.  In  many  communities  of  practice  decisions  need  to  be  taken,  conditions   need  to  be  put  in  place,  strategic  conversations  need  to  be  had.  Not  all  members  see   value  in  being  involved  in  these  processes.  Whether  you  call  them  leaders,  co-­‐ ordinators,  or  stewards,  someone  needs  to  do  it  -­‐  and  it  is  as  well  to  recognize  them  for   the  role  they  play.     True  communities  of  practice  are  informal     False.  There  are  many  informal  communities  of  practice.  And  there  are  many  formal   ones  too.  The  more  intentionally  they  are  used  for  developing  the  strategic  capability  of   an  organization  or  a  cause,  the  more  likely  they  are  to  have  to  go  through  some  formal   process  to  be  recognized  as  such.     The  role  of  a  community  of  practice  is  to  share  existing  knowledge   Partially  true.    The  experience  people  have  to  share  is  clearly  important.  But   communities  of  practice  also  innovate  and  solve  problems.  They  invent  new  practices,   create  new  knowledge,  define  new  territory,  and  develop  a  collective  and  strategic   voice.       It  is  too  difficult  to  measure  the  impact  of  communities  of  practice   Mostly  false.  It  may  be  difficult  to  attribute  with  100%  certainty  the  activities  of  a   community  of  practice  to  a  particular  outcome.  You  can,  howowever,  build  a  good  case   using  quantitative  and  qualitative  data  to  measure  different  types  of  value  created  by   the  community  and  trace  how  members  are  changing  their  practice  and  improving   performance  as  a  result.      

Communities  of  practice     7   A  brief  introduction  –  V  April  15,  2015  

Good  facilitation  is  all  it  takes  to  get  members  to  participate   False.  Artful  faciliation  is  very  important.  But  there  are  many  other  reasons  why  people   may  not  participate.  The  domain  must  be  relevant  and  a  priority  to  members.  The  value   of  participation  usually  needs  to  be  recognized  by  the  organization  otherwise  members   will  not  bother.  Members  need  to  see  results  of  their  participation  and  have  a  sense   that  they  are  getting  something  out  of  it.  Good  facilitation  can  help  to  make  this  visible,   but  is  not  the  main  reason  why  people  participate.       Communities  of  practice  are  harmonious  places   Maybe.  But  if  they  are  totally  conflict  free,  you  should  be  concerned  that  groupthink   may  be  settling  in  or  voices  being  silenced.    More  important,  and  usually  quite  difficult   to  achieve,  is  that  differences  are  discussable  and  that  they  contribute  to  the  learning.     There  is  a  technology  that  is  best  for  communities  of  practice   False.  There  may  be,  but  we  haven’t  found  it  yet.  The  online  universe  is  clutttered  with   spaces  that  nobody  uses.  It’s  also  full  of  sites  that  are  called  a  community  of  practice   even  if  noone  is  there!    A  tool  or  technology  is  as  good  as  it  is  useful  to  the  people  who   use  it.  And  a  forum  is  simply  a  forum  until  it  becomes  occupied  by  a  community  of   practice.         Communities  of  practice  are  the  solution  to  everything!   False.  Communities  of  practice  don’t  substitute  teams  or  networks  or  other  joint   enteprsies.  Each  has  its  own  place  in  the  overall  ecology  of  the  learning  system.    In   recent  developments  of  the  theory  we  talk  about  landscapes  of  practice,  and  of  creating   different  types  of  social  learning  spaces  that  open  up  new  opportunities  for  developing   learning  capability.        

Further  reading   For  the  application  of  a  community-­‐based  approach  to  knowledge  in  organizations:   § Cultivating  communities  of  practice:  a  guide  to  managing  knowledge.  By  Etienne  

Wenger,  Richard  McDermott,  and  William  Snyder,  Harvard  Business  School  Press,   2002.  

§ Communities  of  practice:  the  organizational  frontier.  By  Etienne  Wenger  and  William  Snyder.   Harvard  Business  Review.  January-­‐February  2000,  pp.  139-­‐145.  

§ Knowledge  management  is  a  donut:  shaping  your  knowledge  strategy  with  communities  of   practice.  By  Etienne  Wenger.  Ivey  Business  Journal,  January  2004.  

  For  in-­‐depth  coverage  of  the  learning  theory:   § Communities  of  practice:  learning,  meaning,  and  identity.  By  Etienne  Wenger,  

Cambridge  University  Press,  1998.     § Learning  in  landscapes  of  practice.  By  Etienne  Wenger-­‐Trayner,  Mark  Fenton  

O’Creevy,  Steven  Hutchinson,  Chris  Kubiak,  Beverly  Wenger-­‐Trayner,  Routledge,   2014  

  For  monitoring  the  value  creation  in  communities  of  practice  and  networks  

• Promoting  and  assessing  value  creation  in  communities  and  networks:  a   conceptual  framework.  By  Etienne  Wenger,  Beverly  Trayner,  Maarten  de  Laat,   Rapport  18,  Ruud  de  Moor  Centrum,  Open  University  of  the  Netherlands,  2011  

 

Communities  of  practice     8   A  brief  introduction  –  V  April  15,  2015  

• Srategic  evaluation  of  network  activities.  Highlights  of  the  development  of  the   framework  and  its  application  to  a  project  in  a  blogpost.  By  Beverly  Wenger-­‐ Trayner,  2015  http://wenger-­‐trayner.com/resources/publications/strategic-­‐ evaluation-­‐of-­‐network-­‐activities/  

  • Planning  and  evaluating  social  learning.  A  video  and  its  transcript  about  the  

developments  of  the  framework.  By  Etienne  and  Beverly  Wenger-­‐Trayner,  2015   http://wenger-­‐trayner.com/resources/planning-­‐and-­‐evaluating-­‐social-­‐learning/  

  Other  useful  resources  

• Frequently  asked  questions  about  communities  of  practice,  networks,  and  social   learning.  By  Etienne  and  Beverly  Wenger-­‐Trayner  http://wenger-­‐ trayner.com/faqs/  

  • Leadership  groups:  a  practice  for  fostering  leadership  in  social  learning  

contexts.    By  Etienne  and  Beverly  Wenger-­‐Trayner  http://wenger-­‐ trayner.com/resources/leadership-­‐groups-­‐for-­‐social-­‐learning/