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Course: SOC 311

Instructor authorizing: Jepson

Extracted from (source citation): Social Theory, a Reader: Volume II from Modern to Contemporary Theory / edited by Roberta Garner & Black Hawk Hancock. North York, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014.

Source owned by: Instructor

P e n n s y lv a n ia a n d T u s c a n y , 1 7 8 6 ; A u s tr i a , 1 7 8 8 ; F r a n c e , 1791, Y e a r IV, 1 8 0 8 a n d 1 8 1 0 . I t w as a n e w age f o r p e n a l j u s t i c e .

A m o n g so m a n y c h a n g e s , I s h a ll c o n s i d e r o n e : t h e d i s ­ a p p e a r a n c e o f t o r t u r e as a p u b l i c s p e c ta c le . T o d a y w e a re r a t h e r i n c l i n e d to i g n o r e it; p e r h a p s , i n its t i m e , it gave r is e to t o o m u c h i n f l a t e d r h e t o r i c ; p e r h a p s i t h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o o r e a d ily a n d t o o e m p h a t ic a ll y to a p r o c e s s o f “h u m a n i z a t i o n , ” t h u s d i s p e n s i n g w it h t h e n e e d f o r f u r t h e r

a n a ly s is . . . .

Reading 10.1.2: Foucault’s “Panopticon,” from Discipline and Punish (1975)

[Source: Michel Foucault, “Panopticon,” in Discipline and Punish: The Birth o f the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (Penguin

Books, 1977), 195-209.]

Panopticon1

B e n t h a m ’s Panopticon is t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l f i g u r e o f t h is c o m ­ p o s i t i o n . W e k n o w t h e p r i n c i p l e o n w h i c h it w as b a s e d : a t th e p e r i p h e r y , a n a n n u l a r b u i l d i n g ; a t t h e c e n t r e , a t o w e r ; t h i s t o w e r is p i e r c e d w i t h w id e w in d o w s t h a t o p e n o n t o t h e i n n e r s id e o f t h e r i n g ; t h e p e r i p h e r i c b u i l d i n g is d i v i d e d i n t o c e lls , e a c h o f w h i c h e x te n d s t h e w h o l e w i d t h o f t h e b u i l d i n g ; th e y h a v e tw o w in d o w s , o n e o n t h e i n s i d e , c o r ­ r e s p o n d i n g to t h e w in d o w s o f t h e t o w e r ; t h e o t h e r , o n t h e o u t s i d e , a llo w s t h e l ig h t to c r o s s t h e c e ll f r o m o n e e n d to t h e o t h e r s . A ll t h a t is n e e d e d , t h e n , is to p la c e a s u p e r v i s o r i n a c e n t r a l t o w e r a n d to s h u t u p i n e a c h c e ll a m a d m a n , a p a t i e n t , a c o n d e m n e d m a n , a w o r k e r o r a s c h o o lb o y . B y t h e e ffe c t o f b a c k l i g h t i n g , o n e c a n o b s e r v e f r o m t h e to w e r , s t a n d i n g o u t p r e c i s e ly a g a in s t t h e l ig h t , t h e s m a ll c a p tiv e s h a d o w s i n t h e c e lls o f t h e p e r i p h e r y . T h e y a r e lik e so m a n y c a g e s, so m a n y s m a ll t h e a t r e s , i n w h i c h e a c h a c t o r is a lo n e , p e r f e c t l y i n d i v i d u a l i z e d a n d c o n s t a n t l y v i s i b le . T h e p a n o p t i c m e c h a n i s m a r r a n g e s s p a t ia l u n i t i e s t h a t m a k e i t p o s s ib l e to se e c o n s t a n t l y a n d to r e c o g n i z e im m e d i a t e l y . I n s h o r t , i t r e v e r s e s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e d u n g e o n ; o r r a t h e r o f its t h r e e f u n c t i o n s —to e n c l o s e , to d e p r iv e o f l i g h t a n d t o h i d e —i t p r e s e r v e s o n ly t h e f i r s t a n d e l i m i n a t e s t h e o t h e r tw o . F u ll l i g h t i n g a n d t h e eye o f a s u p e r v i s o r c a p t u r e b e t t e r t h a n d a r k n e s s , w h i c h u l t i m a t e ly p r o t e c t e d . V i s i b i l i t y is a t r a p .

T o b e g i n w i t h , t h is m a d e it p o s s ib l e —as a n e g a tiv e e f fe c t—to a v o id t h o s e c o m p a c t , s w a r m i n g , h o w l i n g m a s s e s t h a t w e r e to b e f o u n d i n p la c e s o f c o n f i n e m e n t , t h o s e p a i n t e d b y G o y a o r d e s c r i b e d b y H o w a r d . E a c h i n d i v i d ­ u a l, i n h is p la c e , is s e c u r e l y c o n f i n e d to a c e ll f r o m w h i c h h e is s e e n f r o m t h e f r o n t b y t h e s u p e r v i s o r : b u t t h e s id e w a lls p r e v e n t h i m f r o m c o m i n g i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h h i s c o m ­ p a n i o n s . H e is s e e n , b u t h e d o e s n o t s e e ; h e is t h e o b j e c t o f i n f o r m a t i o n , n e v e r a s u b j e c t i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f h i s r o o m , o p p o s i t e t h e c e n t r a l to w e r , i m p o s e s o n h i m a n a x ia l v is ib ility ; b u t t h e d i v i s i o n s o f th e r i n g , t h o s e s e p a r a t e d c e lls , im p l y a l a t e r a l in v is ib i l it y . A n d t h i s i n v i s ib i l it y is a g u a r a n t e e o f o r d e r . I f t h e i n m a t e s a r e c o n v ic ts , t h e r e is n o d a n g e r o f a p l o t , a n a t t e m p t a t c o l ­ le c tiv e e s c a p e , t h e p l a n n i n g o f n e w c r i m e s f o r t h e f u t u r e , b a d r e c i p r o c a l i n f l u e n c e s ; i f th e y a r e p a t i e n t s , t h e r e is n o d a n g e r o f c o n t a g i o n ; i f t h e y a r e m a d m e n t h e r e is n o r i s k o f t h e i r c o m m i t t i n g v i o le n c e u p o n o n e a n o t h e r ; i f t h e y a r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n , t h e r e is n o c o p y in g , n o n o i s e , n o c h a t t e r , n o w a s te o f t im e ; i f th e y a r e w o r k e r s , t h e r e a r e n o d i s o r d e r s , n o t h e f t , n o c o a l i ti o n s , n o n e o f t h o s e d i s t r a c ­ t i o n s t h a t s lo w d o w n t h e r a te o f w o r k , m a k e i t le s s p e r f e c t o r c a u s e a c c i d e n t s . T h e c r o w d , a c o m p a c t m a s s , a lo c u s o f m u l t i p l e e x c h a n g e s , i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s m e r g i n g t o g e t h e r , a c o lle c tiv e e ffe c t, is a b o l i s h e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y a c o ll e c ­ t i o n o f s e p a r a t e d i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s . F r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h e g u a r d i a n , i t is r e p l a c e d b y a m u l t i p l i c i t y t h a t c a n b e n u m b e r e d a n d s u p e r v i s e d ; f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h e i n m a t e s , b y a s e q u e s t e r e d a n d o b s e r v e d s o l i t u d e ( B e n - t h a m , 6 0 —6 4 ) .

H e n c e t h e m a j o r e ffe c t o f t h e P a n o p t i c o n : to i n d u c e i n t h e i n m a t e a s ta te o f c o n s c io u s a n d p e r m a n e n t v i s i b il ­ ity t h a t a s s u r e s t h e a u t o m a ti c f u n c t i o n i n g o f p o w e r . S o to a r r a n g e th in g s t h a t t h e s u r v e illa n c e is p e r m a n e n t i n its e ffe c ts , e v e n i f i t is d i s c o n t i n u o u s i n its a c t i o n ; t h a t t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f p o w e r s h o u l d t e n d to r e n d e r its a c tu a l e x e r ­ c ise u n n e c e s s a r y ; t h a t t h is a r c h i t e c t u r a l a p p a r a tu s s h o u l d b e a m a c h i n e f o r c r e a t i n g a n d s u s t a i n i n g a p o w e r r e l a t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p e r s o n w h o e x e r c is e s it; i n s h o r t , t h a t t h e i n m a t e s s h o u l d b e c a u g h t u p i n a p o w e r s i t u a t i o n o f w h ic h th e y a r e th e m s e lv e s t h e b e a r e r s . T o a c h ie v e t h is , i t is at o n e t o o m u c h a n d to o l it t le t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r s h o u l d b e c o n s t a n t l y o b s e r v e d b y a n i n s p e c t o r : to o l it t le , f o r w h a t m a t t e r s is t h a t h e k n o w s h i m s e l f t o b e o b s e r v e d ; to o m u c h , b e c a u s e h e h a s n o n e e d i n fa c t o f b e i n g so . I n v ie w o f th is , B e n th a m la id d o w n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t p o w e r s h o u l d b e

374

v is ib le a n d u n v e r i f i a b l e . V is ib le : t h e i n m a t e w ill c o n s t a n t l y h a v e b e f o r e h i s eyes t h e ta l l o u t l i n e o f t h e c e n t r a l t o w e r f r o m w h ic h h e is s p i e d u p o n . U n v e r i f i a b le : t h e i n m a t e m u s t n e v e r k n o w w h e t h e r h e is b e i n g l o o k e d a t a n y o n e m o m e n t ; b u t h e m u s t b e s u r e t h a t h e m a y alw ays b e so . I n o r d e r to m a k e t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f th e i n s p e c t o r u n v e r i f i a b l e , so t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r s , i n t h e i r c e lls, c a n n o t e v e n se e a s h a d o w , B e n t h a m e n v is a g e d n o t o n ly V e n e tia n b l i n d s o n t h e w in d o w s o f t h e c e n t r a l o b s e r v a t i o n h a ll, b u t , o n t h e i n s i d e , p a r t i t i o n s t h a t i n t e r s e c t e d t h e h a ll a t r i g h t a n g le s a n d , i n o r d e r t o p a ss f r o m o n e q u a r t e r to t h e o t h e r , n o t d o o r s b u t z ig -z a g o p e n i n g s ; f o r t h e s li g h te s t n o i s e , a g le a m o f lig h t , a b r i g h t n e s s i n a h a l f - o p e n e d d o o r w o u ld b e tr a y t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e g u a r d i a n . 2 T h e P a n o p t i c o n is a m a c h in e f o r d i s s o c i a t i n g t h e s e e / b e i n g s e e n d y a d : i n t h e p e r i p h e r i c r i n g , o n e is t o ta lly s e e n , w i t h o u t e v e r s e e in g ; i n th e c e n t r a l to w e r , o n e se e s e v e r y t h i n g w i t h o u t e v e r b e i n g s e e n . 3

I t is a n i m p o r t a n t m e c h a n i s m , f o r i t a u to m a ti z e s a n d d i s i n d iv i d u a liz e s p o w e r . P o w e r h a s its p r i n c i p l e n o t so m u c h i n a p e r s o n as i n a c e r t a i n c o n c e r t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b o d ie s , s u r f a c e s , lig h ts , g a z e s; i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t w h o s e i n t e r n a l m e c h a n i s m s p r o d u c e t h e r e l a t i o n i n w h ic h i n d i ­ v id u a ls a r e c a u g h t u p . T h e c e r e m o n i e s , t h e r i t u a l s , t h e m a rk s b y w h ic h t h e s o v e r e i g n ’s s u r p l u s p o w e r w as m a n i ­ fe s te d a re u s e le s s . T h e r e is a m a c h i n e r y t h a t a s s u r e s d i s ­ s y m m e try , d i s e q u i l i b r i u m , d i f f e r e n c e . C o n s e q u e n tl y , it d o e s n o t m a t t e r w h o e x e r c is e s p o w e r . A n y i n d iv i d u a l, ta k e n a lm o s t a t r a n d o m , c a n o p e r a t e t h e m a c h i n e : i n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e d i r e c t o r , h i s fa m ily , h i s f r i e n d s , h i s v i s i ­ to r s , e v e n h i s s e r v a n t s ( B e n t h a m , 4 5 ) . S im ila r ly , i t d o e s n o t m a t t e r w h a t m o tiv e a n im a te s h i m : t h e c u r i o s it y o f t h e i n d is c r e e t , t h e m a lic e o f a c h il d , t h e t h i r s t f o r k n o w le d g e o f a p h i l o s o p h e r w h o w is h e s t o v is it t h is m u s e u m o f h u m a n n a tu r e , o r t h e p e r v e r s i t y o f t h o s e w h o ta k e p l e a s u r e i n s p y ­ in g a n d p u n i s h i n g . T h e m o r e n u m e r o u s t h o s e a n o n y m o u s a n d t e m p o r a r y o b s e r v e r s a r e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e r i s k f o r th e in m a te o f b e i n g s u r p r i s e d a n d t h e g r e a t e r h i s a n x io u s a w a re n e s s o f b e i n g o b s e r v e d . T h e p a n o p t i c o n is a m a r v e l ­ lo u s m a c h i n e w h ic h , w h a te v e r u s e o n e m a y w is h t o p u t it to , p r o d u c e s h o m o g e n e o u s e ffe c ts o f p o w e r .

A r e a l s u b j e c t i o n is b o r n m e c h a n i c a l l y f r o m a f i c t i ti o u s r e l a ti o n . S o i t is n o t n e c e s s a r y to u s e f o r c e to c o n s t r a i n th e c o n v ic t t o g o o d b e h a v i o u r , t h e m a d m a n to c a lm , t h e w o r k e r to w o r k , t h e s c h o o l b o y to a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e p a t i e n t to th e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n s . B e n t h a m w as s u r p r i s e d

t h a t p a n o p t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s c o u l d b e so l i g h t : t h e r e w e r e n o m o r e b a r s , n o m o r e c h a i n s , n o m o r e h e a v y lo c k s ; a ll t h a t w as n e e d e d w as t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n s s h o u l d b e c le a r a n d t h e o p e n i n g s w e ll a r r a n g e d . T h e h e a v i n e s s o f t h e o l d “h o u s e s o f s e c u r i t y , ” w i t h t h e i r f o r t r e s s - l i k e a r c h i t e c t u r e , c o u ld b e r e p la c e d b y t h e s i m p l e , e c o n o m i c g e o m e t r y o f a “h o u s e o f c e r t a i n t y . ” T h e e ffic ie n c y o f p o w e r , its c o n s t r a i n i n g f o r c e h a v e , i n a s e n s e , p a s s e d o v e r to t h e o t h e r s id e —t o t h e s id e o f its s u r f a c e o f a p p l i c a t i o n . H e w h o is s u b j e c t e d t o a f i e ld o f v is ib ility , a n d w h o k n o w s i t , a s s u m e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f p o w e r ; h e m a k e s t h e m p la y s p o n t a ­ n e o u s l y u p o n h i m s e l f ; h e i n s c r i b e s i n h i m s e l f t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n i n w h i c h h e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p la y s b o t h r o l e s ; h e b e c o m e s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f h i s o w n s u b j e c t i o n . By t h is v e ry f a c t, t h e e x t e r n a l p o w e r m a y t h r o w o f f i ts p h y s ic a l w e ig h t; i t t e n d s to t h e n o n - c o r p o r a l ; a n d , t h e m o r e i t a p p r o a c h e s t h is l i m i t , t h e m o r e c o n s t a n t , p r o f o u n d a n d p e r m a n e n t a r e its e f fe c ts : i t is a p e r p e t u a l v i c to r y t h a t a v o id s a n y p h y s ­ ic a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n a n d w h i c h is alw ays d e c i d e d i n a d v a n c e .

B e n t h a m d o e s n o t say w h e t h e r h e w as i n s p i r e d , i n h i s p r o j e c t , by L e V a u x ’s m e n a g e r i e a t V e r s a ille s : t h e f i r s t m e n a g e r i e i n w h ic h t h e d i f f e r e n t e le m e n t s a r e n o t , as th e y t r a d i t i o n a l l y w e r e , d i s t r i b u t e d i n a p a r k ( L o is e l , 1 0 4 - 7 ) . A t t h e c e n t r e w a s a n o c ta g o n a l p a v il i o n w h i c h , o n t h e f i r s t f l o o r , c o n s i s t e d o f o n l y a s in g le r o o m , t h e k in g s ’s salon; o n e v e ry s id e la r g e w in d o w s lo o k e d o u t o n t o s e v e n c ag e s ( t h e e ig h t h s id e w as r e s e r v e d f o r t h e e n t r a n c e ) , c o n t a i n i n g d i f ­ f e r e n t s p e c ie s o f a n im a ls . By B e n t h a m ’s t im e , t h i s m e n a g ­ e r ie h a d d i s a p p e a r e d . B u t o n e f i n d s i n t h e p r o g r a m m e o f t h e P a n o p t i c o n a s i m il a r c o n c e r n w ith i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g o b s e r v a t i o n , w it h c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n a n d c la s s if ic a t io n , w ith t h e a n a ly tic a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f s p a c e . T h e P a n o p t i c o n is a ro y a l m e n a g e r i e ; t h e a n im a l is r e p la c e d b y m a n , i n d i ­ v id u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n b y s p e c if ic g r o u p i n g a n d t h e k in g by t h e m a c h i n e r y o f a f u r t i v e p o w e r . W ith t h i s e x c e p ti o n , t h e P a n o p t i c o n a ls o d o e s t h e w o r k o f a n a t u r a l i s t . I t m a k e s it p o s s ib le t o d r a w u p d if f e r e n c e s : a m o n g p a t i e n t s , t o o b s e r v e t h e s y m p to m s o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l , w i t h o u t t h e p r o x i m i t y o f b e d s , t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f m ia s m a s , t h e e ffe c ts o f c o n t a ­ g i o n c o n f u s i n g t h e c l in i c a l ta b le s ; a m o n g s c h o o l c h i l d r e n , it m a k e s i t p o s s ib l e to o b s e r v e p e r f o r m a n c e s ( w i t h o u t t h e r e b e i n g a n y l i m i t a t i o n o r c o p y in g ) , to m a p a p t i t u d e s , to a sse ss c h a r a c t e r s , to d r a w u p r i g o r o u s c la s s if ic a tio n s a n d , i n r e l a t i o n t o n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t , to d i s t i n g u i s h “la z in e s s a n d s t u b b o r n n e s s ” f r o m “ i n c u r a b l e im b e c il i t y ” ; a m o n g w o r k e r s , i t m a k e s it p o s s ib l e to n o t e t h e a p ti t u d e s

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o f e a c h w o r k e r , c o m p a r e t h e t i m e h e ta k e s to p e r f o r m a ta s k , a n d i f th e y a r e p a i d b y t h e day, to c a lc u la te t h e i r w ages ( B e n t h a m , 6 0 - 6 4 ) .

S o m u c h f o r t h e q u e s t i o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n . B u t t h e P a n ­ o p t i c o n w as a ls o a l a b o r a to r y ; i t c o u l d b e u s e d as a m a c h i n e to c a r r y o u t e x p e r i m e n t s , to a l t e r b e h a v i o u r , to t r a i n o r c o r r e c t i n d iv i d u a ls . T o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h m e d i c i n e s a n d m o n i t o r t h e i r e ffe c ts . T o t r y o u t d i f f e r e n t p u n i s h m e n t s o n p r i s o n e r s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r c r im e s a n d c h a r a c t e r , a n d t o s e e k t h e m o s t e ffe c tiv e o n e s . T o t e a c h d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y to t h e w o r k e r s , t o d e c i d e w h ic h is t h e b e s t . T o t r y o u t p e d a g o g ic a l e x p e r i m e n t s —a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t o ta k e u p o n c e a g a in t h e w e l l - d e b a t e d p r o b l e m o f s e c lu d e d e d u c a t i o n , b y u s i n g o r p h a n s . O n e w o u l d see w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n w h e n , i n t h e i r s i x t e e n t h o r e i g h t e e n t h y e a r, th e y w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h o t h e r b o y s o r g i r ls ; o n e c o u ld v e r if y w h e t h e r , as H e l v e t i u s t h o u g h t , a n y o n e c o u ld l e a r n a n y th i n g ; o n e w o u l d f o llo w “ t h e g e n e a lo g y o f e v e ry o b s e r v a b le i d e a ” ; o n e c o u l d b r i n g u p d i f f e r e n t c h i l d r e n a c c o r d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t s y s te m s o f t h o u g h t , m a k i n g c e r t a i n c h i l d r e n b e lie v e t h a t tw o a n d tw o d o n o t m a k e f o u r o r t h a t t h e m o o n is a c h e e s e , t h e n p u t t h e m t o g e t h e r w h e n th e y a r e t w e n ty o r tw e n ty - f iv e y e a r s o l d ; o n e w o u l d t h e n h a v e d i s c u s s i o n s t h a t w o u l d b e w o r t h a g r e a t d e a l m o r e t h a n t h e s e r m o n s o r l e c t u r e s o n w h i c h so m u c h m o n e y is s p e n t ; o n e w o u l d h a v e a t le a s t a n o p p o r t u n i t y o f m a k i n g d is c o v e r ie s i n t h e d o m a i n o f m e t a p h y s i c s . T h e P a n o p t i c o n is a p r i v ­ ile g e d p la c e f o r e x p e r i m e n t s o n m e n , a n d f o r a n a ly z i n g w i t h c o m p l e t e c e r t a i n t y t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t h a t m a y b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e m . T h e P a n o p t i c o n m a y e v e n p r o v i d e a n a p p a r a t u s f o r s u p e r v i s i n g its o w n m e c h a n i s m s . I n t h is c e n t r a l to w e r , t h e d i r e c t o r m a y sp y o n a ll t h e e m p lo y e e s t h a t h e h a s u n d e r h i s o r d e r s : n u r s e s , d o c t o r s , f o r e m e n , t e a c h e r s , w a r d e r s ; h e w ill b e a b le t o j u d g e t h e m c o n t i n u ­ o u s ly , a l t e r t h e i r b e h a v i o u r , i m p o s e u p o n t h e m t h e m e t h ­ o d s h e t h i n k s b e s t; a n d i t w ill e v e n b e p o s s ib l e to o b s e r v e t h e d i r e c t o r h i m s e l f . A n i n s p e c t o r a r r i v i n g u n e x p e c t e d l y a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e P a n o p t i c o n w ill b e a b le to j u d g e a t a g l a n c e , w i t h o u t a n y t h i n g b e i n g c o n c e a l e d f r o m h i m , h o w t h e e n t i r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t is f u n c t i o n i n g . A n d , i n a n y ca s e , e n c l o s e d as h e is i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h is a r c h i t e c t u r a l m e c h a n i s m , is n o t t h e d i r e c t o r ’s o w n f a te e n t i r e l y b o u n d u p w i th i t ? T h e i n c o m p e t e n t p h y s i c ia n w h o h a s a llo w e d c o n t a g i o n to s p r e a d , t h e i n c o m p e t e n t p r i s o n g o v e r n o r o r w o r k s h o p m a n a g e r w ill b e t h e f i r s t v ic t im s o f a n e p i d e m i c o r a r e v o lt . ‘“ By e v e ry tie I c o u l d d e v i s e , ’ s a id t h e m a s t e r

o f t h e P a n o p t i c o n , ‘m y o w n f a te h a d b e e n b o u n d u p b y m e w i t h t h e i r s ’” ( B e n t h a m , 1 7 7 ). T h e P a n o p t i c o n f u n c t i o n s as a k in d o f l a b o r a t o r y o f p o w e r . T h a n k s to its m e c h a ­ n i s m s o f o b s e r v a t i o n , i t g a in s i n e f fic ie n c y a n d i n t h e a b i l ­ ity to p e n e t r a t e i n t o m e n ’s b e h a v i o u r ; k n o w l e d g e fo llo w s t h e a d v a n c e s o f p o w e r , d i s c o v e r i n g n e w o b je c ts o f k n o w l ­ e d g e o v e r a ll t h e s u r f a c e s o n w h ic h p o w e r is e x e r c is e d .

T h e p l a g u e - s t r i c k e n to w n , t h e p a n o p t i c e s t a b l i s h ­ m e n t —t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a re i m p o r t a n t . T h e y m a r k , a t a d i s t a n c e o f a c e n t u r y a n d a h a lf , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y p r o g r a m m e . I n t h e f i r s t c ase, t h e r e is a n e x c e p t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n : a g a in s t a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y e v il, p o w e r is m o b il i z e d ; i t m a k e s i t s e l f e v e r y w h e r e p r e s e n t a n d v i s i ­ b le ; i t i n v e n t s n e w m e c h a n i s m s ; it s e p a r a t e s , i t i m m o b i ­ liz e s , i t p a r t i t i o n s ; i t c o n s t r u c t s f o r a t i m e w h a t is b o t h a c o u n t e r - c i t y a n d t h e p e r f e c t s o c ie ty ; i t im p o s e s a n i d e a l f u n c t i o n i n g , b u t o n e t h a t is r e d u c e d , i n t h e f i n a l a n a ly s is , lik e t h e e v il t h a t i t c o m b a ts , to a s im p le d u a l i s m o f lif e a n d d e a t h : t h a t w h ic h m o v e s b r i n g s d e a t h , a n d o n e k ills t h a t w h i c h m o v e s . T h e P a n o p t i c o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d as a g e n e r a liz a b le m o d e l o f f u n c t i o n i n g ; a w ay o f d e f i n i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f t h e e v e ry d a y lif e o f m e n . N o d o u b t B e n t h a m p r e s e n t s i t as a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n , c lo s e d i n u p o n its e lf . U t o p i a s , p e r f e c tl y c lo s e d i n u p o n th e m s e lv e s , a r e c o m m o n e n o u g h . A s o p p o s e d to t h e r u i n e d p r i s o n s , l i t t e r e d w i th m e c h a n i s m s o f t o r t u r e , to b e s e e n i n P i r a n e s e ’s e n g r a v in g s , t h e P a n o p t i c o n p r e s e n t s a c r u e l , i n g e n i o u s c ag e . T h e fa c t t h a t it s h o u l d h a v e g iv e n r is e , e v e n i n o u r o w n t im e , to so m a n y v a r i a ti o n s , p r o ­ j e c t e d o r r e a l iz e d , is e v id e n c e o f t h e i m a g i n a r y i n t e n s i t y t h a t it h a s p o s s e s s e d f o r a lm o s t tw o h u n d r e d y e a r s . B u t th e P a n o p t i c o n m u s t n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d as a d r e a m b u i l d i n g : it is t h e d ia g r a m o f a m e c h a n i s m o f p o w e r r e d u c e d to its i d e a l f o r m ; its f u n c t i o n i n g , a b s t r a c te d f r o m a n y o b s ta c le , r e s is ta n c e o r f r i c t i o n , m u s t b e r e p r e s e n t e d as a p u r e a r c h i ­ t e c t u r a l a n d o p t ic a l s y s te m : i t is i n f a c t a f i g u r e o f p o l i t i c a l t e c h n o lo g y t h a t m a y a n d m u s t b e d e ta c h e d f r o m a n y s p e ­ c ific u s e .

I t is p o ly v a le n t i n its a p p l i c a t io n s ; i t s e rv e s to r e f o r m p r i s o n e r s , b u t a ls o to t r e a t p a t i e n t s , to i n s t r u c t s c h o o l c h i l ­ d r e n , to c o n f in e t h e i n s a n e , to s u p e r v is e w o r k e r s , to p u t b e g g a r s a n d i d le r s t o w o r k . I t is a ty p e o f l o c a t i o n o f b o d ie s i n s p a c e , o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a ls i n r e l a t i o n to o n e a n o t h e r , o f h i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , o f d i s p o s i t i o n o f c e n t r e s a n d c h a n n e ls o f p o w e r , o f d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u ­ m e n t s a n d m o d e s o f i n t e r v e n t i o n o f p o w e r , w h i c h c a n b e

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i m p l e m e n t e d i n h o s p i t a l s , w o r k s h o p s , s c h o o ls , p r i s o n s . W h e n e v e r o n e is d e a l i n g , w i t h a m u lt i p li c it y o f in d i v i d u a ls o n w h o m a ta s k o r a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f b e h a v i o u r m u s t b e i m p o s e d , t h e p a n o p t i c s c h e m a m a y b e u s e d . I t is—n e c e s ­ sa ry m o d i f i c a t io n s a p a r t —a p p li c a b le “t o a ll e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w h a ts o e v e r , i n w h ic h , w i t h i n a s p a c e n o t t o o la r g e to b e c o v e r e d o r c o m m a n d e d b y b u i l d i n g s , a n u m b e r o f p e r ­ s o n s a r e m e a n t to b e k e p t u n d e r i n s p e c t i o n ” ( B e n t h a m , 4 0 ; a l t h o u g h B e n t h a m ta k e s t h e p e n i t e n t i a r y h o u s e as h i s p r i m e e x a m p l e , it is b e c a u s e i t h a s m a n y d i f f e r e n t f u n c ­ t i o n s t o f u l f il—sa fe c u s to d y , c o n f i n e m e n t , s o l i t u d e , f o r c e d l a b o u r a n d i n s t r u c t i o n ) .

I n e a c h o f its a p p l i c a t io n s , i t m a k e s it p o s s ib le to p e r f e c t th e e x e rc is e o f p o w e r . I t d o e s t h is i n s e v e ra l ways: b e c a u s e it c a n r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r o f t h o s e w h o e x e rc is e it, w h ile i n c r e a s in g t h e n u m b e r o f t h o s e o n w h o m it is e x e r c is e d . B e c a u se i t is p o s s ib le t o i n t e r v e n e a t a n y m o m e n t a n d b e c a u s e t h e c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e a c ts e v e n b e f o r e t h e o ffe n c e s , m is ta k e s o r c r im e s h a v e b e e n c o m m i tt e d . B e c a u s e , i n t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , its s t r e n g t h is t h a t i t n e v e r in t e r v e n e s , it is e x e r c is e d s p o n t a n e o u s ly a n d w i t h o u t n o is e , it c o n s t i ­ t u te s a m e c h a n i s m w h o s e e ffe c ts f o llo w f r o m o n e a n o t h e r . B e c a u se , w i t h o u t a n y p h y s ic a l i n s t r u m e n t o t h e r t h a n a r c h i ­ t e c t u r e a n d g e o m e try , i t a cts d ir e c tly o n i n d iv id u a ls ; i t gives “p o w e r o f m i n d o v e r m i n d . ” T h e p a n o p t i c s c h e m a m a k e s a n y a p p a r a tu s o f p o w e r m o r e i n t e n s e : i t a s s u r e s its e c o n o m y ( i n m a t e r i a l, i n p e r s o n n e l , i n t im e ) ; i t a s s u r e s its e ffic a c - ity b y its p r e v e n ta ti v e c h a r a c te r , its c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n i n g a n d its a u to m a ti c m e c h a n i s m s . I t is a w ay o f o b t a i n i n g f r o m p o w e r “ i n h i t h e r t o u n e x a m p l e d q u a n ti t y , ” “a g r e a t a n d n e w i n s t r u m e n t o f g o v e r n m e n t . . . ; its g r e a t e x c e lle n c e c o n s is ts i n th e g r e a t s t r e n g t h i t is c a p a b le o f g iv in g to any i n s t i t u t i o n it m a y b e t h o u g h t p r o p e r t o a p p ly i t t o ” ( B e n th a m , 6 6 ) .

I t ’s a case o f “i t ’s easy o n c e y o u ’ve t h o u g h t o f i t ” i n t h e p o liti c a l s p h e r e . I t c a n i n fa c t b e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n y f u n c ­ t i o n ( e d u c a t i o n , m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , p r o d u c t i o n , p u n i s h ­ m e n t ) ; i t c a n i n c r e a s e t h e e f fe c t o f t h i s f u n c t i o n , b y b e i n g lin k e d c lo s e ly w it h it; i t c a n c o n s t i t u t e a m ix e d m e c h a n i s m i n w h ic h r e l a t i o n s o f p o w e r ( a n d o f k n o w le d g e ) m a y b e p re c is e ly a d ju s t e d , i n t h e s m a lle s t d e ta i l, t o t h e p r o c e s s e s th a t a r e t o b e s u p e r v i s e d ; i t c a n e s ta b lis h a d i r e c t p r o p o r ­ t i o n b e tw e e n “ s u r p l u s p o w e r ” a n d “ s u r p l u s p r o d u c t i o n . ” I n s h o r t , it a r r a n g e s t h in g s i n s u c h a w ay t h a t t h e e x e r c is e o f p o w e r is n o t a d d e d o n f r o m t h e o u t s i d e , lik e a r i g i d , h e a v y c o n s t r a i n t , to t h e f u n c t i o n s i t in v e s ts , b u t is so s u b tly p r e s ­ e n t i n t h e m as to i n c r e a s e t h e i r e f fic ie n c y b y i t s e l f i n c r e a s ­

i n g its o w n p o i n t s o f c o n ta c t . T h e p a n o p t i c m e c h a n i s m is n o t s i m p ly a h i n g e , a p o i n t o f e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n a m e c h a ­ n i s m o f p o w e r a n d a f u n c t i o n ; i t is a w ay o f m a k i n g p o w e r r e l a t i o n s f u n c t i o n i n a f u n c t i o n , a n d o f m a k i n g a f u n c ­ t i o n f u n c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s . B e n t h a m ’s P r e f a c e t o Panopticon o p e n s w it h a l is t o f t h e b e n e f i t s t o b e o b t a i n e d f r o m h i s “ i n s p e c t i o n - h o u s e ” : “Morals reformed— health preserved—industry invigorated—instruction diffused—public bur­ thens lightened—E c o n o m y s e a te d , as i t w e r e , u p o n a r o c k —t h e g o r d i a n k n o t o f t h e P o o r - L a w s n o t c u t, b u t u n t i e d —a ll b y a s im p le i d e a i n a r c h i t e c t u r e ! ” ( B e n t h a m , 3 9 ) .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h is m a c h i n e is s u c h t h a t its e n c l o s e d n a t u r e d o e s n o t ' p r e c l u d e a p e r m a n e n t p r e s e n c e f r o m t h e o u t s i d e : w e h a v e s e e n t h a t a n y o n e m a y c o m e a n d e x e r c is e i n t h e c e n t r a l to w e r t h e f u n c t i o n s o f s u r v e i ll a n c e , a n d t h a t , t h i s b e i n g t h e c ase, h e c a n g a in a c le a r id e a o f th e w ay i n w h i c h t h e s u r v e illa n c e is p r a c t i s e d . I n fa c t, a n y p a n o p t i c i n s t i t u t i o n , e v e n i f it is as r i g o r o u s l y c lo s e d as a p e n i t e n t i a r y , m a y w i t h o u t d if f ic u lty b e s u b j e c t e d t o s u c h i r r e g u l a r a n d c o n s t a n t i n s p e c t i o n s : a n d n o t o n l y b y t h e a p p o i n t e d i n s p e c t o r s , b u t a ls o b y t h e p u b l ic ; a n y m e m b e r o f s o c ie ty w ill h a v e t h e r i g h t t o c o m e a n d se e w i t h h i s o w n eyes h o w t h e s c h o o ls , h o s p i t a l s , f a c t o r ie s , p r i s o n s f u n c t i o n . T h e r e is n o r is k , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e o f p o w e r c r e a te d b y t h e p a n o p t i c m a c h i n e m a y d e g e n e r a t e i n t o t y r a n n y ; t h e d i s c ip l i n a r y m e c h a n i s m w ill b e d e m o ­ c r a tic a lly c o n t r o l l e d , s in c e i t w ill b e c o n s t a n t l y a c c e s s ib le “t o t h e g r e a t t r i b u n a l c o m m i tt e e o f t h e w o r l d . ”4 T h i s P a n ­ o p t i c o n , s u b t ly a r r a n g e d so t h a t a n o b s e r v e r m a y o b s e r v e , a t a g la n c e , so m a n y d i f f e r e n t i n d iv i d u a ls , a ls o e n a b le s e v e r y o n e t o c o m e a n d o b s e r v e a n y o f t h e o b s e r v e r s . T h e s e e in g m a c h i n e w a s o n c e a s o r t o f d a r k r o o m i n t o w h ic h i n d i v i d u a l s s p ie d ; i t h a s b e c o m e a t r a n s p a r e n t b u i l d i n g i n w h i c h t h e e x e r c is e o f p o w e r m a y b e s u p e r v i s e d b y s o c ie ty as a w h o le .

T h e p a n o p t i c s c h e m a , w i t h o u t d i s a p p e a r i n g as s u c h o r l o s i n g a n y o f its p r o p e r t i e s , w as d e s t i n e d t o s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s o c ia l b o d y ; its v o c a t i o n w as t o b e c o m e a g e n e r a li z e d f u n c t i o n . T h e p l a g u e s t r i c k e n t o w n p r o v i d e d a n e x c e p ti o n a l d i s c ip l i n a r y m o d e l : p e r f e c t, b u t a b s o lu te ly v i o le n t ; t o t h e d is e a s e t h a t b r o u g h t d e a t h , p o w e r o p p o s e d its p e r p e t u a l t h r e a t o f d e a t h ; lif e i n s i d e it w as r e d u c e d to its s i m p l e s t e x p r e s s i o n ; i t w as, a g a in s t t h e p o w e r o f d e a t h , t h e m e t i c u l o u s e x e r c is e o f t h e r i g h t o f t h e s w o r d . T h e P a n ­ o p t i c o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a s a r o l e o f a m p l i f i c a t i o n ; a l t h o u g h i t a r r a n g e s p o w e r , a l t h o u g h i t is i n t e n d e d t o m a k e

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it m o r e e c o n o m i c a n d m o r e e ffe c tiv e , it d o e s so n o t f o r p o w e r i ts e lf , n o r f o r t h e i m m e d i a t e s a lv a t io n o f a t h r e a t ­ e n e d s o c ie ty : its a im is to s t r e n g t h e n t h e s o c ia l f o r c e s —to i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n , t o d e v e l o p t h e e c o n o m y , s p r e a d e d u ­ c a t i o n , r a is e t h e le v e l o f p u b l ic m o r a l i ty ; to i n c r e a s e a n d m u ltip ly .

H o w is p o w e r to b e s t r e n g t h e n e d i n s u c h a w ay t h a t , f a r f r o m i m p e d i n g p r o g r e s s , f a r f r o m w e ig h in g u p o n it w it h its r u l e s a n d r e g u la t i o n s , i t a c tu a lly f a c i lita te s s u c h p r o g ­ r e s s ? W h a t i n t e n s i f i c a t o r o f p o w e r w ill b e a b le a t t h e s a m e t im e to b e a m u l t i p l i c a t o r o f p r o d u c t i o n ? H o w w ill p o w e r , b y i n c r e a s i n g its f o r c e s , b e a b le t o i n c r e a s e t h o s e o f s o c i ­ e ty i n s t e a d o f c o n f is c a ti n g t h e m o r i m p e d i n g t h e m ? T h e P a n o p t i c o n ’s s o l u t i o n to t h is p r o b l e m is t h a t t h e p r o d u c ­ tiv e i n c r e a s e o f p o w e r c a n b e a s s u r e d o n l y if, o n t h e o n e h a n d , i t c a n b e e x e r c is e d c o n t i n u o u s l y i n t h e v e ry f o u n ­ d a t i o n s o f so c ie ty , i n t h e s u b t l e s t p o s s ib le way, a n d if, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t f u n c t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e s e s u d d e n , v i o le n t , d i s c o n t i n u o u s f o r m s t h a t a r e b o u n d u p w i t h t h e e x e rc is e o f s o v e re ig n ty . T h e b o d y o f t h e k in g , w i th its s tr a n g e m a t e ­ r i a l a n d p h y s ic a l p r e s e n c e , w i t h t h e f o r c e t h a t h e h i m s e l f d e p lo y s o r t r a n s m i t s to s o m e fe w o t h e r s , is a t t h e o p p o s i t e ' e x tr e m e o f t h i s n e w p h y s ic s o f p o w e r r e p r e s e n t e d b y p a n - o p t i c i s m ; t h e d o m a i n o f p a n o p t i c i s m is, o n t h e c o n tr a r y , t h a t w h o l e lo w e r r e g i o n , t h a t r e g i o n o f i r r e g u l a r b o d i e s , w it h t h e i r d e ta i ls , t h e i r m u l t i p l e m o v e m e n t s , t h e i r h e t e r o ­ g e n e o u s f o r c e s , t h e i r s p a tia l r e l a t i o n s ; w h a t a r e r e q u i r e d a re m e c h a n i s m s t h a t a n a ly z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s , g a p s , s e r ie s , c o m b i n a t i o n s , a n d w h i c h u s e i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t r e n d e r v is ib le , r e c o r d , d i f f e r e n t i a t e a n d c o m p a r e : a p h y s ic s o f a r e l a t i o n a l a n d m u l t i p l e p o w e r , w h i c h h a s its m a x i m u m i n t e n s i t y n o t i n t h e p e r s o n o f t h e k i n g , b u t i n t h e b o d i e s t h a t c a n b e i n d iv i d u a li z e d by t h e s e r e l a t i o n s . A t t h e t h e ­ o r e ti c a l le v e l, B e n th a m d e f in e s a n o t h e r w ay o f a n a ly z in g t h e s o c ia l b o d y a n d t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t tr a v e r s e it; i n t e r m s o f p r a c t ic e , h e d e f in e s a p r o c e d u r e o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f b o d i e s a n d f o r c e s t h a t m u s t i n c r e a s e t h e u t i l i t y o f p o w e r w h ile p r a c t i s i n g t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e p r i n c e . P a n o p t ic i s m is t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e o f a n e w “p o l it i c a l a n a t o m y ” w h o s e o b j e c t a n d e n d a r e n o t t h e r e l a t i o n s o f s o v e r e i g n ty b u t t h e r e l a t i o n s o f d i s c ip l i n e .

T h e c e l e b r a t e d , t r a n s p a r e n t , c i r c u l a r c ag e , w ith its h ig h to w e r , p o w e r f u l a n d k n o w in g , m a y h a v e b e e n f o r B e n th a m a p r o j e c t o f a p e r f e c t d i s c ip l i n a r y i n s t i t u t i o n ; b u t h e a lso s e t o u t t o s h o w h o w o n e m a y “u n l o c k ” t h e d i s c ip l i n e s a n d g e t t h e m t o f u n c t i o n i n a d i f f u s e d , m u l t i p l e , p o ly v a le n t

way t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o le s o c ia l b o d y . T h e s e d i s c ip l i n e s , w h ic h t h e c la s s ic a l age h a d e la b o r a t e d i n s p e c if ic , r e l a ­ tiv e ly e n c l o s e d p la c e s —b a r r a c k s , s c h o o ls , w o r k s h o p s —a n d w h o s e t o ta l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n h a d b e e n i m a g i n e d o n l y at th e l i m i t e d a n d t e m p o r a r y sc a le o f a p l a g u e - s t r i c k e n to w n , B e n t h a m d r e a m t o f t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o a n e tw o r k o f m e c h ­ a n is m s t h a t w o u l d b e e v e ry w h e re a n d alw ays a le r t , r u n n i n g t h r o u g h s o c ie ty w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n i n s p a c e o r i n t im e . T h e p a n o p t i c a r r a n g e m e n t p r o v i d e s t h e f o r m u l a f o r th is g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . I t p r o g r a m m e s , a t t h e le v e l o f a n e l e m e n ­ ta r y a n d e a s ily t r a n s f e r a b l e m e c h a n i s m , t h e b a s ic f u n c ­ t i o n i n g o f a s o c ie ty p e n e t r a t e d t h r o u g h a n d t h r o u g h w i th d i s c i p l i n a r y m e c h a n i s m s .

T h e r e a r e tw o im a g e s , t h e n , o f d i s c i p l i n e . A t o n e e x tr e m e , t h e d i s c i p l i n e - b l o c k a d e , t h e e n c l o s e d i n s t i t u ­ t i o n , e s t a b l i s h e d o n t h e e d g e s o f so c ie ty , t u r n e d i n w a r d s t o w a r d s n e g a tiv e f u n c t i o n s : a r r e s t i n g e v il, b r e a k i n g c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n s , s u s p e n d i n g t im e . A t t h e o t h e r e x tr e m e , w i th p a n o p t i c i s m , is t h e d i s c i p l i n e - m e c h a n i s m : a f u n c t i o n a l m e c h a n i s m t h a t m u s t i m p r o v e t h e e x e r c is e o f p o w e r b y m a k i n g i t l ig h t e r , m o r e r a p i d , m o r e e ffe c tiv e , a d e s ig n o f s u b t le c o e r c i o n f o r a s o c ie ty t o c o m e . T h e m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e p r o j e c t to t h e o t h e r , f r o m a s c h e m a o f e x c e p ti o n a l d i s c ip l i n e to o n e o f a g e n e r a li z e d s u r v e i ll a n c e , r e s ts o n a h i s t o r i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : t h e g r a d u a l e x t e n s i o n o f th e m e c h a n i s m s o f d i s c i p l i n e t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e v e n te e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e i r s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o le s o c ia l b o d y , t h e f o r m a t i o n o f w h a t m ig h t b e c a lle d i n g e n ­ e r a l t h e d i s c ip l i n a r y so c ie ty .

NOTES 1. E d ito r’s note. B efore describ in g the P anopticon, Foucault

d esc rib es the q uaran tining o f co m m u n itie s stru ck by the plague. H e co n trasts this blockade to a new co n figuration o f disciplin e, a sp e cial type o f prison.

2. In the P o stsc rip t to the Panopticon, 1791, B en th am ad d s dark in spection galleries painted in black aroun d the in sp e c to r’s lodge, each m aking it p o ssible to ob serve two sto reys o f cells.

3. In his first v ersion o f the Panopticon, B enth am had also im agin ed an aco ustic surveillance, o p erated by m ean s o f pip es leading from the cells to the central tower. In the P o stsc rip t he aban d o n ed the idea, p erh ap s b e cau se he could not in troduce into it the p rin ci­ ple o f dis-sy m m etry and preven t the p riso n ers from h earing the in sp e cto r a s well a s the in sp e cto r h earin g them . Julius tried to develop a system o f d is-sy m m etrical listening (Julius, 18).

4. Im agin in g this con tin u ou s flow o f visitors enterin g the central tow er by an u n dergrou n d p a ssa g e and then ob serv in g the cir­ cular lan d scap e o f the Panopticon, w as Bentham aware o f the P an o ram as that B arker w as co n stru ctin g at exactly the sam e p er­

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iod (the first se e m s to have dated from 1787) and in which the visitors, occupyin g the central place, saw unfolding aroun d them a lan dscape, a city or a battle. The visitors occu pied exactly the place o f the sovereign gaze.

b i b l i o g r a p h y Bentham, J. Work, ed. Bowring, IV, 1843. Faucher, L. De la reforme des prisons, 1938. Julius, J.H. Lemons sur les prisons, I, 1831 (Fr. trans.). Loisel, G. Histoires des menageries, II, 1912. Pieces originates et procedures des proces f a it a Robert-Frangois

Damiens, III, 1757. Zevaes, A.L. Damiens le regicide, 1937.

Foucault's Analysis o f Power Michel Foucault has also been influential in shaping current sociological understandings of power. He expands previous analyzes, which focused on the actors who use power and the structures within which they operate, to consider power as diffuse, embodied (in discourse and elsewhere), and consti­ tutive—as something that acts upon subjects and is enacted rather than used. The third selection from Foucault, “The Subject and Power” outlines his basic ideas about power. In this essay, Foucault defines power and lays out the key dimensions for its analysis, taking the discussion far beyond the Weberian focus on the conditions under which power is transformed into authority, legitimated power. He does, however, share Weber’s interest in action and his emphasis on both the “imposition of the will despite resistance” and the uses of rationality in the exercise of power. Foucault and Weber also find a philosophical base in Nietzsche’s concept of “the will to power” as a force of action on the external world.

The key phrase in this essay is the definition that power is a mode o f action exerted on the actions o f others. When we “unpack” this definition, we see the following premises:

♦ Power can involve both consent and coercion. ♦ Power is a relationship among people (and groups of

people), one that can take various forms such as dom­ ination (among ethnic, religious, and social categories), exploitation in the relations of production, and general­ ized subjection and submission.

♦ Power can be institutionalized, but does not have to be, and it has multiple and complex ties to institutions.

♦ Power implies confrontation, struggle, resistance, combat, and antagonism (from Greek “agon”—combat); and all parties in a conflict over power develop strategies to win these struggles.

♦ Power exists in all societies at all times. It is not elimin­ ated by a socialist revolution. The mechanisms or means,

the balance between coercion and consent, the degree of rationalization, and the extent and forms of institutional­ ization vary historically.

♦ Power involves subjectification in a double sense because people are subjected to the will of others and because only as subjects can they be involved in power relations, rela­ tions that call for them to exert action.

The essay includes a discussion of the emerging forms of power, the ones that are characteristic of modern societies. Here Foucault suggests the following:

♦ The state has become a key element of power relations throughout society.

♦ Power in its modern forms is a mode of action that is both totalizing and individuating. The entire society is governed as a single system, but much of the governing is based on “getting into the hearts and minds” of individuals, indu­ cing them to be compliant and to see themselves as being responsible for their own actions and experiences.

♦ Power in modern societies is exercised on the actions of many more or less atomized individuals.

Foucault calls this form of power a “new pastoral power” that builds on the pastoral power of Christianity with its promise of individual salvation for those who yield their conscience and innermost secrets to the good “shepherds of the flock.” The new pastoral power involves multiple institutions. It has recruited the family (as well as other traditional and private institutions) to its mission and linked them to the promise of ensuring the “well-being” o f populations and individuals. “Well-being” is the new message of salvation, and it is prom­ ised to all those who comply with their subjectification—that is, to all who conform expectations about their individual ac­ tions, which they are induced to experience as freely chosen and beneficial to themselves and others.

Power relations are now highly rationalized and are characterized by a careful calculation of the relationship of means to ends, various measurements of effectiveness (some might say a near obsession with metrics), technological means to accomplish the exercise of power, elaborate surveillance methods, and extensive archives. A claim to scientific knowl­ edge justifies power in the modern age. The reader may rec­ ognize the substantive convergence with Parsons’s discussion of the physician role, though Foucault writes with a more critical tone.

Wherever power is exercised, resistance is also expressed. In modern times, it often takes the form of opposition to the claim of privileged knowledge—not opposition to science, per se, but to the “regimes of knowledge” (regimes du savoir),

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which function to impose power, furnish the means for exer­ cising it, and make claims about power (that it is rational, in the best interests of those on whom it is exercised, scientific, and so on).

Reading 10.1.3: Foucault’s “The Subject and Power” (1982)

[Source: Michel Foucault, “The Subject and Power,” Critical Inquiry 8, no. 4 (Summer 1982), 777-95. Selection is from

pages 7 7 7 -7 8 ,7 8 0 -8 4 ,7 8 5 -9 3 . This essay was written by Michel Foucault as an afterword to Michel Foucault: Beyond

Structuralism and Hermeneutics by Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow and reprinted by arrangement with the University

of Chicago Press. “Why Study Power? The Question of the

Subject” was written in English by Foucault; “How Is Power Exercised?” was translated from the French by Leslie Sawyer.]

The Subject a nd Power

W H Y S T U D Y P O W E R ? T H E Q U E S T I O N

O F T H E S U B J E C T

T h e id e a s w h ic h I w o u l d lik e to d is c u s s h e r e r e p r e s e n t n e i ­ t h e r a t h e o r y n o r a m e th o d o lo g y .

I w o u ld l ik e to say, f i r s t o f a ll, w h a t h a s b e e n t h e g o a l o f m y w o r k d u r i n g t h e la s t tw e n ty y e a rs . I t h a s n o t b e e n t o a n a ly z e t h e p h e n o m e n a o f p o w e r , n o r t o e l a b o r a t e t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f s u c h a n a n a ly s is .

M y o b je c tiv e , i n s t e a d , h a s b e e n to c r e a te a h i s t o r y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s b y w h i c h , i n o u r c u l t u r e , h u m a n b e in g s a r e m a d e s u b je c ts . M y w o r k h a s d e a lt w i th t h r e e m o d e s o f o b j e c t if i c a t i o n w h ic h t r a n s f o r m h u m a n b e in g s i n t o s u b je c ts .

T h e f i r s t is t h e m o d e s o f i n q u i r y w h ic h tr y to give t h e m ­ se lv es t h e s ta tu s o f sc ie n c e s ; f o r e x a m p l e , t h e o b je c t iv iz i n g o f t h e s p e a k in g s u b j e c t i n grammaire generate, p h ilo lo g y , a n d l in g u i s t i c s . O r a g a in , i n t h i s f i r s t m o d e , t h e o b je c tiv i z in g o f t h e p r o d u c ti v e s u b je c t, t h e s u b je c t w h o l a b o r s , i n th e a n a ly s is o f w e a lth a n d o f e c o n o m i c s . O r , a t h i r d e x a m p l e , t h e o b je c tiv i z in g o f t h e s h e e r f a c t o f b e i n g a liv e i n n a t u r a l h i s t o r y o r b io lo g y .

I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f m y w o r k , I h a v e s t u d i e d t h e o b je c tiv i z in g o f t h e s u b je c t i n w h a t I s h a ll c a ll “d i v i d i n g p r a c t ic e s . ” T h e s u b je c t is e i t h e r d i v id e d i n s i d e h i m s e l f o r d i v id e d f r o m o t h e r s . T h i s p r o c e s s o b je c tiv iz e s h i m . E x a m ­

p le s a r e t h e m a d a n d t h e s a n e , t h e sic k a n d t h e h e a lth y , t h e c r i m i n a l s a n d t h e “g o o d b o y s .”

F in a lly , I h a v e s o u g h t to s tu d y —i t is m y c u r r e n t w o r k — t h e w ay a h u m a n b e i n g t u r n s h i m s e l f i n t o a s u b je c t. F o r e x a m p l e , I h a v e c h o s e n t h e d o m a i n o f s e x u a lity —h o w m e n h a v e l e a r n e d to r e c o g n iz e th e m s e lv e s as s u b je c t s o f “ s e x u a lity .”

T h u s , i t is n o t p o w e r b u t t h e s u b j e c t w h ic h is t h e g e n ­ e r a l t h e m e o f m y r e s e a r c h .

I t is t r u e t h a t I b e c a m e q u i te in v o lv e d w ith th e q u e s t io n o f p o w e r . I t s o o n a p p e a r e d to m e t h a t, w h ile t h e h u m a n s u b je c t is p la c e d i n r e l a ti o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d o f s i g n if ic a ­ t i o n , h e is e q u a lly p l a c e d i n p o w e r r e l a ti o n s w h ic h a re v e ry c o m p le x . N o w , it s e e m e d to m e t h a t e c o n o m i c h i s to r y a n d th e o r y p r o v i d e d a g o o d i n s t r u m e n t f o r r e la ti o n s o f p r o ­ d u c t i o n a n d t h a t lin g u is tic s a n d s e m io tic s o f f e r e d i n s t r u ­ m e n t s f o r s t u d y in g r e la ti o n s o f s ig n if ic a tio n ; b u t f o r p o w e r r e la t i o n s w e h a d n o to o ls o f stu d y . W e h a d r e c o u r s e o n ly to ways o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t p o w e r b a s e d o n le g a l m o d e l s , t h a t is: W h a t l e g itim a te s p o w e r ? O r , w e h a d r e c o u r s e to ways o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t p o w e r b a s e d o n i n s t i t u t i o n a l m o d e l s , th a t is: W h a t is t h e s ta te ?

I t w as t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y to e x p a n d t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f a d e f i n i t i o n o f p o w e r i f o n e w a n t e d to u s e t h i s d e f i n i t i o n i n s t u d y i n g t h e o b je c tiv iz i n g o f th e s u b je c t.

D o w e n e e d a t h e o r y o f p o w e r ? S in c e a t h e o r y a s s u m e s a p r i o r o b j e c t if i c a t i o n , it c a n n o t b e a s s e r t e d as a b a s is f o r a n a ly tic a l w o r k . B u t th is a n a ly tic a l w o r k c a n n o t p r o c e e d w i t h o u t a n o n g o i n g c o n c e p tu a l iz a t i o n . A n d t h is c o n c e p ­ t u a l i z a t i o n i m p l i e s c r it i c a l t h o u g h t —a c o n s t a n t c h e c k in g .

T h e f i r s t t h i n g to c h e c k is w h a t I s h a ll c a ll t h e “c o n c e p ­ tu a l n e e d s . ” I m e a n t h a t t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e f o u n d e d o n a t h e o r y o f t h e o b j e c t —t h e c o n c e p t u a l iz e d o b j e c t is n o t t h e s i n g le c r i t e r i o n o f a g o o d c o n c e p t u a l ­ iz a t io n . W e h a v e t o k n o w t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h m o ti v a te o u r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n . W e n e e d a h i s t o r i c a l a w a r e n e s s o f o u r p r e s e n t c ir c u m s t a n c e .

T h e s e c o n d t h i n g to c h e c k is t h e ty p e o f r e a l it y w ith w h ic h w e a r e d e a lin g .

[. . .] I w o u l d lik e to s u g g e s t a n o t h e r w ay to g o f u r t h e r to w a r d

a n e w e c o n o m y o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s , a w ay w h ic h is m o r e e m p i r i c a l , m o r e d i r e c tl y r e l a t e d to o u r p r e s e n t s i t u a ­ t i o n , a n d w h i c h i m p l i e s m o r e r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . I t c o n s i s t s o f t a k in g t h e f o r m s o f r e s is t a n c e a g a i n s t d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f p o w e r as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . T o u se

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a n o t h e r m e t a p h o r , it c o n s is ts o f u s i n g t h is r e s is ta n c e as a

c h e m ic a l c a ta ly st so as t o b r i n g t o l ig h t p o w e r r e la t i o n s , lo c a te t h e i r p o s i t i o n , a n d f i n d o u t t h e i r p o i n t o f a p p li c a ­ t i o n a n d t h e m e t h o d s u s e d . R a t h e r t h a n a n a ly z in g p o w e r f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f its i n t e r n a l r a t i o n a l i t y , i t c o n s is ts o f a n a ly z in g p o w e r r e l a ti o n s t h r o u g h t h e a n t a g o n i s m o f s tr a te g ie s .

F o r e x a m p le , to f i n d o u t w h a t o u r s o c ie ty m e a n s b y s a n ­

ity, p e r h a p s w e s h o u l d in v e s tig a te w h a t is h a p p e n i n g i n t h e

f ie ld o f in s a n ity . A n d w h a t w e m e a n b y le g a lity i n t h e f ie ld o f ille g a lity . A n d , i n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a re

a b o u t, p e r h a p s w e s h o u l d in v e s tig a te t h e f o r m s o f r e s i s ­ ta n c e a n d a tt e m p t s m a d e t o d i s s o c i a te th e s e r e l a ti o n s .

A s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , l e t u s ta k e a s e r i e s o f o p p o s i t i o n s w h ic h h a v e d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e la s t fe w y e a rs : o p p o s i t i o n to

t h e p o w e r o f m e n o v e r w o m e n , o f p a r e n t s o v e r c h i l d r e n , o f p s y c h ia tr y o v e r t h e m e n t a l l y ill, o f m e d i c in e o v e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n , o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o v e r t h e ways p e o p le liv e .

It is n o t e n o u g h to say t h a t t h e s e a re a n t i - a u t h o r i t y

stru g g le s ; w e m u s t tr y to d e f in e m o r e p r e c is e ly w h a t th e y hav e i n c o m m o n .

1. T h e y a re “t r a n s v e r s a l ” s t r u g g le s ; t h a t is, th e y a r e n o t li m i t e d t o o n e c o u n tr y . O f c o u r s e , th e y d e v e lo p m o r e e a sily a n d to a g r e a t e r e x te n t i n c e r t a i n c o u n t r i e s , b u t th e y a re n o t c o n f i n e d to a p a r t i c u l a r p o l i t i c a l o r e c o ­

n o m i c f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t . 2. T h e a im o f t h e s e s t r u g g le s is t h e p o w e r e ffe c ts as s u c h .

F o r e x a m p le , t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n is n o t c r i t i ­ c iz e d p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e i t is a p r o f i t - m a k i n g c o n c e r n

b u t b e c a u s e i t e x e r c is e s a n u n c o n t r o l l e d p o w e r o v e r p e o p l e ’s b o d i e s , t h e i r h e a l t h , a n d t h e i r lif e a n d d e a th .

3 . T h e s e a r e “ i m m e d i a t e ” s tr u g g le s f o r tw o r e a s o n s . I n

s u c h s tr u g g le s p e o p le c r iti c iz e i n s t a n c e s o f p o w e r w h i c h

a re t h e c lo s e s t to t h e m , t h o s e w h i c h e x e r c is e t h e i r a c t i o n o n i n d iv i d u a ls . T h e y d o n o t l o o k f o r t h e “ c h i e f e n e m y ” b u t f o r t h e i m m e d ia t e e n e m y . N o r d o th e y e x p e c t t o

f i n d a s o l u t i o n to t h e i r p r o b l e m a t a f u t u r e d a te ( t h a t

is, l i b e r a t i o n s , r e v o l u t i o n s , e n d o f cla ss s t r u g g l e ) . I n c o m p a r is o n w i th a t h e o r e t i c a l sc a le o f e x p la n a t i o n s o r a r e v o lu t i o n a r y o r d e r w h i c h p o l a r i z e s t h e h i s t o r i a n , th e y a re a n a r c h i s t i c s t r u g g le s .

B u t th e s e a r e n o t t h e i r m o s t o r i g i n a l p o i n t s . T h e

f o llo w in g s e e m t o m e t o b e m o r e s p e c if ic .

4 . T h e y a r e s tr u g g le s w h i c h q u e s t i o n t h e s ta tu s o f t h e i n d iv i d u a l: o n t h e o n e h a n d , th e y a s s e r t t h e r i g h t to b e d i f f e r e n t , a n d th e y u n d e r l i n e e v e r y t h in g w h ic h m a k e s i n d iv i d u a l s t r u l y i n d iv i d u a l. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e y a tta c k e v e r y t h in g w h ic h s e p a r a te s t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b r e a k s h i s lin k s w ith o t h e r s , s p lits u p c o m m u n i t y lif e , f o rc e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l b a c k o n h i m s e l f , a n d tie s h i m to h i s o w n i d e n t i t y i n a c o n s t r a i n i n g way.

T h e s e s tr u g g le s a r e n o t e x a c tly f o r o r a g a in s t t h e “i n d i v i d u a l ” b u t r a t h e r t h e y a r e s tr u g g le s a g a in s t th e “g o v e r n m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . ”

5 . T h e y a r e a n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e e ffe c ts o f p o w e r w h ic h a re l i n k e d w it h k n o w le d g e , c o m p e t e n c e , a n d q u a l i f i c a t i o n : s tr u g g le s a g a in s t t h e p r iv ile g e s o f k n o w le d g e . B u t th e y a re a ls o a n o p p o s i t i o n a g a in s t se c re c y , d e f o r m a t i o n , a n d m y s tif y in g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s im p o s e d o n p e o p l e .

T h e r e is n o t h i n g “ s c i e n t i s t i c ” i n t h is ( t h a t is, a d o g ­ m a t ic b e l i e f i n t h e v a lu e o f s c i e n t i f ic k n o w l e d g e ) , b u t n e i t h e r is i t a s k e p tic a l o r r e la ti v is ti c r e f u s a l o f a ll v e r i ­ f ie d t r u t h . W h a t is q u e s t i o n e d is t h e w ay i n w h i c h k n o w ­ le d g e c ir c u la t e s a n d f u n c t i o n s , its r e l a t i o n s to p o w e r . I n s h o r t , t h e regime du savoir.

6 . F in a lly , a ll t h e s e p r e s e n t s tr u g g l e s re v o lv e a r o u n d t h e q u e s t i o n : W h o a r e w e ? T h e y a r e a r e f u s a l o f th e s e a b s t r a c ti o n s , o f e c o n o m i c a n d i d e o l o g i c a l s ta te v i o ­ le n c e , w h ic h i g n o r e w h o w e a r e in d iv i d u a lly , a n d a ls o a r e f u s a l o f a s c i e n t i f ic o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n q u i s i t i o n w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s w h o o n e is .

T o s u m u p , t h e m a i n o b je c tiv e o f th e s e s tr u g g l e s is to a tta c k n o t so m u c h “ s u c h o r s u c h ” a n i n s t i t u t i o n o f p o w e r , o r g r o u p , o r e li t e , o r class b u t r a t h e r a t e c h n i q u e , a f o r m o f p o w e r .

T h i s f o r m o f p o w e r a p p lie s i t s e l f t o i m m e d i a t e e v e ry d a y lif e w h ic h c a te g o r iz e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l , m a r k s h i m b y h i s o w n in d iv i d u a li t y , a tta c h e s h i m t o h i s o w n id e n t i ty , im p o s e s a la w o f t r u t h o n h i m w h i c h h e m u s t r e c o g n iz e a n d w h i c h o t h e r s h a v e to r e c o g n i z e i n h i m . I t is a f o r m o f p o w e r w h ic h m a k e s i n d i v i d u a ls s u b j e c ts . T h e r e a r e tw o m e a n i n g s o f t h e w o r d “ s u b j e c t ” : s u b j e c t to s o m e o n e e ls e b y c o n t r o l a n d d e p e n d e n c e ; a n d t i e d t o h i s o w n i d e n t i t y b y a c o n ­ s c ie n c e o r s e lf - k n o w le d g e . B o t h m e a n i n g s s u g g e s t a f o r m o f p o w e r w h i c h s u b ju g a te s a n d m a k e s s u b je c t t o .

G e n e r a l ly , i t c a n b e s a id t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e ty p e s o f s tr u g g le s : e i t h e r a g a in s t f o r m s o f d o m i n a t i o n ( e t h n i c , s o c ia l, a n d r e li g i o u s ) ; a g a in s t f o r m s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n w h i c h

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