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JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 26: 1–16, 2014 Copyright C© Association for Applied Sport Psychology ISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 online DOI: 10.1080/10413200.2013.766650

Coaches’ Communication of Sport Body Image: Experiences of Female Athletes

ANGELA M. COPPOLA

University of Alberta

ROSE MARIE WARD AND VALERIA J. FREYSINGER

Miami University

The purpose of the study was to explore female athletes’ experiences of coaches’ communi- cation of sport body image. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I female athletes. The results revealed that coaches encouraged nutrition and physical development during training thereby communicat- ing a healthy, fit sport body image. The coaches communicated the sport body image through the sport and training environment, body comparisons and criticisms, recognition of ath- letic body change, individualized athlete-centered training, and role modeling. Individualized athlete-centered training and goal-setting were viewed as supportive means of communicating guidance about sport body image.

Female athletes’ body image has been described as multidimensional (e.g., Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, & Kauer, 2004). Female athletes may view their bodies differently in the context of sport than in other social situations (e.g., Greenleaf, 2002; Krane et al., 2004; Mosewich, Vangool, Kowalski, & McHugh, 2009). Traditionally, the social feminine body ideal has emphasized thinness (Bordo, 1993). Recently, however, acquiring and maintaining muscle tone (i.e., low body fat and defined muscle) may be more acceptable for female athletes in both the social and sport context (e.g., George, 2005). Female athletes may strive for muscle tone because of its presumed link with sport performance (George, 2005; Mosewich et al., 2009). Yet muscle

Received 22 January 2012; accepted 11 January 2013. This research was funded in part by a thesis grant awarded to Angela M. Coppola from the Graduate

School at Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056. The current project was published within a larger Master’s thesis project at Miami University through

the OhioLINK database. In addition, portions of the study were presented at the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology Conference, October 14, 2011, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

The authors would like to acknowledge those who participated in the study and thank them for sharing their knowledge and experiences. The authors would also like to thank the reviewers and editor for their feedback and suggestions.

Address correspondence to Angela M. Coppola, Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 0X7. E-mail: [email protected]

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bulk (i.e., greater muscle size or mass) often continues to be avoided because this trait is not congruent with socially acceptable feminine body ideals (George, 2005).

Female athletes’ body ideals involve a complex negotiation between concepts of muscle size and muscle tone (e.g., George, 2005; Mosewich et al., 2009). The negotiation between muscle tone and size may depend on the athletes’ sport or event (Mosewich et al., 2009). For instance, short-distance (e.g., 50 m) sprinters may strive for muscle size or bulk as opposed to long-distance runners who may strive for muscle tone. These findings indicate that female athletes maintain multiple meanings of muscularity and that sport and social body ideals may conflict depending on the type of muscularity strived for within the sport context. Such intrapersonal conflict may contribute to female athletes’ unhealthy or restrictive dieting (e.g., Beals & Manore, 1994).

Just as athletes’ intrapersonal conflict of conforming to body ideals may contribute to unhealthy dieting, interpersonal feedback about body image, especially from coaches, may contribute to similar problems (Kerr, Berman, & De Souza, 2006; Muscat & Long, 2008). Coaches’ critical comments have been associated with athletes’ social physique anxiety, dis- ordered eating and unhealthy dieting (e.g., binge-eating and dietary restraint), and feelings of guilt, shame, and anxiety (Biesecker & Martz, 1999; Greenleaf, 2004; Kerr et al., 2006; Muscat & Long, 2008). Athletes may be distressed when coaches compare their bodies to those of others because they feel pressure to conform to body ideals (Mosewich et al., 2009). Thompson and Sherman (1999) recommended that coaches should generally avoid critical comments and body comparisons.

Several other recommendations have been offered to prevent disordered eating and to facilitate healthy body image in athletes (National Eating Disorders Association [NEDA], 2008; Thompson & Sherman, 1999). Coaches have been encouraged to de-emphasize weight by avoiding weight monitoring, weight-related comments, and weight change recommenda- tions (Thompson & Sherman, 1999). Thompson and Sherman (1999) also recommended that coaches address weight and performance by taking into account each individual athlete’s physical capabilities. Providing emotional support and employing the care of a physician, psy- chologist, or nutritionist, have also been recommended (Arthur-Cameselle & Baltzell, 2012; NEDA, 2008; Thompson & Sherman, 1999). Furthermore, athletes may prefer coaches’ sup- port to develop physical functioning and healthfulness instead of coaches’ encouragement of athletic body ideals (Smith & Ogle, 2006).

The aforementioned recommendations have provided guidance for coaches and researchers. However, there may be other strategies for preventing unhealthy body image besides the avoidance of weight change recommendations. Furthermore, coaches may not know how to address body image with individual athletes. A description of athletes’ experiences of coaches’ communication of body image can identify opportunities to create dialogue about healthy body image. For instance, a description of experiences can identify opportunities to work individually with athletes (e.g., coach-athlete meetings). The latter description may be beneficial considering that some coaches may be hesitant to discuss body image with athletes (Smith & Ogle, 2006).

There are currently few studies describing how coaches communicate sport body image from the athletes’ perspectives, other than those reporting coaches’ critical comments (e.g., Muscat & Long, 2008). Furthermore, although there have been a number of recommenda- tions for addressing body image concerns with athletes (e.g., Arthur-Cameselle & Baltzell, 2012; NEDA, 2008), there is little, if any, description of athletes’ experiences of coaches’ encouragement of healthy body image. In fact, Muscat and Long (2008) discussed the need for research to help coaches “implement and monitor positive feedback” about body image (p. 19). A description of female athletes’ experiences may identify how coaches encourage

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sport body image. The description may also identify strategies for communicating healthy body image, de-emphasizing weight or body ideals, and addressing body image individually with athletes. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore female athletes’ experiences of coaches’ communication of sport body image (CCSBI).

METHOD

Participants

Eight female NCAA Division I college athletes (three synchronized skaters, two track sprinters, one softball player, and two volleyball athletes) were recruited through purposive sampling methods (see Mason, 2002). Five participants identified as Caucasian, two partici- pants identified as Asian American, and one participant identified as African American. The mean age of participants was 19.25 (SD = 1.16). The range of months spent on their current team was from nine to 36 months (M = 20.63, SD = 10.45). Years of experience in their respective sports ranged from 4.5 to 15 years (M = 9.95 years, SD = 3.28 years).

Procedure

Upon receiving institutional review board (IRB) approval, the primary author contacted the athletic director and NCAA compliance officer at a NCAA Division I university for permission to contact the head coaches of the female athletes at the university. The primary author sent an e-mail to the coaches and attended team sessions to inform athletes about the study. The study was also advertised in several undergraduate courses and through an online participant recruitment tool.

Interview Guide

Before each interview, the female athlete was provided with the informed consent form and a background information survey that contained descriptive questions about the athlete, including ethnic identity, age, sport, years of experience with sport, and years with current team. The primary author conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews following the procedures of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA; Smith, 2004; Smith & Osborn, 2003). The interview guide was developed based on the study’s research purpose and the previous research on this topic (e.g., George, 2005; Greenleaf, 2002; Krane, Waldron, Stiles-Shipley, & Michalenok, 2001). Interview questions addressed the topics of athletes’ sport body image and sport-specific body ideals, athletes’ experiences of CCSBI (i.e., weight and size, body shape, and muscularity), and athletes’ recommendations for CCSBI. The flow of the interview was interactively determined. Probes or follow-up questions were used to generate rich, thick data on the phenomena of interest (Smith & Osborn, 2003).

The primary author pilot-tested the interview guide with two female college athletes (two dancers) as part of a qualitative research methods class. The pilot test served to identify the appropriate content and delivery of questions before data collection in the current study. Each interview was audio tape-recorded following the participant’s verbal consent to record the interview. On average, the interviews were 51 min in length. Data saturation determined sample size. Data saturation occurred when participants’ answers to the interview questions were reproduced and little new information about CCSBI was gathered (Morse & Field, 1995; Sandelowski, 2008).

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Data Analysis

IPA was used to generate and analyze data. IPA is a research approach used to explore how participants “make sense of their personal and social world” or apply meaning to particular experiences (Smith & Osborn, 2003, p. 53). Thus, such an approach is appropriate for exploring and describing female college athletes’ experiences of CCSBI. Data collection and analysis took place concurrently. Strategies for establishing trustworthiness were embedded in the data collection and analysis phase.

Groenewald (2004) described observational, theoretical, methodological, and analytical field notes that can be produced after each interview in a phenomenological inquiry. Following this approach, observational notes were prepared that recorded important occurrences through- out the interviews (e.g., participants’ optimistic tones, the participants’ helpful responses, and the participants’ excited expressions). Theoretical notes documented the researcher’s inter- pretations and reflections on the meanings of constructs, such as sport body image as lean or toned muscle ideals. Methodological notes served as reminder notes to the researcher for future interviews. For instance, additional questions were noted for subsequent interviews. An- alytical notes recorded main issues or themes from the interview, the general demeanor of the participant, and the interviewer’s impressions about the participant or interview. For instance, the notes indicated in one case that the “interviewee appeared to maintain a positive body image but felt that coaches could be more sensitive about body change.” The aforementioned field notes allowed the primary author to reflect on the participants’ responses to questions about CCSBI in order to accurately represent participants’ views and conceptualizations of CCSBI.

The primary author transcribed the interviews verbatim. The primary author, the third author, and a graduate student trained in qualitative research methods read and analyzed the transcriptions to identify meaning units and construct similar meaning units into themes. Although embedded in the data analysis, researcher triangulation also was used to enhance the study’s trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The third author and graduate student compared their analyses with the primary author’s analyses and field notes. Researcher trian- gulation was a critically reflective and iterative process. When differences existed, transcripts were read again and analyzed as a group for agreement. In addition, verbatim quotations were provided as a means of establishing trustworthiness.

RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to explore female athletes’ experiences of CCSBI. The analysis of the data indicated that coaches and strength and conditioning coaches emphasized nutrition and physical development in the sport and training environment and also engaged in supportive and unsupportive means of verbally and non-verbally communicating sport body image. The following themes were constructed: (a) encouragement of healthy, fit sport bodies, (b) sport and training environment, (c) body comparisons and criticisms, (d) coaches’ recognition of athletic body change, (e) individualized athlete-centered training, and (f) coach as a role model.

Encouragement of Healthy, Fit Sport Bodies

An important element in athletes’ experiences of sport body image was the coaches’ encouragement of health and fitness. Coaches promoted healthy, fit sport bodies that were nourished, energetic, and capable of strong athletic performance. The importance of gaining

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muscle—either lean muscle or muscle in bulk—was central to this advice. For example, P8 stated, “We’re taught what is ideal by what our coach says and our strength coach, saying what they think is a good weight and how much muscle you should have and . . . what we should strive for.” P1 also indicated that muscle gain was encouraged by coaches:

[We’re] all encouraged to umm, just get as much muscle as you can, but umm, I feel like outside of the sport realm like when we are with our other friends or umm, like going out or whatever, it’s umm, like it’s good to look toned but not so much muscular to the point where I think umm, it like can put you as a manly type of thing.

The athletes discussed the emphasis that coaches and strength and conditioning coaches placed on healthy nutrition and eating habits in order to achieve a healthy, fit, sport body and sustain themselves during workouts and competitions. For example, P5 discussed the experience of her coaches’ comments regarding healthy eating habits: “They always remind us to eat because they don’t want zombies at like six o’clock in the morning.” Similarly, P2 remembered overhearing her coach’s conversation with a teammate about eating habits:

One of the coaches asked what she wanted to eat one day, what she had to eat and she said Easy Mac and Pop-Tarts which, ya know, athletes shouldn’t be eating that but umm, she was kinda like ya know nonchalant about it but the coaches were like you need to start being more consistent and eating things that are good for you.

Coaches, thus, depicted muscle gain and healthy eating as being central to achieving a healthy, fit body and encouraged a healthy, fit body through nutrition and physical development. They frequently encouraged physical development specifically within the sport and training environment.

Sport and Training Environment

The participants indicated that coaches communicated general body training practices to individual athletes and the team within the sport environment. Training practices, such as weight-lifting sheets, to monitor physical development were encouraged both within the physical sports environment, such as weight rooms. Training practices were also communicated virtually through team email messages. P7 discussed the strength and conditioning coaches’ communication in the weight room: “I mean they push us in the weight room to work hard which that’s like getting strong, getting muscle.”

Sport body image was communicated through prescribed training regimens and coaches’ evaluations of athletes’ training. Coaches encouraged training regimens to enhance sport performance. Training regimens included coaches’ encouragement of not only weight training, but also the development of technical skills such as breathing effectively and engaging the core. P2 perceived coaches’ encouragement of training as a means of keeping bodies strong as opposed to conforming to body ideals:

They [coaches] try to say like ‘engage your core more’ and like ‘work on those ab muscles’ . . . and then umm a lot of stuff with, they really have been trying to get us to increase our strength in our arms . . . just like keeping them strong . . . nothing’s really for the way it looks like the image but umm it’s more like practicalities.

Coaches also encouraged the athletes to monitor their physical development. Tracking physical development led some athletes to feel confident about their performance and bodies.

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For example, P1 said that her strength coach expected her to track her progression with weight-lifting sheets, and P1 explained the training regimen positively:

I guess, throughout the year they give you a new weight sheet that says like what your new max is and . . . umm . . . we test throughout the season like okay, my maximum squatting is [weight] or whatever and then the next time we test, it should be higher and so seeing that increase, I guess builds confidence.

Sport training included exercise, physical tests, and weigh-ins. P7 discussed participating in weigh-ins:

Every once in a while we’re in the weight room we get on the scale and they umm take our body weight and talk to us if we nee—if they [coaches] think we need to be doing something else, cutting back on certain foods so we can decrease a little bit of weight or some people are too skinny like try to eat more protein bars or special shakes and try to gain weight.

Strength and conditioning coaches (or weightlifting coaches) allowed the athletes to choose whether physical tests, such as body fat percentage testing, were relevant to the athlete’s physical development and should be conducted. For example, P6 preferred to test her body fat percentage as a monitoring mechanism. She spoke positively of having the choice to do so and of getting feedback from the strength and conditioning coach if needed:

I feel to be on my top performance I need it to be below a certain level [body fat percentage] and our weightlifting coach, he leaves that to us, if we want to check it, we can check it, and if—and if you ask him a question about it, if it’s good, he’ll let you know.

Additionally, coaches sent information to teams. P1 indicated, “They’ll [coaches] send us video of . . . different athletes and stuff and . . . how their body make up affects their [performance].” However, some team messages from coaches invoked feelings of inadequacy or a sense that the athlete was not eating healthy or acquiring enough muscle. For example, P6 stated:

We’ll get emails and stuff saying this is what you should look like and stuff . . . we’re kind of like okay, well, we’re trying, we’re weightlifting, we’re running continuously but . . . [coach] still wants us to have, bigger muscles and eat right and stuff like that.

Coaches, thus, encouraged the athletes to track their physical development in the sport and training environment. They encouraged strength training and tracking their physical de- velopment in the weight room. Communication about training was also sent through e-mail. Although the coaches’ communication of body image in the sport and training environment was useful to athletes, some CCSBI was not viewed as supportive, and was sometimes seen as a criticism.

Body Comparisons and Criticisms

Coaches’ comparisons and criticisms of athletes’ bodies were generally viewed as a negative and unhelpful form of CCSBI. Coaches sometimes compared athletes who achieved their specific ideal weight with those who did not. For example, P8 discussed her experience of coaches making comments about athletes’ bodies:

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[Coach] even made an announcement to the team that, [coach] pointed out a few of us that . . . that we were ‘in shape’ so that has to do with not only fitness level but also implying that [we achieved] our ideal body weight, because then [coach] mentioned that right after, that everyone should be striving for their ideal body weight.

Body comparison was viewed as something that was potentially upsetting for athletes. P8 continued to say that she realized,

If I was on the opposite end of [body comparison] per se, that would annoy me if [coach] was pointing out someone else’s weight especially if I had been working hard and I felt that I was at an ideal weight . . . that probably would have upset me.

Some of the athletes discussed critical comments coaches made to them, or that they heard coaches make to other female athletes, about their bodies. For example, P1 remembered:

One of the girls on the team she’s, she has really really big thighs and she knows it and I feel like she feels self-conscious about it and umm, like [coach] told her . . . ‘Oh, watch out, oh, she’s coming through,’ things like . . . I don’t think [coach] understands . . . that that’s kind of rude [participant laughs] or it could affect her self-esteem or something like that.

Some athletes were critiqued about their sport body image even when athletes maintained their performance or athletic skills. For instance, P1 recalls criticisms from a coach toward a teammate: “I’ve heard coaches tell their athletes like, umm, you need to, ‘you need to lose weight here,’ or, ‘that’s too big,’ and umm that’s not the way that you approach . . . female athletes.” Furthermore, P4 discussed her frustration with an experience of criticism from coaches that she observed,

We still have those girls who are a little bit on the heavier side but are really good but they still get criticized for being overweight . . . even though they’re great [performers] . . . which kind of ya know . . . kind of makes me frustrated just because like, like they are such great [athletes] and assets to our team.

Some athletes reported that in criticizing teammates because of their non-ideal bodies, some coaches threatened non-participation. For example, P8 expressed her concerns about the possibility of unhealthy dieting, referring to an experience where a coach threatened another athlete’s participation:

The [coach] did basically imply to someone that, that she would not be [participating] if she didn’t lose weight . . . I feel like sometimes those situations are what push girls into extreme diet modes and unhealthy habits . . . . I do not respect those ways at all.

Indeed, the athletes believed that weight was an irrelevant concern if the athlete was qualified or performed well. P4 stated:

It was rumored . . . that [coach] wouldn’t move [athlete] up because she was overweight . . . the fact that just her weight was holding her back like is kind of hard to believe that ya know somebody would pick umm, would put a girl who’s maybe less, less qualified to be on [the team] just because she’s skinnier.

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The athletes, thus, viewed the coaches’ comparisons and criticisms of athletes’ bodies as unhelpful. The athletes viewed comparisons and criticisms as irrelevant especially if the athlete was performing well. But whereas athletes disliked coaches’ body comparisons and criticisms, they appreciated it when coaches recognized athletic body change and viewed it as an initial, supportive means of communicating sport body image.

Coaches’ Recognition of Athletic Body Change

The athletes explicitly stated that discussions with athletes about body image, and more specifically body change would be beneficial. Coaches’ discussions about the body change expected of college athletes were viewed positively because the discussions were usually paired with guidance or suggestions about body change. Thus, some athletes felt that coaches recognized body change by encouraging athletes to acquire education about dieting from nu- tritionists. When discussing the process of body change, P1 believed that coaches’ recognition of body change was needed because “our bodies are really important to us and how we are per- ceived by coaches and that could be a good thing or a bad thing.” P8 also noted the importance of discussing body change:

If I was more aware of how much my body would change, I think I would have accepted it faster, so if there was a talk that like ‘your body is going to change and we [coach staff] need it to change to compete at a high level so we need you to embrace it’ and, and have fun with it, make it a competition with their friends like . . . I guess if they [coach staff] can show people how we can be a culture and how you can relate to each other I think that would . . . be nice.

Coaches encouraged athletes to acquire information about healthy eating habits. P2 was asked how coaches should communicate information about the body or eating habits and stated, “I wouldn’t mind having a nutritionist come in or like maybe a like . . . a doctor like telling people like how to eat better.” Some athletes reported that coaches recommended nutritionists speak to the team as a group. However, the athletes felt that unless there was a follow-up about seeing a nutritionist from the coaches, the information would be misused or forgotten:

When we did have the nutritionist come in it was like okay, like we’re gonna have you talk to the nutritionist now and then it was like after that like, nutrition was never mentioned again like . . . repeated throughout the season ya know make sure you’re still, ya know, being healthy and . . . you’re not overdoing it . . . or else, I think it, or I think it gets lost. P4

Overall, the athletes felt that they did not receive enough direction from their coaches with respect to healthy eating. For instance, P2 was adamant in stating,

I feel like they [coach staff] don’t teach us enough what to eat. I mean I feel like most of us, yeah, we do have a healthy body image but I don’t know if everyone really eats the right things and the right amount of things a day.

Coaches’ recognition of body change should include both recognition of body change and direction for maintaining a nutritious diet. Coaches communicated to athletes that nutritionists can provide the team with suggestions for nutrition. However, athletes generally viewed team meetings with nutritionists as ineffective, pointing instead to individualized athlete-centered training as a supportive and helpful form of communicating guidance about sport body image.

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Individualized Athlete-Centered Training

Coaches provided individual athletes with helpful, constructive suggestions or directions during training to communicate guidance about sport body image. Although individualized athlete-centered training occurred in the sport and training environment, it was described specifically as a supportive and helpful means of CCSBI. As well, coaches promoted goal- setting to communicate individually with athletes about their bodies. Athletes also discussed the importance of recognizing individual differences when developing training plans because all athletes’ bodies are unique. When discussing important considerations for training regimens, P8 explained:

I think we [team and coaches] all recognize the individual differences, we all notice when someone’s stronger in certain areas, like I have better upper body strength than someone, and someone else has really good lower body strength so when we’re testing lifts . . . we understand that we are just different that way.

P8 also discussed the need to work personally with athletes to develop diet plans:

It’s nice if there’s a nutritionist or someone knowledgeable in that region that will be willing to work personally with an athlete to come up with a plan if that can be encouraged, because, I don’t really like going to the nutritionist once a year, saying . . . this is what you should be eating, ‘cause it’s not very personal.

The athletes also viewed the coaches’ communication of constructive training feedback and suggestions as helpful. For example, P2 discussed “making a suggestion like maybe ‘try this instead of that’ and things like that . . . or like if they suspect someone’s gaining a lot of weight . . .” P5 also described coaches’ specific suggestions: “They’ll [coaches] ya know make a suggestion like . . . this is what I kind of think you need to improve on, you might go about it by doing this, this, and this . . . and I think it would be really helpful.”

Athletes also noted that coaches should sensitively suggest body change to individual athletes. In discussing strategies for communicating body change, P1 felt that coaches needed to “be more sensitive, but still be constructive and like, umm, there’s a way to go about it when you’re not yelling at them but you’re getting, you’re getting your point across.” She went on to say that body change should be suggested in a conversation. The coach can list positive comments about the individual athlete’s skills before discussing the body:

I feel like the [body] comment would evoke a negative reaction to the point of feeling like, like I was saying inadequate as opposed to like you want me to get better, umm, I guess like if a coach sitting down and saying like umm ‘I’ve noticed that umm, you’re doing really well in this, you’re doing really well’ in like I guess prefacing it with a whole bunch of positives before . . . going straight to what they want to encourage you to do like I guess, ‘you’re doing really well, I’ve seen you improve here, but I feel like you can do better if . . . we together worked out something that you could do to, to perfect this part of you, your body.’

Strength and conditioning coaches were also seen as playing an important role in providing supportive, constructive feedback, and suggestions about healthy ways to engage in body change:

I went to my strength and conditioning coach on my own because I wanted to shed a few pounds and [coach] . . . was supportive about it and told me healthy ways to do it . . . [coach]

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gave suggestions and was just positive about it, [coach] didn’t really judge me on why, [coach] didn’t ask me why I decided to do it. P3

Goal-setting was presented as a manner in which coaches communicated individually with athletes about their bodies. Setting a goal for an ideal weight range as opposed to a specific weight was also an effective communication strategy. For instance, P8 indicated:

We did talk about it [an ideal weight range] with our coaches, we set a goal in the beginning of the year and, and I guess if you don’t meet your goal then you talk to them again. I never had that problem, I’ve been lucky to stay within my ideal body weight . . . choosing the actual number is technically up to us, but we’re definitely encouraged to keep finding it.

Coaches provided individual training suggestions thereby communicating sport body image in a supportive manner. In addition, coaches used goal-setting as a means of communicating individual training suggestions and body image differences between athletes. Whereas the athletes received verbal suggestions about training and nutrition from coaches, athletes also felt that coaches modeled diet and exercise habits.

Coach as a Role Model

Although the preceding themes focused on coaches’ use of words to communicate sport body image, their actions were also important in this regard. Coaches modeled healthy diet and exercise to communicate sport body image. Athletes respected coaches for practicing what they preached and setting good examples. For example, P2 felt that her coaches,

have tried to be pretty good role models . . . I know one of our coaches is actually a little overweight and she’s been actually working really hard to lose weight and she’s been doing actually a really good job and stuff like that but she’s still healthy with it so she’s been setting a good umm example.

P2 noted that the coach was modeling healthy exercise behavior:

She [coach] tells us like ya know I like ‘I come in here working hard every morning like and work out before practice at like six o’clock in the morning like you guys can work hard too,’ and like set example by like ya know we all we all can see she’s lost weight and we all can see that she’s taking the initiative and like trying to get a better body image and umm we’re kind of like more proud of her for it.

Strength and conditioning coaches in particular were seen as models for healthy dieting. P6, for instance, was enthusiastic about this characteristic of her weightlifting coach:

My weightlifting coach [WC], every time I see [WC], [WC] is eating like lean steak, or a bell pepper, which normal people sometimes don’t even do that but [WC] is trying to show us, practicing what [WC’s] preaching, not saying ‘Oh, do this’ and then behind closed doors doing something else.

However, not all athletes felt that their coaches were healthy role models. P6 discussed coaches’ nutritional suggestions and reported that coaches who model unhealthy dieting cannot be looked to as a healthy example: “I can’t look at my coach eat because [coach] eats crap . . . [coach] drinks pop, [coach] eats pizza all the time, so can’t really look at [coach] for [a healthy

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example].” Some athletes, thus, did not respect coaches who modeled an unhealthy diet. P6 emphatically stated, “You can’t like be hypocritical, if you want somebody to do something and then you’re not doing that, it’s kind of . . . I wouldn’t understand it and I wouldn’t have any, I wouldn’t have much respect for that person.”

The athletes, thus, experienced coaches’ modeling of diet and exercise as a means of communicating sport body image. The athletes described role modeling as “setting a good example,” but only if the coaches modeled healthy diet and exercise behaviors. Thus, coaches’ actions conveyed a message about the diet and exercise component of sport body image. These messages either confirmed or discounted verbal messages about diet and exercise.

DISCUSSION

This study explored female athletes’ experiences of coaches’ communication of sport body image (CCSBI; verbal and non-verbal). Previous research has explored coaches’ critical body- related comments (e.g., Muscat & Long, 2008) and suggested a number of recommendations for addressing sport body image with athletes (e.g., NEDA, 2008; Thompson & Sherman, 1999). The current study adds to the sport body image literature by describing CCSBI from the female athletes’ perspectives to identify opportunities to create dialogue about sport body image between coaches or coaching staff and athletes. The study also adds to the description of ways in which coaches communicate body image, such as modeling behaviors, and adds a description of athletes’ preferences for CCSBI, such as, coaches’ recognition of sport body image and changes in sport body image. The athletes provided examples of CCSBI that facilitated healthy changes in body image, such as, individualized athlete-centered training. To extend upon previous research about recommendations for addressing body image (Thompson & Sherman, 1999), several considerations and strategies for working individually with athletes to facilitate healthy sport body image were identified. Thus, one of the key contributions to the literature is the identification and description of athletes’ experiences of coaches’ individualized athlete-centered training—more specifically, coaches’ communication of goal setting and guidance regarding changes in female athletes’ sport body image during training.

Coaches encouraged nutrition and physical development during training thereby commu- nicating a healthy, fit sport body image. Like the athletes in similar studies (e.g., Mosewich et al., 2009; Smith & Ogle, 2006), those interviewed here described the communication of the healthy, fit body as emphasizing both muscularity and feelings of healthfulness. Similarly, Mosewich et al. (2009) indicated that athletes negotiate ideas about muscle tone and muscle bulk for sport performance, and Smith and Ogle (2006) indicated athletes described physical functioning and healthfulness as integral to sport performance. This research also supports previous research of the intrapersonal conflict between the sport and social body ideal (e.g., George, 2005; Mosewich et al., 2009), in that there was evidence of this conflict in the athletes’ descriptions of CCSBI. For example, one participant indicated that if muscle bulk is strived for in sport, one may look manly. However, this research makes a unique contribution in that the athletes in the current study reported an emphasis on both nutrition and physical develop- ment as a supportive and acceptable means of communicating sport body image. The athletes indicated that coaches described physical development and nutrition as central to performing well and encouraged them through role modeling and in the sport and training environment.

The athletes in this research study indicated that coaches modeled healthy and unhealthy diet and exercise behaviors. Health educators and teachers have been viewed as role models for exercising and sport participation (Drummond, McGuire, & Bennett, 2002; Payne, Reynolds, Brown, & Fleming, 2003). Thus, coaches’ modeling of healthy behaviors is not a surprising

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finding given the documented influence of modeling on health behavior change (McAlister, Perry, & Parcel, 2008). However, there has been little information to date that explores how athletes experience and perceive coaches’ modeling of diet and exercise habits. The athletes in the current study viewed coaches who modeled healthy diet and exercise behaviors as setting a good example; however, those who modeled an unhealthy diet were perceived as hypocritical. This finding is not presented to be prescriptive for coaches’ diet and exercise habits. The athletes’ descriptions and perceptions of modeling should be considered or reflected upon as a means of communicating sport body image. Also to be considered are the practices of communicating sport body image in the sport and training environment, such as providing athletes with a choice of participation in weight monitoring and physical development.

Coaches tracked and encouraged physical development in the weight room or through e-mail messages to communicate sport body image in the sport and training environment. Al- though coaches should avoid monitoring athletes’ weight and recommending weight change (e.g., NEDA, 2008; Thompson & Sherman, 1999), the current study extends this recommen- dation by indicating that coaches should identify athletes’ preferences for monitoring physical development and identify preferences for coach feedback or guidance to facilitate healthy changes in physical development of sport body image. When tracking physical development with weight-lifting sheets and weigh-ins, for instance, coaches provided athletes with guidance about diet and training. A key contribution to the literature was that tracking physical develop- ment in the sport environment was preferred if the athletes were provided guidance from the documented information and were given a choice to participate in physical tests. For instance, the athletes described that some coaches gave the athletes a choice to participate in testing body fat percentage. The athletes preferred to track physical development with weight-lifting sheets to see progress in muscle strength and performance. CCSBI through e-mail messages was viewed as useful if the information provided guidance about training. However, messages from coaches that encouraged athletes to conform to a body ideal were viewed as offering body comparisons or criticisms.

The athletes in this study perceived comparisons and criticisms as unsupportive and unhelp- ful communication of sport body image, which is consistent with previous research findings (Mosewich et al., 2009; Muscat & Long, 2008) and is consistent with previous recommenda- tions of avoiding critical comments (e.g., Thompson & Sherman, 1999). Similarly, Smith and Ogle (2006) found that female athletes experienced many of the coaches’ comments about their bodies and abilities as “condemnations and censures” (p. 298). Similar experiences were reported in the present study. For instance, the athletes viewed critical comments about ath- letes’ bodies as irrelevant if the athlete was healthy and performing well. Some athletes cited critical comments as reasons for unhealthy dieting, supporting previous research findings of the relationship between unhealthy dieting, such as disordered eating, and intrapersonal and interpersonal body-related pressures (e.g., Beals & Manore, 1994; Kerr et al., 2006; Muscat & Long, 2008). Notably, the athletes indicated that these comments and criticisms were regarding body weight or shape and were not regarding diet or exercise habits. From the athletes’ experiential descriptions of comparisons and criticisms, the current study extends upon the previous research by concluding that comparisons and criticisms are not only dis- tressing (Mosewich et al., 2009), but fail to provide supportive guidance or suggestions to facilitate physical development in sport.

Coaches’ recognition of body change was perceived as an initial, supportive means of CCSBI. For instance, the athletes preferred that coaches recognize the complexities of body image and discuss the process of body change. Extending upon Thompson and Sherman’s (1999) suggestion, it was suggested by the athletes that coaches should still avoid weight- specific recommendations but also provide feedback and guidance regarding diet and exercise

COACHES’ COMMUNICATION OF BODY IMAGE 13

habits to facilitate healthy changes in sport body image. In fact, the athletes felt that coaches’ encouragement of nutritionist feedback was preferred for providing general guidance and support for healthy eating habits. However, the athletes preferred suggestions on an individual basis.

Individualized Training and Goal-Setting to Communicate Sport Body Image

The importance of promoting nutrition for athlete health, and subsequently optimal sport performance has been documented (e.g., Brownell, Rodin, & Wilmore, 1992). Furthermore, the relationship between female athletes’ body image, disordered eating, and physical health has been well-documented (e.g., Greenleaf, Petrie, Carter, & Reel, 2009; Greenleaf, Petrie, Reel, & Carter, 2010), especially within the literature regarding the female athlete triad, which consists of three interrelated components: disordered eating, osteoporosis, and amenorrhea (e.g., Manore, Kam, & Loucks, 2007). The athletes in the present study suggested that coaches should address each individual athlete’s physical capabilities, and thus, provide support for nutrition and physical development on an individual basis. These preferences are similar to existing recommendations of working individually with athletes about body image concerns (Thompson & Sherman, 1999). The athletes in this study also preferred working with coaches and coaching staff, such as nutritionists and strength and conditioning coaches, to develop individualized training plans for nutrition and physical development.

The athletes in the current study indicated that coaches identified nutritionists and strength and conditioning coaches as sources for diet and training suggestions. This finding is con- sistent with the previous recommendation to engage the services of a nutritionist for diet recommendations to address body image concerns and facilitate healthy body image (NEDA, 2008). The athletes in the current study recommended that nutritionists be involved in creat- ing athletes’ individualized goals and diet plans. Furthermore, in the current study strength and conditioning coaches were identified as sources for weight training practices, and these coaches recognized individual athletes’ physical capabilities during training. Coaches and ath- letic teams may use goal setting to influence performance-related psychological states, such as anxiety and confidence, and ultimately to achieve optimal performance (Gould, 2010). The current study offers insight into how coaches and staff may provide guidance regarding athlete nutrition and physical development through individualized goal-setting to promote healthy body image.

In the current study, some athletes set goals with coaches for an individual ideal weight range; however, there are many aspects that impact performance other than the weight or shape of one’s body, such as nutrition and technical or mental skills (e.g., Brownell et al., 1992; Williams, 2010). Individualized athlete-centered training, and goal setting, was described in the study as a means of communicating body image and working individually with the athlete to provide supportive and helpful suggestions and guidance for nutrition and physical development. The individualized training may also be a means of creating a dialogue between coach and athlete about body image. For instance, individualized training and goal setting may engage the coach and athlete in developing plans based on individual capabilities. This training support can include suggestions for developing technical skills for a specific sport or short- term diet and exercise goals. Process goals are short-term, specific, behavioral goals that help athletes achieve a long-term outcome goal (Gould, 2010). Goal setting for an individualized weight range may be viewed as positive and helpful for some athletes. However, it may also be beneficial to set healthy diet and exercise process goals to facilitate healthy body image because these specific diet and exercise goals may provide athletes with direction for maintaining healthy nutrition and physical development. Furthermore, if athletes and coaches

14 A. M. COPPOLA ET AL.

set goals together, both are aware of the athlete’s training plan for nutrition and physical development.

Consideration of Study Limitations and Future Research Directions

This study provides practical suggestions and considerations for working with athletes to facilitate healthy sport body image. However, these suggestions are intended to help prevent unhealthy dieting and exercising, and not to treat athletes’ disordered eating or eating disor- ders. Whereas this study provided an in-depth description of CCSBI, it focused only on the experiences of one group of college athletes at a NCAA Division I institution. This group had access to nutritionists and to strength and conditioning coaches. Other college or high school athletes might not necessarily have the resources to create each individual athlete’s training plan that incorporates suggestions from multiple members of a coaching staff. However, the study contributed to the literature by providing insight into athletes’ experiences and prefer- ences for facilitating healthy sport body image with coaches and a coaching staff. Furthermore, the sample size and level of participant engagement (i.e., one interview) may be a limitation.

The athletes in the current study had similar experiences of coaches’ encouragement of muscularity and similar descriptions of coaches’ supportive and unsupportive communication regardless of sport type. However, athletes’ experiences of CCSBI may differ depending on the type of muscularity encouraged by coaches. For instance, coaches may encourage muscle gain in bulk or tone depending on the athletes’ sport and position or event in sport (see also, Mosewich et al., 2009). Thus, the ability to transfer findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) regarding coaches’ encouragement of muscle gain to both aesthetic and non-aesthetic sport contexts may be limited. However, whereas previous sport body image research has constructed a dichotomy of aesthetic and non-aesthetic sports (e.g., de Bruin, Oudejans, & Bakker, 2007), this finding may suggest that coaches’ encouragement of muscle tone or encouragement of muscle bulk may also be an important sampling consideration for future CCSBI research. Thus, the manner in which coaches communicate muscle bulk and muscle tone should be further explored.

Findings from this study provide other direction for future exploration of female athletes’ experiences of CCSBI. A qualitative description of coaches’ experiences of communication of sport body image may provide additional strategies and considerations for encouraging athletes’ healthy sport body image. Because many coaches may not implement goal-setting effectively (Gould, 2010), the manner in which coaches’ goal-setting strategies for nutrition and physical development influence athletes’ body image perceptions should also be explored in greater depth. CCSBI should also be explored in a sample of male athletes and other competitive athletes (e.g., elite and high school athletes).

CONCLUSION

The athletes in this study identified practical implications for encouraging nutrition and physical development in a supportive manner. They recommended that coaches allow athletes to choose participation in training practices that monitor development, such as physical tests and weigh-ins. They also suggested that coaches should provide guidance about nutrition and physical development throughout training in an effort to support positive body image. However, recognizing the diversity of athlete preferences, the athletes indicated that coaches may benefit from providing training recommendations on an individual basis. For instance, as the athletes indicated, coaches may provide this guidance through individualized goal-setting with an athlete. Coaches might consider individualized diet and exercise goals to enhance

COACHES’ COMMUNICATION OF BODY IMAGE 15

nutrition and physical development and de-emphasize a focus on body or weight ideals to avoid the occurrence of coach or athlete body comparisons and criticisms.

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