WEEK THREE DISCUSSION POSTS MINIMUM 150 WORDS
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6.SOCIALCOGNITIVETHEORY604.pptSocial Cognitive Theory
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Originator
Albert Bandura, Ph.D. Bandura obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa in 1952. In 1953, Bandura was offered a position at Stanford University.
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Approximate Year of Origin
The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) stemmed from the Social Learning Theory (SLT), which has a rich historical background dating back to the late 1800's. Albert Bandura first began publishing his work on SLT in the early 1960's. In 1986, Bandura officially launched the SCT with his book Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.
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Circumstances that led to the development of the Theory
The SCT has its origins in the discipline of psychology, with its early foundation being laid by behavioral and social psychologists. The SLT evolved under the umbrella of behaviorism, which is a cluster of psychological theories intended to explain why people and animals behave the way that they do.
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Behaviorism
Behaviorism, introduced by John Watson in 1913, took an extremely mechanistic approach to understanding human behavior. According to Watson, behavior could be explained in terms of observable acts that could be described by stimulus-response sequences (Crosbie-Brunett and Lewis, 1993; Thomas, 1990). Also central to behaviorist study was the notion that contiguity between stimulus and response determined the likelihood that learning would occur.
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Stimulus-response pathway
- Are there some mediating factors between stimulus and response that regulate behavior?
- rewards or punishments
- Feedback
- Habit
- Freud's instinct
- Tolman's cognitions
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The ‘Social Self'
William James in 1890, whose notion of the 'social self' laid the foundation for the modern SLT tenet of the interaction between personal factors and the environment.
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), who extended Gestaltist's field theory by initiating a shift in psychology from a focus on the individual to a focus on processes between individuals
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Adler
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) posited that a person's behavior is purposeful and motivated by a pursuit of goals.
the importance of one's perception of, and attitude toward, the environment as significant influences on behavior.
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Tolman: Cognitions
- In the 1930's, unobservable variables (or cognitions) played a mediating role between stimulus and response
- introduced the term expectancy.
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Expectation = that something will happen
Expectancy= what will happen
The Social Learning Theory (SLT)
The Social Learning Theory (SLT) was officially launched in 1941 with Miller and Dollard's publication of Social Learning and Imitation.
Their SLT incorporated the principles of learning: reinforcement, punishment, extinction, and imitation of models.
Their book was written to explain how animals and humans model observed behaviors, which then became learned through environmental reinforcements.
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This work expanded on the reciprocal relationship between environment and behavior, while incorporating the beginnings of an internal mediating variable (in this case, drives) into the model. From Miller and Dollard's work came a flood of different versions of SLT. Subsequent work in the behaviorist field changed from a focus on the development of theoretical models, to an emphasis on conducting empirical studies (Woodward, 1982).
Julian Rotter
Julian Rotter introduced the ideas of learning from generalized expectancies of reinforcement and internal/ external locus of control (self-initiated change versus change influenced by others).
According to Rotter, health outcomes could be improved by the development of a sense of personal control over one's life.
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Robert Sears
Robert Sears focused on how children internalize the values, attitudes, and behavior predominant in their culture
Parents foster Internalization.
Sears acknowledged that observational learning occurs early in life
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Walter Mischel
Mischel has developed a positive program for the study of person variables, such as competencies, encoding strategies, expectancies, incentives, and self-regulatory systems.
Focused on observational learning and modeling and emphasized the interaction of person and situation.
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Ronald Akers
Akers proposes that social behavior is shaped by a number of processes, including differential association, differential reinforcement, and cognitive definitions
Akers proposed that the same processes involved in learning and conforming behavior are involved in learning deviant behavior. His theory has been applied to a range of deviant and criminal behaviors.
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Albert Bandura
Bandura's SLT places a heavy focus on cognitive concepts.
His theory focuses on how children and adults operate cognitively on their social experiences and how these cognitions then influence behavior and development.
His theory was the first to incorporate the notion of modeling, or vicarious learning, as a form of social learning.
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Albert Bandura
Bandura introduced several other important concepts, including reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy, and the idea that there can be a significant temporal variation in time lapse between cause and effect.
In 1986, Bandura renamed his SLT, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), as better description of what he had been advocating since the 1960's (Bandura, 1986).
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Albert Bandura
Bandura's SLT is the version most commonly used in public health and psychology
Moreover, his theory is characterized by a broader and more generalized scope than other SLT versions.
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For example, Akers' SLT incorporates a narrowed focus on some of the prominent concepts from Bandura's SLT.
Tenet 1:
Response consequences (such as rewards or punishments) influence the likelihood that a person will perform a particular behavior again in a given situation.
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Note that this principle is also shared by classical behaviorists.
Tenet 2:
Humans can learn by observing others, in addition to learning by participating in an act personally. Learning by observing others is called vicarious learning.
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The concept of vicarious learning is not one that would be subscribed to by classical behaviorists.
Tenet 3:
Individuals are most likely to model behavior observed by others with whom they identify. Identification with others is a function of the degree to which a person is perceived to be similar to one's self, in addition to the degree of emotional attachment that is felt toward an individual.
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Perspectives of Predominant SLT Theorists: These three tenets are represented throughout the work of several prominent SLT theorists, including Rotter, Sears, Mischel, Akers, and Bandura.
Purpose of Theory
To understand and predict individual and group behavior
To identify methods in which behavior can be modified or changed.
Frequently used in interventions aimed at personality development, behavior pathology, and health promotion
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Bandura formulated his findings in a four-step pattern which combines a cognitive view and an operant view of learning.
Attention -- the individual notices something in the environment
Retention -- the individual remembers what was noticed
Reproduction -- the individual produces an action that is a copy of what was noticed
Motivation -- the environment delivers a consequence that changes the probability the behavior will be emitted again (reinforcement and punishment)
Bandura's work draws from both behavioral and cognitive views of learning. He believes that mind, behavior and the environment all play an important role in the learning process.
Overview of the Social Cognitive Theory
- The SCT 's strong emphasis on one's cognitions suggests that the mind is an active force that constructs one's reality, selectively encodes information, performs behavior on the basis of values and expectations, and imposes structure on its own actions
- Through feedback and reciprocity, a person's own reality is formed by the interaction of the environment and one's cognitions.
- Cognitions change over time as a function of maturation and experience (i.e. attention span, memory, ability to form symbols, reasoning skills).
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It is through an understanding of the processes involved in one's construction of reality that enables human behavior to be understood, predicted, and changed.
| Concept | Definition | Implications |
| Environment | Factors physically external to the person | Provide opportunities for social support |
| Situation | Person’s perception of the environment | Correct misperceptions & promote healthful norms |
| Behavioral capability | Knowledge & skill to perform a given behavior | Promote mastery learning through skills training |
| Expectations | Anticipatory outcomes of a behavior | Model positive outcomes of a healthful behavior |
| Expectancies | The values that the person places on a given outcome, incentive | Present outcomes of change that have functional meaning |
| Self-control | Personal regulation of goal-directed behavior or performance | Provide opportunities for self-monitoring, goal setting, problem solving, and self-reward |
| Observational Learning | Behavioral acquisition that occurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others’ behavior | Include credible role models of the targeted behavior |
| Reinforcements | Responses to a person’s behavior that increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence | Promote self-initiated rewards and incentives |
| Self-efficacy | The person’s confidence in performing a particular behavior | Approach behavioral change in small steps to ensure success; seek specificity about the change sought |
| Emotional coping responses | Strategies or tactics that are used by a person to deal with emotional stimuli | Provide training in problem solving and stress management; |
| Reciprocal determinism | The dynamic interaction of the person, the behavior, and the evironment in which the behavior is performed | Consider multiple avenues to behavioral change including environmental, skill, and personal change |
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Reciprocal Determinism
- The SCT explains behavior in terms of a triadic, dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the environment, personal factors, and behavior.
- The SCT recognizes that some sources of influence are stronger than others and that they do not all occur simultaneously.
- The interaction between the three factors will differ based on the individual, the particular behavior being examined, and the specific situation in which the behavior occurs
- Thus, this model of causation as proposed by the SCT is extremely complex.
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Social Cognitive Theory: Individual’s behavior explained by the interaction and combination of:
Reciprocal determinism
Behavior
- Nature
- Frequency
- Intensity
Person
- Personality
- Characteristics
- Cognitive processes
- Self-regulation skills
Environment
- Stimuli from social or physical
- Reinforcement contingencies
Reciprocal Determinism
- The person-behavior interaction involves the bi-directional influences of one's thoughts, emotions, and biological properties and one's actions (Bandura, 1977a;1986;1989). For example, a person's expectations, beliefs, self-perceptions, goals, and intentions give shape and direction to behavior. However, the behavior that is carried out will then affect one's thoughts and emotions. The SCT also accounts for biological personal factors, such as sex, ethnicity, temperament, and genetic predisposition and the influences they have on behavior.
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Social Cognitive Theory: Individual’s behavior explained by the interaction and combination of:
Reciprocal determinism
Behavior
- Nature
- Frequency
- Intensity
Person
- Personality
- Characteristics
- Cognitive processes
- Self-regulation skills
Environment
- Stimuli from social or physical
- Reinforcement contingencies
Social Cognitive Theory: Individual’s behavior explained by the interaction and combination of:
Reciprocal determinism
Behavior
- Hostile or abusive behavior
Person
- Hostile or abusive thinking
Environment
- Environment of hostility or abuse (
Reciprocal Determinism
- A bi-directional interaction also occurs between the environment and personal characteristics (Bandura, 1977a;1986;1989). In this process, human expectations, beliefs, and cognitive competencies are developed and modified by social influences and physical structures within the environment. These social influences can convey information and activate emotional reactions through such factors as modeling, instruction, and social persuasion (Bandura, 1986).
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In addition, humans evoke different reactions from their social environment as a result of their physical characteristics, such as age, size, race, sex, physical attractiveness.
Reciprocal Determinism
- The final interaction occurs between behavior and the environment. Bandura contends that people are both products and producers of their environment (Bandura, 1977a;1986;1989). A person's behavior will determine the aspects of their environment to which they are exposed, and behavior is, in turn, modified by that environment. A person's behavior can affect the way in which they experience the environment through selective attention.
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Based on learned human preferences and competencies, humans select whom they interact with and the activities they participate in from a vast range of possibilities. Human behavior also influences their environment, such as when an aggressive person creates a hostile environment. Thus, behavior determines which of the many potential environmental influences come into play and what forms they will take. In turn, the environment partly determines which forms of one's behavior are developed and activated (Bandura, 1989).
Nature vs. Nurture?
- Inherent within the notion of reciprocal determinism is the concept that people have the ability to influence their destiny, while at the same time recognizing that people are not free agents of their own will. Humans are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped and controlled by the environment.
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Thus, humans function as contributors to their own motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences. Within this SCT perspective, humans are characterized in terms of five basic and unique capabilities: symbolizing, vicarious, forethought, self-regulatory, self-reflective (Bandura, 1986;1989). It is these capabilities that provide humans with cognitive means by which to determine behavior.
Symbolizing Capability
- The SCT maintains that most external influences effect behavior through cognitive processes (Bandura, 1989). However, Bandura suggests that it is symbols that serve as the mechanism for thought. Through the formation of symbols, such as images (mental pictures) or words, humans are able to give meaning, form, and contiguity to their experiences.
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In addition, the capability to form symbols enables humans to store information in their memory that can be used to guide future behaviors. It is through this process that humans are able to model observed behavior.
Symbolizing Capability
- Symbols provide the mechanism that allows for cognitive problem solving and engaging in foresightful action. It is through foresight that one can think through the consequences of a behavior without actually performing the behavior (Bandura, 1989).
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Research indicates that indeed much of human thought is linguistically based, and that there is a correlation between cognitive development and language acquisition (Bandura, 1991).
Vicarious Capability
- Vicarious processes refer to the human ability to learn not only from direct experience, but also from the observation of others. Observational learning allows one to develop an idea of how a new behavior is formed without actually performing the behavior oneself (Bandura, 1977a;1986;1989). This information can then be coded (into symbols) and used as a guide for future action.
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Vicarious Capability
- The inhibitory effect, a positive punishment action, occurs when an observer sees the action of another involved in a social situation being punished for that action.
- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fzsMmWg8LYE&feature=related
As a result of the observations the individual observer can be affected in two separate ways: Inhibitory and disinhibitory
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Vicarious Capability
A disinhibitory effect, a positive reinforcement action, is when an individual is praised for an action and the observer learns from and imitates that action
Vicarious Capability
- Vicarious learning is important in that it enables humans to form patterns of behavior quickly, avoiding time-consuming trial and error, as well as avoiding costly and even fatal mistakes. In addition, vicarious capabilities allows one to explore situations and activities for the attainment of new knowledge that would normally be out of reach due to constraints on time, resources, and mobility.
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For example, TV has vastly expanded the range of models and behaviors one is exposed to every day, allowing people to transcend the boundaries of their own environment (Bandura, 1986).
Vicarious Capability
- Observational learning is governed by four processes:
- attentional span
- retention processes
- motor reproduction processes
- motivational processes
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Observational learning is governed by four processes: attentional span, retention processes, motor reproduction processes, and motivational processes (Bandura, 1969;1977;1986;1989).
EX: dancing
Attentional span refers to a person's ability to selectively observe actions and behaviors in his or her environment. In addition, attentional span mediates the specific information that is extracted from each observation. There are specific observer characteristics as well as modeled activity characteristics that regulate the type and amount of observation that is experienced. For example, the complexity and salience of a modeled activity will influence the amount of attention a person gives to that activity. In addition, the observer is most likely to selectively attend to, and model, behaviors of people that are most like themselves and those that they associate with the most. Observed behavior or activities can only be modeled if they are retained in one's memory.
Retention processes are made possible by the human ability to form symbols from observed behavior that are stored in one's memory. Once symbols are formed and stored in one's memory, they must be converted into appropriate action for modeling to occur. This process is referred to as motor reproduction processes.
Last, the degree to which a behavior is seen to result in a valued outcome (expectancies) will influence the likelihood that one will adopt a modeled behavior (the motivational process).
Forethought Capability
- According to the SCT most human behavior is purposive and regulated by forethought. Forethought is a person's capability to motivate themselves and guide their actions anticipatorily (Bandura, 1989).
- Foresightful behavior is possible because of the human capability to symbolize.
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While the SCT holds that stimuli influences the likelihood of a behavior through the predictive function of an outcome, the stimuli is not automatically linked to the response by contiguity. Instead, previous experiences create expectations of the outcome that will occur as a result of performing a behavior, before the behavior is performed. Therefore, expectations of behavioral outcomes, more so than actual outcomes, influence the likelihood that a behavior will be performed again. Expectancies refer to a person's evaluation of the anticipated outcome. The capacity to regulate one's behavior based on expectations and expectancies provide the mechanism for foresightful behavior.
Foresightful behavior is possible because of the human capability to symbolize. It is through the process of forming symbols that allow a person to represent future events cognitively in the present. Behavior is then influenced when forethought is translated into incentives and action through the self-regulatory mechanism.
Self-Regulatory Capability
- Bandura proposes that self-regulatory systems mediate external influences and provide a basis for purposeful action, allowing people to have personal control over their own thoughts, feelings, motivations, and actions (Bandura, 1989).
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Self-regulation is an internal control mechanism that governs what behavior is performed, and the self-imposed consequences for that behavior. Self-regulation is extremely important because it allows the gradual substitution of internal controls for external controls of behavior
Self-regulation occurs through the interplay of self-produced and external sources of influence, including motivational standards and social and moral standards. The employment of motivational standards as a guide for behavior is a process of discrepancy production (goal setting) and discrepancy reduction (work to attain a goal) (Bandura, 1977a;1986;1989). People continually go through the process of setting goals for themselves and then comparing that goal to their personal accomplishments. In doing so, standards can motivate a person to work harder or modify their behavior in order to meet a goal or standard. Motivation can occur externally, such as a promised monetary reward for receiving an 'A' in a class, or internally, such as when a person feels self-pride when a standard is reached. Three factors seem to determine the degree of self-motivation that occurs (Bandura, 1986;1989). First, a person's self-efficacy for a given behavior dramatically effects their self-motivation for performing that behavior. If a person feels they are capable of achieving the goal, then they are likely to worker harder and give up less easily compared to a person who has low self-efficacy.
A second essential factor for self-motivation is feedback. Through feedback, a person is able to control or adjust their efforts and goals to make them more feasible and realistic. In addition, receiving feedback on performance accomplishments will improve a person's self-efficacy for the behavior. The third factor that influences self-motivation is the anticipated time to goal attainment. Proximal goals are more effective than distal goals in enlisting self-motivation.
Social and moral standards also regulate behavior. The relationship between thought and conduct is mediated through the exercise of moral agency (Bandura, 1986;1989). Through evaluative self-reactions, such as self-approval or self-reprimand, internalized morals and standards can regulate conduct (Bandura, 1986;1991). For example, if a person internalizes the notion that stealing is bad, then they will impose self-sanctions in order to keep their conduct in line with this internal standard. Therefore, if a person is faced with a decision of stealing or not stealing, he or she would anticipate that this action would violate their internal standards and result in self-criticism. As a result, they would self-regulate their own behavior by deciding not to steal.
The development and nature of a moral agency has been the topic of much research. In general, it is thought that people develop moral standards from a variety of influences, such as direct instruction, feedback on behaviors from significant others, and modeling of moral standards by others (Bandura, 1986;1989;1991). Standards are also developed from institutionally organized systems, such as education, media, religion, political, and legal agencies. Bandura contends that observation of behavior often outweighs verbal instruction as an influence on children's internalization of morals and standards. However, the fact that people often differ in the standards that they model (such as changing standards in different social settings), the impact of modeling on the development of personal standards is reduced (Bandura, 1989;1991). People do not passively absorb all the standards of behavior to which they are exposed. Instead, the standards that are internalized are dependent on the degree to which the model is like oneself, the value of an activity, and one's perception of their degree of personal control over the behavior (locus of control). It is through the process of self-regulation that prosocial behavior can be internally maintained (Bandura, 1989,1991).
Self-Reflective Capability
- Self-refection enables people to analyze their experiences, think about their own thought processes, and alter their thinking accordingly. One of the most important types of self-reflection is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy has received an enormous amount of attention in health-related research in the last five years. In fact, self-efficacy has become a central focus of Bandura's research, as he contends that self-efficacy is a major determinant of self-regulation.
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Self-efficacy is a type of self-reflective thought that effects one's behavior (Bandura, 1977b;1989). According to the SCT, people develop perceptions about their own abilities and characteristics that subsequently guide their behavior by determining what a person tries to achieve and how much effort they will put into their performance (Bandura, 1977b).
A person's self-efficacy develops as a result of their history of achievement in a particular area, from observations of others successes and failures, from the persuasion of others, and from one's own physiological state (such as emotional arousal, nervousness, or anxiety) while performing a behavior (Bandura, 1977b). Social comparison of one's own performance to the performance of others, especially peers or siblings, also serves as a strong source of self-efficacy. In addition, schools are considered a strong source of self-efficacy. This is an important consideration in today's society where schools are based on the evaluation of students by comparing individual performance to the group's performance. For those students who lag behind or have trouble with academics, this type of evaluation can result in severe deficiencies in self-efficacy (Rosenholtz and Rosenholtz, 1981).
Usefulness of Theory in
Public Health
- The SCT has been used to study a wide range of health problems, from medical therapy compliance, to alcohol abuse, to immunizations.
- SCT has been employed is the study of moral and value internalization among children.
- SCT aids in understanding how children are socialized to accept the standards and values of their society
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Indeed, this is a topic to which Bandura himself devoted extensive research efforts (Bandura and McDonald, 1963; Bandura, 1989;1991; Bandura and Jordan, 1991).
A number of SCT techniques are currently used in interventions:
Modeling
Skill Training (reasoning) - psycho motor and social skills (refusal skills)
- behavioral rehearsal
Self-Monitoring - a contract with oneself
Contracting - contracting with others; a reward may be involved; specific behaviors; goals; signatures
Limitations
- The theory's comprehensiveness and complexity make it difficult to operationalize
- Many applications of the SCT focus on one or two constructs, such as self-efficacy, while ignoring the others.
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In a set of well known experiments, called the "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura showed that children (ages 3 to 6) would change their behavior by simply watching others.
Three groups of children watched a film in which a child in a playroom behaved aggressively (e.g., hit, kick, yell) towards a "bobo doll." The film had three different endings. One group of children saw the child praised for his behavior; a second group saw the child told to go sit down in a corner and was not allowed to play with the toys; a third group (the control) group saw a film with the child simply walking out of the room. Children were then allowed into the playroom and actions of aggression were noted. The results are shown below.
What do we learn from these data in terms of the differences and similarities between boys and girls? Among different experimental conditions? Was the "model rewarded" really an example of the use of positive reinforcement?
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Bandura and his colleagues also demonstrated that viewing aggression by cartoon characters produces more aggressive behavior than viewing live or filmed aggressive behavior by adults. Additionally, they demonstrated that having children view prosocial behavior can reduce displays of aggressive behavior.
Applications of Social Cognitive & Self-Determination Theory
- Senecal C, Nouwen A, & White D (2000). Motivation and Dietary Self-Care in Adults with Diabetes: Are Self-Efficacy and Autonomous Self-Regulation Complementary or Competing Constructs? Health Psychology 19,5:452-457.
- Interventions for dietary self-care and life satisfaction should aim to increase self-efficacy and autonomy.
- Background: Dietary self-care is central to diabetes management. Using constructs from social cognitive and self-determination theories, the authors sought to determine whether self-efficacy and autonomy explained dietary self-care and life satisfaction.
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Applications of Social Cognitive &
Self-Determination Theory
- Self-efficacy contributes to behavioral motivation by shaping goals, determining amount of effort placed, and shaping expected outcomes.
- Past studies have shown that higher self-efficacy greater adherence to medical regimens
- Autonomous self-regulation (autonomy, internal locus of control) contributes to type of motivation and quality of functioning
- Past studies show that greater autonomy higher life satisfaction
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Applications of Social Cognitive &
Self-Determination Theory
Study surveyed 638 people with diabetes who responded to a mail solicitation from the Quebec Diabetes Association
Study used SEM to examine relationships among dietary self-efficacy and autonomy on adherence and life satisfaction
Because demographic and illness-related factors did not vary significantly across primary measures of interest, they were not included in models.
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Structural Equation Modeling
Applications of Social Cognitive &
Self-Determination Theory
- Findings:
- Self-efficacy and autonomy were both associated with adherence and life satisfaction
- Self-efficacy more strongly related to adherence
- Autonomy more strongly related to life satisfaction
- Self-efficacy and autonomy are complementary rather than competing factors
- Conclusion:
- Interventions to increase adherence should enhance self-efficacy and autonomy (e.g., through realistic goals, problem-solving, social support, and empowerment)
- Self-satisfaction may increase even when dietary behaviors are not pleasurable (due to value system)
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Summary
- SCT emphasizes the interaction of cognitive, environmental and behavioral influences on health behaviors
Reciprocal determinism
- Can be applied to a diverse array of health behaviors, populations, and settings
References
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., & Viswanath, K. (Eds.). (2015). Health behavior: Theory, research, and practice (5th ed.) San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press.
