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Sections in Module 5.2

Intellectual and Language Development

Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood

Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths

5-1

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

5.7: Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

5.8: Summarize the development of language during middle childhood, and explain the cognitive advantages bilingualism offers.

5.9: Describe the five stages of reading, and compare teaching approaches.

5-2

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

5.10: Summarize the various trends in U.S. education.

5.11: Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

5.12: Summarize the approaches to educating children with intellectual disabilities and children who are intellectually gifted in middle childhood.

5-3

Perspectives on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood (1 of 4)

LO 5.7 Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development

The Rise of Concrete Operational Thought

Child enters concrete operational stage in ages 7 to 12

Involves applying logical operations to concrete problems

Children can solve conservation problems

They can take multiple aspects of a situation into account (decentering)

They attain reversibility

They can understand relationship between time and speed

They are tied to concrete, physical reality

5-4

Figure 5-4: Conservation Training

Rural Australian Aborigine children trail their urban counterparts in the development of their understanding of conservation; with training, they later catch up. Without training, around half of 14-year-old Aborigines do not have an understanding of conservation. What can be concluded from the fact that training influences the understanding of conservation? SOURCE: Based on Dasen et al., 1979.

5-5

Source: Based on Dasen et al., 1979.

Perspectives on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood (2 of 4)

LO 5.7 Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development (cont.)

Piaget in Perspective: Right and Wrong

Piaget was masterful at observation

His theories have had a big impact on education

He is criticized for underestimating children’s abilities

Research suggests he is more right than wrong

There are cultural differences in progressing through Piaget’s stages

5-6

Perspectives on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood (3 of 4)

LO 5.7 Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

Information Processing in Middle Childhood

Memory

Short-term memory (working memory)

Memory capacity

Metamemory emerges

Children use control strategies

Improving Memory

Children can be taught control strategies

Keyword strategy is good example

5-7

Memory: Process by which information is recorded, stored, and retrieved

Short-term memory (working memory) improves in middle childhood

Memory capacity may explain why children have trouble solving conservation problems in preschool period

Metamemory emerges—understanding of processes that underlie memory

Children use control strategies to improve cognitive functioning

Perspectives on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood (4 of 4)

LO 5.7 Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

Vygotsky’s Approach to Cognitive Development and Classroom Instruction

Classrooms are places where children should have opportunities to try out new activities

Suggest children should focus on activities involving interaction with others

Cooperative learning

Reciprocal teaching

5-8

Language Development: What Words Mean (1 of 3)

LO 5.8 Summarize the development of language during middle childhood, and explain the cognitive advantages bilingualism offers.

Mastering the Mechanics of Language

Vocabulary continues to increase during school years

Mastery of grammar improves

Use of syntax improves

Some phonemes remain troublesome (j, v, th, zh)

Difficulty decoding sentences dependent on intonation

Use of pragmatics improves

5-9

Language Development: What Words Mean (2 of 3)

LO 5.8 Summarize the development of language during middle childhood, and explain the cognitive advantages bilingualism offers.

Metalinguistic Awareness

Increasing understanding of one’s own use of language

Helps children comprehend when information is unclear

How Language Promotes Self-Control

Language helps children control and regulate own behavior

Children use “self-talk” to regulate behavior

5-10

Language Development: What Words Mean (3 of 3)

LO 5.8 Summarize the development of language during middle childhood, and explain the cognitive advantages bilingualism offers.

Bilingualism: Speaking in Many Tongues

English second language for nearly 1 in 5 Americans

Educators challenged by children speaking little or no English

One approach: Children initially taught in their native language while learning English

Another approach: Immersion

Advantages of bilingualism

Greater metalinguistic awareness

Cognitive flexibility

Higher self-esteem

May improve IQ scores

5-11

Review: Intellectual and Language Development (1 of 2)

Piaget believed school-age children are in the concrete-operational stage.

Information processing approaches focus on quantitative improvements in memory and sophistication of mental programs.

Vygotsky believed children should have opportunity to experiment and participate actively with peers in their learning.

5-12

Review: Intellectual and Language Development (2 of 2)

As language develops:

Vocabulary, syntax, and pragmatics improve

Metalinguistic awareness grows

Language is used as a self-control device

Bilingual students show more metalinguistic awareness, grasp the rules of language more explicitly, and demonstrate greater cognitive sophistication.

5-13

Check Yourself: Intellectual and Language Development

Vygotsky proposed that cognitive advances take place when children are exposed to information within their __________.

A) sphere of logic

B) zone of proximal development

C) region of metamemory

D) domain of control strategies

5-14

Answer: B

Reading: Learning to Decipher and Meaning Behind Words (1 of 2)

LO 5.9 Describe the five stages of reading, and compare teaching approaches.

Reading Stages

Reading skill develops over several stages:

Stage 0: Learn letter names and small words

Stage 1: Learn letter names and sounds

Stage 2: Read aloud with fluency

Stage 3: Reading becomes a way to learn

Stage 4: Able to read and process information

5-15

Stage 0, from birth to the start of first grade, where children learn the essential prerequisites for reading, including identification of the letters in the alphabet, writing their names, and reading a few words.

Stage 1, first and second grades, is the first real reading, but it largely involves phonological decoding skill in which children can sound out words by sounding out and blending letters.

Stage 2, typically around second and third grades, is when children learn to read aloud with fluency.

Stage 3 extends from fourth to eighth grades and involves reading becoming a means to an end and an enjoyable way to learn.

Stage 4 is when the child understands reading in terms of reflecting multiple points of view.

Reading: Learning to Decipher and Meaning Behind Words (2 of 2)

LO 5.9 Describe the five stages of reading, and compare teaching approaches.

How Should We Teach Reading?

Approaches

Code-based: Emphasizes phonics

Whole-language: Children learn as they learn to talk, immersed in literature

Reading produces changes in wiring of the brain

Boosts organization of the visual cortex

Improves processing of spoken language

5-16

Educational Trends: Beyond the Three Rs (1 of 4)

LO 5.10 Summarize the various trends in U.S. education.

Schools in the United States are returning to traditional three R’s (reading, writing, and arithmetic)

Elementary schools are stressing accountability (tests assess student competence)

Demographics are shifting:

Proportion of Hispanics will double in 50 years

Educators increasingly serious about multicultural concerns

5-17

Educational Trends: Beyond the Three Rs (3 of 4)

LO 5.10 Summarize the various trends in U.S. education.

Fostering a Bicultural Identity

Educators recommend children develop a bicultural identity

Maintain original cultural identity while integrating into the dominant culture

5-18

Cultural Dimensions: Multicultural Education

Culture is a set of behaviors, beliefs, values and expectations shared by a particular society.

Subcultural groups are racial, ethnic, religious, socioeconomic, or gender groups in a culture.

Recent goals are to establish multicultural education to help minority students develop competence in the culture of the majority while maintaining an identity in their original culture.

5-19

Educational Trends: Beyond the Three Rs (4 of 4)

LO 5.10 Summarize the various trends in U.S. education.

Schooling Around the World and Across Genders: Who Gets Educated?

More than 160 million children do not receive primary education

100 million only receive the level of our elementary school

Close to 1 billion individuals are illiterate

Most of the uneducated are women

Expectations of education are equal across genders in the United States

5-20

Review: Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood (1 of 2)

Five stages of reading:

Stage 0: Learn letter names and small words

Stage 1: Learn letter names and sounds

Stage 2: Read aloud with fluency

Stage 3: Reading becomes a way to learn

Stage 4: Able to read and process information

Teaching reading can occur in two ways:

Code-based

Whole language

5-21

Review: Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood (2 of 2)

Schools are focusing on fundamentals.

Educators help minority children develop a bicultural identity where their original culture is supported while they are integrating into the dominant culture.

Education is considered a right in the United States and many other countries, but millions of children around the world still don’t get a primary education.

5-22

Check Yourself: Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood

According to the __________ approach to reading, reading should be taught by presenting the basic skills underlying reading. Examples include phonics and how letters and words are combined to make words.

A) whole-language

B) linguistic

C) code-based

D) dynamic

5-23

Answer: C

Intelligence Benchmarks: Differentiating the Intelligent from the Unintelligent (1 of 7)

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

Binet’s Test

Three important legacies:

Pragmatic approach to constructing intelligence tests; defined intelligence as that which his test measured

Linked intelligence and school success

Invented the concept of IQ, linking intelligence test score to mental age

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Mental age

Chronological age

Deviation IQ scores

Two-thirds of all people fall within 15 points of the average

As scores rise and fall beyond this range, the percentage falls significantly

5-24

Intelligence: Capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges

• MENTAL AGE is the typical intelligence level found for people at a given chronological age.

• CHRONOLOGICAL (OR PHYSICAL) AGE is the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test.

Scores today are deviation IQ scores, so that the degree of deviation from the average (100) permits calculation of the proportion of people who have similar scores.

Intelligence Benchmarks: Differentiating the Intelligent from the Unintelligent (2 of 7)

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

Measuring IQ: Present-day Approaches to Intelligence

Intelligence tests

Stanford-Binet (fifth edition; SB5)

Wechsler (fifth edition; WISC-V)

Kaufman (second edition; KABC-II)

Reasonably predict school performance but not later success

5-25

• One of the most widely used tests today is the STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALES, FIFTH EDITION (SB5), a test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested.

• The WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN, FIFTH EDITION (WISC-V), is a test for children that provides verbal and performance (or nonverbal) skills as well as a total score.

• The KAUFMAN ASSESSMENT BATTERY FOR CHILDREN, SECOND EDITION (KABC-II), tests children’s ability to integrate different kinds of stimuli simultaneously and to use step-by-step thinking

Intelligence Benchmarks: Differentiating the Intelligent from the Unintelligent (3 of 7)

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

What IQ Tests Don’t Tell: Alternative Conceptions of Intelligence

Two kinds of intelligence

Fluid (ability to deal with new problems)

Crystallized (store of information)

5-26

Intelligence Benchmarks: Differentiating the Intelligent from the Unintelligent (4 of 7)

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

What IQ Tests Don’t Tell: Alternative Conceptions of Intelligence (cont.)

Gardner suggests eight intelligences:

Musical Intelligence

Bodily kinesthetic intelligence

Logical mathematical intelligence

Linguistic intelligence

Spatial intelligence

Interpersonal intelligence

Intrapersonal intelligence

Naturalist intelligence

5-27

Intelligence Benchmarks: Differentiating the Intelligent from the Unintelligent (5 of 7)

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

What IQ Tests Don’t Tell: Alternative Conceptions of Intelligence (cont.)

Vygotsky suggests that we must measure developing processes as well

Robert Sternberg: Triarchic theory of intelligence

Componential element (how people process and analyze information)

Experiential element (insightful)

Contextual element (practical intelligence)

5-28

• Robert Sternberg developed the TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE, which states that intelligence consists of three aspects of information processing: componential, experiential, and contextual.

(1) The componential element reflects how people process and analyze information.

(a) Infer relationships between parts

(b) Solve problems

(d) Score highest on traditional IQ tests

(2) The experiential element is the insightful component:

(a) Compare new information to what is already known

(b) Can combine and relate facts in novel and creative ways

(3) The contextual deals with practical intelligence, the demands of the everyday environment.

Intelligence Benchmarks: Differentiating the Intelligent from the Unintelligent (6 of 7)

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

Group Differences in IQ

Explaining Racial Differences in IQ

Major controversy

If intelligence is determined by heredity and fixed at birth, can’t alter

If intelligence is determined by environment, modifying social conditions a promising strategy to improve intelligence

5-29

Intelligence Benchmarks: Differentiating the Intelligent from the Unintelligent (7 of 7)

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

The Bell Curve Controversy

In the book The Bell Curve, Herrnstein and Murray argue IQ is primarily inherited

Most developmentalists believe that cultural and social minority groups score lower due to nature of the tests

If economic and social factors are taken into account, mean IQ scores of black and white children are similar

IQ is now seen as both nature and nurture

Best approach is to ensure all children have opportunity to develop their full potential

5-30

Below and Above Intelligence Norms: Intellectual Disabilities and Intellectual Giftedness (1 of 4)

LO 5.12 Summarize the approaches to educating children with intellectual disabilities and children who are intellectually gifted in middle childhood.

Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, enacted in 1975

Assured all children with special need would be placed in the least restrictive environment in the schools

Called mainstreaming (integration of special needs with traditional classrooms)

Success of mainstreaming has led some to propose a full inclusion model

5-31

Below and Above Intelligence Norms: Intellectual Disabilities and Intellectual Giftedness (2 of 4)

LO 5.12 Summarize the approaches to educating children with intellectual disabilities and children who are intellectually gifted in middle childhood.

Below the Norm: Intellectual Disability

1 to 3 percent of school-age children are disabled

Intellectual disability characterized by significant limitations, both in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior

This covers many everyday social and practical skills

Familial intellectual disability occurs when there is no apparent cause, but there is a history of disability in the family

Most common causes are fetal alcohol syndrome and Down syndrome

Typically measured by IQ test

5-32

Below and Above Intelligence Norms: Intellectual Disabilities and Intellectual Giftedness (3 of 4)

LO 5.12 Summarize the approaches to educating children with intellectual disabilities and children who are intellectually gifted in middle childhood.

Below the Norm: Intellectual Disability (cont.)

Classifications of intellectual disability

Mild intellectual disability

Moderate intellectual disability

Severe intellectual disability

Profound intellectual disability

5-33

Classifications of intellectual disability

(1) MILD INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY represents 90 percent of the intellectually disabled. IQ ranges from 50 to 70 and with training they can hold jobs and function independently. They will reach a third- to sixth-grade level in schooling.

(2) 5 to 10 percent are classified as having a MODERATE INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY with an IQ of 35 to 55. They are slow to develop language skills and generally do not progress beyond the second grade. They typically will need supervision.

(3) Those with SEVERE INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY have IQs ranging from 20 to 40 and PROFOUND INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY is below 20. Generally, they will never speak, have poor motor control, and need 24-hour care.

Below and Above Intelligence Norms: Intellectual Disabilities and Intellectual Giftedness (4 of 4)

LO 5.12 Summarize the approaches to educating children with intellectual disabilities and children who are intellectually gifted in middle childhood.

Above the Norm: The Gifted and Talented

3 to 5 percent of school-age children are gifted and talented

Show evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capacity, or specific academic fields

Tend to be outgoing, well adjusted, and popular

Two approaches to educating:

Acceleration (allow movement at own pace)

Enrichment (kept at grade level but given activities to do deeper study)

5-34

Review: Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths (1 of 2)

Measuring intelligence involves testing skills that promote academic success.

Examples of intelligence tests are the WISC-IV and the KABC-II.

Recent theories suggest there may be several distinct intelligences that reflect different ways of processing information.

5-35

Review: Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths (2 of 2)

Children with special needs must be educated in the least restrictive environment.

This has led to mainstreaming.

The needs of the gifted and talented are met through acceleration or enrichment programs.

5-36

Check Yourself: Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths (1 of 2)

According to Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence, the three aspects of information processing are __________.

A) contextual, referential, and crystallization

B) developmental, componential, and structural

C) experiential, experimental, and judgmental

D) componential, experiential, and contextual

5-37

Answer: D

Check Yourself: Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths (2 of 2)

For children whose intelligence falls below the normal range, the recommendation from the Education for All Handicapped Children Act is that they be educated in __________ environment.

A) a separate but equal

B) the most restrictive

C) the least restrictive

D) a needs-oriented

5-38

Answer: C

Applying Lifespan Development

How do fluid and crystallized intelligence interact? Which of the two is likely to be more influenced by genetics and which by environment? Why?

human growth

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