How do various drinks influence athlete performance [caffeinated, potassium-rich, protein-rich, vitamin-water, carbohydrate-rich, exercise drinks, sport drinks, energy drinks, fruit juice, soft drinks]?
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598PPT01IntrotoRES-2020.pptxPowerPoint 01 PED 598 Introduction to Research
Dr. Terry Conkle - 2020
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Why Should we Learn or Know About Research?
Professionally (e.g., physical educator, sport coach, fitness/ conditioning/strength specialist, certified athletic trainer, physical therapist) most of us must know how to read and comprehend research.
At some point, many professionals must understand the basics of conducting research, either for completing requirements of a degree program or to conduct a study for their own reasons.
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Critical Reading for Understanding
We must be good consumers of research reports written by others.
In an information-rich “electronic” society, the main issue is NOT accessing various information, but determining whether it is sound and reliable info.
Although there is no “fool-proof” method for judging the accuracy of information, an important professional skill is having the ability for critical reading (i.e., analyzing or critiquing it intelligently).
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Analyzing or Critiquing Research
Critical reading permits one to assess the relevance, accuracy and credibility of a work or source, to determine if there is adequate evidence and justification to support an authors' claims, and to understand research implications, generalizability and applicability to the “real world.”
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What is “Research?”
A broad term relating to a “systematic and rigorous process” of posing a focused question, one that requires an answer or solution, and drawing conclusions based on findings.
Research is a search for “truth” and “knowledge.”
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A Fun View of Research: It's an Adventure, Investigating & Exploring
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Who Conducts Research?
3 Major Responsibilities of U.S. Higher Education
Instruction or Teaching
Service or Extension
Research
Visibility brings students (paying customers)
End products become conference presentations, whole books, book chapters, published articles, etc.
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Other Research Activity
The U.S. Government and its agencies
The U.S. Military
Industry (product RES & Development)
Students - Thesis or Dissertation (Degree Requirements)
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What is Research?
The search for “truth” and “knowledge”
A careful systematic means of solving problems
A research problem = a question
The most vital step is developing/creating a good Q
(This applies to a study as well as a “Lit Review”)
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The Complete Nature of Research
Systematic – ID & labeling of key variables, a RES design to test associations among variables, data collected.
Logical – Examination of RES procedures allows evaluation of conclusions & for replication.
Empirical – Data collected / conclusions drawn.
Reductive – Data are used to establish general relationships among variables.
Replicable – A recorded RES process - findings can be tested.
Replication occurs when a study is copied or reproduced
using similar methods by other researchers,
often seeking to find the same or similar results.
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Arriving at a RES Problem / Question
Reading previously published literature
Curiosity
A Keen Interest
A Professor
Serendipity
Controversies, debates, conflicts on a topic
Theses & Dissertations (Recommendations @ end for future study)
Reading findings that seem wrong – setting-up a RES design & testing previous results
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Research Report v. Professional Journals
Definition of Peer-Reviewed (Merriam-Webster): a process by which a scholarly work (such as a paper or a research proposal) is checked by a group of experts (usually 2-5 reviewers) in the same field of study to ensure it meets the necessary standards for publication before it is accepted by the journal editor.
Peer-Reviewed research report articles are also known as: scientific, scholarly, academic, or refereed.
Professional articles are more general and informational, and typically are not IMRaD format reports of research. They are more practical, and content is ready for use in the field. Professional articles are also-peer-reviewed in/for/by reputable journals. These may also be considered academic.
Can usually determine professional from scientific from its articles or;
Author Guidelines or Instructions for Contributors
found On-line @ journal web-site; or, Inside each hard-copy edition
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Characteristics of a Peer-Reviewed Article
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Articles are long (approx. 10-35 pages, possibly up to 50 pages)
Includes comprehensive References, from in-text citations.
There is often an abstract.
There is a gap between date of paper submission and acceptance for peer-review to have been likely.
Authors often affiliated w/ an institution (e.g., university or college).
Primary Source / Primary Work
This the Ideal Source!
It is a report of an original research study, firsthand from the author(s)
It may be in unpublished manuscript form
It may be a published article in a scholarly journal
It may be a full report in presentation format
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Secondary Source / Secondary Work
NOT the ideal source, it can be found in countless places. Any source that is not an Original Research Report by those who conducted the study or studies.
A Commentary or Editorial Opinion
A Position or Consensus Statement
A published Narrative Literature Review
A published “professional article” with several citations of previous research
A magazine article citing supporting studies
An Encyclopedia
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Research Addresses 4 Questions
What was the problem? The answer = Introduction
The background and context
How was the problem studied? The answer =Methods/ Methodology; subjects, instrumentation, procedures
What was found? The answer = Results/Findings
and
What do the findings mean? The answer = Discussion
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IMRaD Format and SIP
I
M
R
a
D
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Continuum of RES Problems
Basic
Deals w/ theoretical issues
Animals/Humans subjects
Primarily conducted in labs
Carefully controlled
Results often not practical
Few studies are purely 1 or other, often a mix
Applied
Answers immediate problems
Human subjects
Real-world settings
Lacks excellent control
Results directly useful
Generally considered inferior by RES purists
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A Sample of HPERD Sub-specialties & Broad RES Areas
Biomechanics Kinesiology
Sport Sociology Exercise Phys./Sci.
Sport Psychology Physical Education
Recreation Motor Behavior
Sport Management Motor Learning
Athletic Training/Sport Med Motor Development
Physical Therapy Coaching (Sport Pedagogy)
Countless sub-topics/problems related to each
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The Research Process
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5 Criteria for Selecting a RES Problem
Workability – are limits w/in reasonable range,
are all necessary components easily attainable?
Critical Mass – Is there enough literature on the topic?
Interest – Is there a passion for the topic?
Theoretical Value* – Will it contribute to the “body of knowledge?”
Practical Value* – Will it improve things in RL practice?
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Quality Research Involves Some/All
IDing & Delimiting (choices made by the researcher to define) a problem
Searching, Reviewing, & Effectively Writing the key Lit
Specifying & Defining > 1 Testable Hypothesis
Designing the RES to Test the Hypothesis or Hypotheses
Selecting / Describing / Testing / Treating the Subjects
Analyzing the Data & Reporting the Results
Discussing the Meaning and Implications of the Findings
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How to Read RES
Be familiar w/ publications relevant to the field of interest
Read articles that are of interest personally, first
Studies do NOT “prove” anything – look for ideas, facts, indications – not “eternal truths” – it becomes “knowledge” after consistent replication
Read the title first, for key info; the abstract 2nd, for a summary of contents/findings; then the entire article for methodological details and interpretations
Try to understand the statistics, and use common sense to understand the statistical concepts
Be objective but read critically – how scientifically sound was the study?
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Research Types w/ Examples (Deals w/ already existing data or phenomena that are observed or analyzed)
Analytical Research Studies – in-depth study & evaluation of available information, to help explain a complex phenomenon
May be Historical, Philosophical, Critical Review, Meta-analysis
Descriptive Research Studies – a study of “current status”
Survey (present practices/opinions), Questionnaire (Can be a Difference Study)
Interview (simply oral questioning of subjects)
Case Studies
Correlational or Association Studies
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Additional Types of RES
Experimental Research – The most scientific of all RES types 2 or more group treatments are manipulated, to cause things to occur - cause-and-effect can be established, as many factors as possible are controlled (establishes cause-and-effect situations)
2 or more groups and their means compared for differences
Qualitative Research – First-hand presence by the researcher, personal observation, or interviews
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Another View of Research Types
Experimental or Quasi-Experimental – Conducted w/ groups
pre-test/post-test, post-test only, group comparisons, or time-series
Descriptive – Correlational (Association of variables), Surveys, or
Qualitative (case studies, grounded theory)
Mixed Methods – Includes 1 or more research designs from
Experimental/Quasi-Experimental, and/or Descriptive types of RES
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Research in Education
The world is full of debates regarding many topics and issues. Education is no different: Phonics or Whole Language; Calculators or No Calculators; Tracking or Mixed-Ability Classes; Student-Centered or Content-Centered Curricula; Small Class Size or Mass Classes; Expanding Pre-School or Starting in Grade 1; Year-Around School or Traditional 2-Semester/36-week Schooling; By what grade-level should students be expected to achieve reading competency and literacy? The list goes on, and the world of Human Performance and Physical Activity has not yet been mentioned!!
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The Debate
With every debatable issue, each side can cite “studies” that may support their stance. Who should be believed?
If there have been no studies, then a topic is merely opinion, and not factual.
How often are articles read that state “research shows” but they simply talk about ideology, some hunches, or the author preferences (opinions, not data-based facts)?
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Is Research an Art or a Science?
First, let’s review what a “profession” is and whether each one of us is in a “profession,” or is entering one.
A profession, according the Webster’s Dictionary (2018), is “a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation.”
There are two key differences between Art and Science. The 1st is that Art is subjective, and Science is objective. The 2nd is that Art expresses knowledge, often in the form of subjective representation, and Science is the system of acquiring and documenting knowledge.
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Why There may be a Research-to-Practice Gap
Some RES lacks trustworthiness due to poor quality of design and implementation.
RES often lacks usability - results are not always written clearly and methods are not adequately described.
It is often difficult for practitioners to obtain RES info quickly and efficiently.
“Evidence-based Practice” involves using “effective strategies in a professional field that are based on trustworthy evidence (support and loyalty to time-tested methods or strategies in the field) and research results”
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Best Practices Based on RES
Developing a RES Question
Searching and understanding the literature for the current state of knowledge on a topic
Developing a research plan
Collecting and analyzing data
Drawing conclusions
Sharing the conclusions publicly (publication or presentation)
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Key Terms to Know
Experimental Research
Descriptive Research
Mixed Methods Research
Quantitative Methods Research
Qualitative Methods Research
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Population
Sample
Generalization
Inference
Validity
Reliability
Statistically Significant
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Experimental Research
Seeks to determine or identify cause-and-effect relationships. To determine cause-and-effect a study must be experimental or quasi-experimental.
For example, if X is performed Y is the result.
For example, if Treatment Group A does one protocol, Treatment Group B does a different protocol, and Treatment Group C undergoes a 3rd protocol, what are the different results and if there are statistically significant differences detected among the groups.
RL example = 2nd Grade Group A is taught to read by Method 1, 2nd Grade Group B is taught to read by Method 2, and 2nd Grade Group C is taught to read by Method 3. Results may be that Group B increases reading speed significantly faster than Group A; but Group C can read significantly faster than Groups A and B (all at the end of 36 weeks).
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Descriptive Research
The researcher attempts to report the status of what already exists.
The purpose is to understand and report the characteristics/attributes/ qualities of a current or past phenomenon.
For example, Dr. Conkle has been involved in a study for 3 years to determine what variables best correlate with winning an interscholastic state championship football game.
Example 2 = a study in GA shows that 95% of elementary classroom teachers are female (05% male). Of all GA elementary classroom teachers, 55% are African American, 42% Caucasian, and 03% are categorized as “Other.” One percent have a doctoral degree, 59% have a Master’s Degree, and 40% have a Bachelor’s Degree.
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Mixed Methods Research
Such studies involve more than one type of research design.
For example, it could utilize a pre-test/post-test comparison to experimentally determine group differences in math achievement, using 2 different curriculum approaches to Algebra (Group A v. Group B); and, survey teachers and students to determine their (existing) perceptions (status) of the 2 curricula.
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Quantitative Methods
Used in both experimental and quasi-experimental, as well as descriptive research. Such methods assign or utilize (“real” or “observed”) numbers to sequential levels of variables being studied, for statistical analysis.
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Qualitative Methods
Used for descriptive research purposes.
The goal may be to analyze written or oral language (jargon, vernacular), and actions to determine patterns, themes, or theories to provide insight into certain situations.
Qualitative data may be derived from personal interviews, observations, or review of documents.
Qualitative researchers “Capture what actually occurs or what is actually said.”
Data analysis techniques for qualitative inquiry may include naturalistic theory, grounded theory, case study analysis, etc.
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Independent Variable(s)
The variable that is manipulated and controlled by the researcher in hope of causing an effect. The variable that is different between groups being compared in many cases.
For example = Which resistance training method used for 18 weeks will lead to the greatest increase in lower body muscular strength? Group 1, Method A
Group 2, Method B
Group 3, Method C
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Dependent Variable(s)
The variable (the effect, outcome, or result) that may change due to the influence of an (IV).
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Population
The large, global, universal, total, full, complete, group of potential subjects or participants, with certain identifiable characteristics (may be human, animal, plant, or “thing”).
In experimental studies, the researcher often chooses a “representative sample” from the overall population of interest.
A Representative Sample is one that has the same or similar attributes/characteristics/qualities to the population of interest.
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Sample & Sampling
Sample – Participants or subjects included in a study, from a universal population.
Sampling – Selecting o f participants for a study from a population of interest.
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Generalization, Generalizable, Generalizability
A study can be generalized if its results can be applied to a population of interest.
Inference - A process whereby a conclusion is drawn without complete certainty, but with some degree of statistical probability relative to the evidence on which it is based.
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Reliability
Reliability - The degree to which results of a measurement, calculation, or specification (data set) can be depended on as accurate and consistent.
Validity – The best available approximation to truth or falsity of propositions in a research study. It is an indication of how sound the research is. More specifically, validity applies to both the design and the methods of research. Validity in data collection means that findings truly represent the phenomenon the researchers are claiming to measure. Does it measure what it purports to measure.
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Statistical Significance & Statistically Significant
Statistically Significant – Changes in one or more variables is greater than a predicted change due to chance. The term significance level (alpha or α) is used to refer to a pre-chosen probability and the term "P value" is used to indicate a probability. The alpha should always be set before an experiment to avoid bias. If the observed p-value is lower than alpha, then it is concluded that a result is statistically significant.
Most authors refer to statistically significant as P < 0.05 (less than 05% chance of the results being incorrect) and statistically highly significant as P < 0.001 (less than one in a thousand chance of being wrong). P-values can be shown as: 0.10 (not often done due to perceived weakness of findings), or 0.05 0.01 0.001 0.0001
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Complete Steps of “The Research Process”
Step 1 = A RES question (Q) or problem is identified
Step 2 = It is determined what is already known re: the Q or problem
Step 3 = A hypothesis is posited, or a narrow focus is determined
Step 4 = For a RES study, a plan is developed to test the hypothesis or answer the Q
Step 5 = The study is conducted
Step 6 = Data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted
Step 7 = Finding are communicated or reported to others
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