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Bold or Beautiful? The Duplicity of Women Protagonists in

Indian Advertisements

Pooja Prabhavalkar and Megha Deuskar

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to look at the portrayal of women in advertisements. Advertisements are a tool used to influence and modify consumer behaviour and attitudes and hence can have an impact on our daily lives. The portrayal of women with respect to gender stereotyping and objectification in advertisements over three decades was studied. Fifteen raters were shown five advertisements per decade starting from 1990s to the present year and chi square analysis revealed that the portrayal of women with respect to the role they play has changed over the three decades and has become less stereotypical. However the appearance ratings showed that women’s bodies continue to be portrayed as thinner and fairer than the average, thus pointing to an implied message of subtle objectification.

Key words: Advertisements, Body image, Gender stereotyping, Objectification

INTRODUCTION

Gender stereotypes are attributes that differentiate men and women, they are socially sanctioned roles. For women especially stereotyping can have negative consequences in terms of restricting her life choices, career opportunities and leading to body dissatisfaction. The status of women in society has undoubtedly improved as is evident from the higher number of women seeking education, entering the workforce and also playing an active role in public life. They are not only consumers with increased buying power but also decision makers.

Paradoxically, the objectification of women’s bodies continues. Objectification refers to a tendency to treat women as objects to be enjoyed by others (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). It occurs when a woman’s body or certain specific body parts are singled

Journal of Psychosocial Research Vol. 13, No. 1, 2018, 73-82

Pooja Prabhavalkar and Megha Deuskar

J. Psychosoc. Res.

out for the enjoyment for others. Wearing revealing clothes, showing sexual readiness and men passing sexist remarks or engaging in sexually objectifying behaviour are some of the ways in which media promotes the idea of sexual objectification as normal.

The mass media contributes heavily in shaping our socio cultural standards due to the sheer nature and pervasiveness of it (Tiggemann & McGill, 2004). Advertisements are a ubiquitous part of our lives and exert the potential for influence and change. Along with products they also sell a way of life and set the standard for our personal joys and aspirations, for what is desirable and normal (Stankiewicz & Rosselli, 2008). In a sense they are not only a reflection of the norms of our society but also become benchmarks for the ideal way of life, something we aspire to reach. According to the Cultivation theory (Gerbner, Morgan & Signorelli, 1986) television viewing has long term effects on the attitudes of the viewers making them susceptible to the belief that the content shown is real and valid. Interestingly the impact of this is gradual and shapes our reality and eventually our culture.

Most of the research on objectification has been done on American women, while relatively little has been done on women of color, and even less on Indian women specifically.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Over the years, research has been done on the impact of print advertisements on various psychological constructs (Kumari & Shivani, 2012; Das, 2000). In a study done on print advertisements it was found that the role portrayal of women in India has changed and she is depicted in a less stereotypical manner (Das, 2000). However the same study concluded that owing to the patriarchal nature of society, the women are depicted in neutral rather than non traditional and career oriented roles which might be threatening to the viewers. Tiggemann & McGill (2004) found that not only was there a negative effect on mood and body dissatisfaction after viewing thin ideal print advertisements of women but that this relationship was not moderated by trait variables, indicating that even after a brief exposure to the advertisements all the women were equally susceptible to the negative effects. Women more than men are at risk for developing and maintaining poor body image. This is often due to the explicit and implicit messages that she receives (Cash et al, 2004) which impact cognitive processes along with affective states. In advertisements, men are portrayed with an emphasis on their face and head however it is seen that for women the emphasis is on the body (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). The female models are also generally unrealistically thin (Nagar & Virk, 2017) which contributes to body dissatisfaction and negatively affects mood states of young women (Yamaiya et al, 2004). As advertisements have been described as “condensed typifications” (Allan & Coltrane, 1996) of gender roles, the current study is looking at the role it plays in perpetuating gender stereotyping

Bold or Beautiful? The Duplicity of Women Protagonists in Indian Advertisements

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and body image. The aim is to explore the paradoxical depiction of women in Indian advertisements.

The research question of the present study was whether the portrayal of women in advertisements has changed over the last three decades. The second question was if the body image in terms of the body size and skin tone of the model has changed over the decades. The researchers hypothesized that 1) women in the advertisements are depicted in a less stereotyped manner over the decades 2) objectification of female protagonists has increased over the decades.

METHOD

Selection of Advertisements

Due to the absence of a comprehensive database of advertisements the researchers used a combination of online resources, a search was run on Google and YouTube using the keywords, “Indian ads”, “from the 1990’s”, “from 2000s” and “from 2010”. Based on the results a compilation of ten advertisements per decade was made from 1990 to 1999, 2000 to 2009 and from 2010 to 2017. No advertisement for cosmetic or skin whitening creams or ones that featured Hindi movie actors were selected. Five advertisements were selected from each of the three decades by an assistant who was blind to the nature of the study. There were a total of 15 raters, 6 male raters and 9 female raters whose age ranged from 23 to 52 years (mean age of 34.5 years). The raters were selected based on their expertise in the field of psychology and the mental health profession they worked either as practicing therapists or counsellors or academicians. All the raters were well versed in Hindi and English languages as the advertisements featured both these languages.

PROCEDURE

The study was conducted online, the raters viewed the fifteen advertisements in random order and then answered the questionnaire created by the researchers. The questions were framed to study gender stereotyping and body image perceptions. To study gender stereotyping three questions were used. Women’s participation in the labour force is influenced by the social and gender norms prevailing in society. To study this aspect a question was asked on the perception of the occupation of the female protagonist. Men are usually shown as active and knowledgeable while women are objectified (Das, 2000). Women traditionally are shown to play a submissive and secondary role to the main male character. This can be a reflection of the prevailing norms of society. To study this two questions were included. One was to study the perception of the role played by the female protagonist. Raters were asked whether they saw the role of the woman falling on a continuum ranging from ‘very active’ to

Pooja Prabhavalkar and Megha Deuskar

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‘very passive’. The second question was regarding the perception of the role played with respect to the speaking part by the female protagonist. A speaking part given to a female character in an advertisement indicates a more active role as opposed to an ornamental depiction. In order to study body image perceptions, two questions were used. The Stunkard figure rating scale designed by and illustrated in Stunkard, Sorenson, & Schulsinger (1980) ( c.f Cardinal, Kaciroti & Lumeng, 2006) was used to assess the perception of body size.

The raters were asked to compare the drawn figure with that of the female protagonist on a nine point scale, with 1 indicating the thinnest and 9 the largest silhouette. And a five point scale ranging from very fair to very dark was used to assess perception of skin tone.

RESULTS

The hypothesis was tested using the Chi square test

Fig I: The Stunkard figure rating scale

Table 1

Showing raters’ responses for gender stereotype based responses

Question : Please indicate the occupation of the female protagonist in the advertisement.

Occupation Decade

1990 2000 2010

Working 2 (2.7%) 22 (30.1%) 49 (67.1%)*

Home maker 54 (65.9%)* 18(22.0%) 10(12.2%)

Can’t say 19(27.1%) 35(50.0%)* 16(22.9%)

Chi square 94.864 df =4 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.00

*Significant at 0.05 level

Bold or Beautiful? The Duplicity of Women Protagonists in Indian Advertisements

J. Psychosoc. Res.

Table 2

Showing raters’ responses for gender stereotype based responses

Question: What is your perception of the role played by the female protagonist?

Role played Decade

1990 2000 2010

Very Active 3(5.9%) 13(25.5%) 35(68.6%)*

Active 31(31.0%) 40(40.0%) 29(29.0%)

Passive 34(54.0%)* 19(30.2%) 10(15.9%)

Very Passive 7(63.6%)* 3(27.3%) 1(9.1%)

Chi square 52.680a df=6 Asymp. Sig.(2-tailed) 0.00

*Significant at 0.05 level

Table 3

Showing raters’ responses for gender stereotype based responses

Question: What is your perception of the role played by the female protagonist as indicated by whether she is given a speaking part?

Speaking part Decade

1990 2000 2010

Very Active 1(4.0%) 2(8.0%) 22(88.0%)*

Active 13(16.9%) 33(42.9%) 31(40.3%)

Passive 40(50.6%)* 24(30.4%) 15(19.0%)

Very Passive 21(47.7%)* 21(47.7%)* 7(15.9%)

Chi square 62.175 df=6 Asymp. Sig.(2-tailed) .000

*Significant at 0.05 level

Pooja Prabhavalkar and Megha Deuskar

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Table 4

Showing the raters’ responses in percentage for body image related items

Question: Please indicate the body figure that you think best matches that of the female character

Silhouette Decade

1990 2000 2010

1 Thinnest 1(33.3%) 2(66.7%) 0(0.0%)

2 6(15.4%) 14(35.9%) 19(48.7%)*

3 28(26.7%) 35(33.3%) 42(40.0%)*

4 23(44.2%) 15(28.8%) 14(26.9%)

5 16(69.6%)* 7(30.4%) 0(0.0%)

6 Obese 1(33.3%) 2(66.7%) 0(0.0%)

Chi Square 33.00 df =10 Asymp. Sig.(2-tailed) 0.000

*Significant at 0.05 level

Table 5

Showing the raters’ responses in percentage for body image related items

Question: Please indicate your rating of the female protagonist’s skin tone

Skin tone Decade

1990 2000 2010

Dark 1(16.7%) 4(66.7%) 1(16.7%)

Medium 33(44.0%)* 26(34.7%) 16(21.3%)

Fair 35(29.7%) 38(32.2%) 45(38.1%)

Very fair 6(23.1%) 7(26.9%) 13(50.0%)

Chi Square 13.487 df=6 Asymp. Sig.(2-tailed) 0.036

*Significant at 0.05 level

Gender roles were looked at based on three questions. The first was the way women are portrayed in terms of their profession. The Chi square test of independence was used to examine the relation between “decade” and “profession”. The relation between these variables was significant, X 2 (4, N= 225) = 94.864,p< .01. More women were identified as Working Professionals in the 2010 advertisements than those in the

Bold or Beautiful? The Duplicity of Women Protagonists in Indian Advertisements

J. Psychosoc. Res.

other two decades. Also women identified as Homemakers were greater in the advertisements of the 1990’s while a significant majority of women in the 2000’s advertisements were placed in the “Can’t say” category.

The second question was about the perception of the role played by the protagonist in the advertisement. It was found that there was a significant difference and women in advertisements in the 2010s were depicted as being very active while the female characters in 1990s were depicted as passive or very passive. The Chi square test of independence showed that this relation was significant, X 2 (6, N= 225) = 52.680, p< .001.

Critics have argued that women are often given only an ornamental role in advertisements.

To study this aspect the raters were asked to assess the role played by the protagonists based on whether they are given a talking part. The results indicate that the portrayal of the women over the decades has changed. More women have been given an active speaking part in the advertisements of the 2010’s as compared to the other two decades according to the raters. And the difference was significant at X 2 (6, N= 225) = 62.175, p< .001.

Two questions were asked to determine the body related portrayals of women. On the Stunkard scale, no woman was given a rating of 7, 8, or 9. Results indicate that most of the women were given ratings of 3 and 2, which correspond to the very thin body type in the 2010’s advertisements, while in the 1990’s the most common silhouette ratings were 5 and 4, and in the 2000’s they were 4 and 3. The Chi square test revealed that the relation was significant, X 2 (10, N= 225) = 33.006, p< .001.

The last question related to the perception of body portrayal was about skin tone. While most women in the 1990’s and 2000’s advertisements were rated as Fair and Medium in complexion, the number of women depicted as Fair and Very Fair was more in the advertisements of the 2010’s. The Chi square value showed that the relation was significant, X2 (6, N= 225) = 13.487, p< .05.

DISCUSSION

In this study it’s seen that women today compared to the earlier decades are portrayed as playing a more active role. However it can be argued that though the explicit message is one of equality and of a stronger characterisation of a more independent woman, the objectification remains. As indicated by the results, the body size of the model shows a declining trend over the decades. The models in the advertisements from 2010 onwards are thinner as compared to previous two decades. The results also show that fairer models are preferred. The Indian fascination with fairer skin, a

Pooja Prabhavalkar and Megha Deuskar

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colonial hangover, has significance as it is a means of determining social hierarchy, where light skin tone is related to higher status and attractiveness for women (Glenn, 2008). Often in India, fair and beautiful are used as synonyms. The social comparison theory states that we tend to look at our self-worth based on how we compare to others. This is especially true in the absence of objective standards women compare themselves to others (Fardouly, Diedrichs, Vartanian & Halliwell, 2015). Both the social comparison and cultivation theories indicate that frequent viewing of thin models increases dissatisfaction with one’s own body. The images women are being exposed to don’t look like the women they are surrounded by and have idolised, creating a disconnect. One way male dominance is maintained is by objectifying women while Stankiewicz & Rosselli (2008) argue that this is a form of “backlash against women’s increasing power in society” (p. 587). The absence of diversity in the depiction of women as found in this study is a concern as the diversification of the models would help reduce body shame and more connected and accepting of their bodies (Noll & Fredrickson, 1998).

Implications of the study

Women internalise the media messages and thus inadvertently accept the societal messages of objectification as an acceptable way to view themselves and one which they must conform to. Since this message is internalised, it can lead to body dissatisfaction, body monitoring, self consciousness and feelings of shame among them. The findings of the study point to a need for conducting workshops and awareness programmes to sensitize women about this duplicity of media messages and to explain the emotional and psychological dangers it poses. Workshops on gender oppression (e.g. Mackenzie, 1992) are being conducted to facilitate consciousness- raising and help empower women. Through the awareness programs it is essential to emphasise that women’s feelings of inadequacy are not due to personal shortcomings but due to the flawed social messages. Recognising the seriousness of the issue, the APA’s (2007) Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Girls and Women, outlines measures that psychologists can adopt to identify the influence of power and gender inequalities that affect their clients. A structured two step approach- identifying gender role messages and gender role restructuring has been given by Worell and Remer (2003) which can be used in therapy to help women understand the restrictive nature of internalising messages. Media literacy programs also help in this regard, they are conducted in order to teach people to analyse and evaluate the underlying messages being conveyed which helps act as a buffer against the negative messages. Choate & Curry (2009) have suggested that a multilevel approach is needed to mitigate the media effects of objectification on women which include identifying the harmful message, resisting the message and

Bold or Beautiful? The Duplicity of Women Protagonists in Indian Advertisements

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using social activism to challenge it. The fact that objectification of women not only continues to exist but is growing with each passing decade highlights the necessity and urgency of such programmes.

Limitations and Conclusions

One of the limitations of this study was that the corpus of advertisements taken was very small and thus not representative of each decade. In the future, research may be conducted by controlling the type of product being advertised. Gender stereotypes can be conveyed through nonverbal or body language and also verbal communication, neither of which was studied presently.

To conclude, the study showed a paradox where the portrayal of women in terms of their roles has diversified over the last three decades, while their bodies continue to be objectified.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the raters for their evaluation of the advertisements.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Pooja Prabhavalkar, Research Fellow – Department of Psychology, Savitribai Phule Pune University.

Megha Deuskar, Assistant Professor – Department of Psychology, Fergusson College, Pune.

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