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DIRECTIONS:

Write an entry of at least 250 words for the 4 journals. Focus on concisely summarizing key terms, traditions, practices, and beliefs of each religion. In addition to these summaries, please provide a clear but personal reflection about what you found insightful, surprising, confusing, or that leaves you with questions about the religions covered. This last part of your journal entry is meant to provide me a greater sense of what you have really taken away or been intrigued by from the readings.

It is vital that you write in your own words as you explain what you have learned about each religion. Focus on items like the founder, symbols, key ideas, practices, celebrations, or major traditions that help give meaning and structure to the faith that makes it an organized set of beliefs and behaviors. That is what tells me you can see it as a religion. Does it have structure and meaning to all that is said and done as a person of that faith? Which ones are appealing and why? AVOID comparing to your own faith. Examine each religion on its own terms and just the interest that arises in you from the study and reflection on it. Take your time, read, reflect, write, proofread, and give credit if you borrow any information to help complete your journal entries

Do Journal 1 ON Power point one and 2

LESSON 2 JOURNAL

Hinduism did not develop from the teachings of a single founder. Moreover, it has diverse traditions, owing to its long history and continued development over the course of more than 5000 years. The term Hindu originally referred to those living on the other side of the Indus River, and by the thirteenth century, it simply referred to those living in India. It was only in the eighteenth century that the term Hindu became specifically related to an Indic religion generally. Hindus adhere to the principles of the Vedas, which are a body of Sanskritic texts that date as early as 1700 B.C.E. However, Hinduism does not adhere to a single text. The lack of a single text, among other things, also makes Hinduism a difficult religion to define, but it certainly provides an interesting discovery of how those of the faith see the way the gods reflect one God and the practices of the many celebrate their faith in many faithful ways. It should be noted that Hinduism is neither monotheistic nor is it polytheistic.

Buddhism developed in reaction to the established religion in India at the time—Hinduism (Brahminism). Buddhism, in contrast to Hinduism, has a single founder and while there is no singular text there are texts that outline the teachings of the Buddha as the great and exemplary teacher. Buddhism was founded by one individual, Siddhartha Gautama, sometime in the 6th or 5th century B.C.E. Prince Siddhartha Gautama’s biography has very much become a part of the foundation of the Buddhist teachings. His shift from prince to the ascetic searcher for truth plays a fundamental role in the development of the main teachings for those who follow the way of Buddha, the name given to Siddhartha for his discoveries. For Buddhists, once an individual has become enlightened, they can then reach a state of nirvana. Nirvana is described as the extinguishment of suffering by escaping the continuous cycle of rebirth called samsara. An individual’s ability to reach enlightenment and nirvana are dependent on their understanding of the Dharma. Recall that the goal for both Hindus and Buddhists is to escape (samsara) the cycle of rebirth—but each religion’s interpretation of how to do this and what it meant to escape the cycle differs in many big and small ways.

DO JOURNAL 2 ON INFORMATION ABOVE AND POWERPOINTS 3 AND 5 BELOW

LESSON 3 JOURNAL

Jainism and Sikhism

It is widely believed that the Jain faith is one of the oldest faiths in India. Its presence is attested since the 6th–5th century BCE. This was the time when Mahāvīra preached in the eastern part of India, then known as Magadha. Since then the faith has been present on the Indian subcontinent, without any break. There is no way to historically pinpoint when it began; virtually no archaeological Jain ruins predate this time in India, but the earliest evidence there suggests that Jainism was already a well-established faith. Today the Jains form a significant minority in Indian society, even though they makeup hardly one percent of the total population, and have important diaspora communities in the UK, North America, Singapore, and various countries in East Asia and Far Eastern Europe.

The majority of those who identify as Sikh live in the Indian state of Punjab. They regard one individual, Guru Nanak (1469–1539), as the founder of their faith. Religions and religious teachers do not exist in a vacuum: India, in the Gurus’ time, was ruled by Mughal emperors who were Muslim. Punjabi society was a mix of Muslims and Hindus. Yet, the Sikh religion has evolved from the Gurus’ teachings, and from their followers’ devotion has grown into a world religion with its own scripture, code of discipline, gurdwaras (places of worship), festivals, and life cycle rites. Sikhs have a strong sense of identity and often celebrate their distinctive history. If one is to understand anything about Sikhs, they need only look at the central principle of the Guru's teaching. A Sikh strives always to integrate spirituality with carrying out one’s responsibilities in life. Sikhs perform seva (voluntary service of others) while at the same time practicing simaran (remembrance of God). The ideal is to be a sant sipahi (warrior saint) i.e. a person who combines spiritual qualities with readiness for courageous action.

DO JOURNAL 3 ON INFORMATION ABOVE AND POWERPOINTS 4 AND 6 BELOW

LESSON 4 JOURNAL INFORMATION

Confucianism and Taoism (western spelling = Daoism)

Chinese civilization has historically long been a cradle and host to a variety of the most enduring religion-philosophical traditions of the world. Confucianism and Taoism, later joined by Buddhism, constitute the “three teachings” that have shaped Chinese culture. There are no clear boundaries between these intertwined religious systems, which do not claim to be exclusive, and elements of each enrich popular or folk religion. Following a period of enforced atheism after the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) in China, religion has recently become more popular once again.

Taoism

In Taoism (also commonly written as Daoism), the purpose of life is inner peace and harmony. Tao is usually translated as “way” or “path.” Lao Tzu, sometimes written or referred to as Laozi, was believed to have been an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer who lived during the 6th or 4th century B.C.E., and who authored the Tao Te Ching, which remains the fundamental text on philosophical Taoism. In the Tao Te Ching, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. In many ways, the encouragement of going as the Way teaches one like a river flows, it encompasses a nature of freedom and lack of structure because the Way will change as time unfolds. Many would come to say that Confucianism was either the response to the ideas of Tao or Tao was the response to the confines of a strict cultural structure. In either case, it is important to see this kind of distinction between these two approaches to living and what outcome one can expect should one follow that tradition.

Confucianism

The founder of Confucianism, Master Kong, better known as Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.), was a philosopher and a very pragmatic politician and adviser to the emperor. He did not intend to create a new religion but sought to provide structure and reform to some of the religious ambiguities of the Zhou dynasty. Kong believed that human beings are fundamentally good, teachable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavors, especially self-cultivation and self-creation. As a result, Confucian thought focuses on the development of virtue in a morally organized world. It creates a structure of strict order in society, especially families as they are the heart of all of society and people. Many scholars argue that Confucianism is more of a social system than a religion because it focuses on sharing wisdom about moral practices, and dedicated familial and ancestral order that must be obeyed, but doesn’t involve any type of specific worship; nor does it have formal holy objects.

DO JOURNAL 4 ON INFORMATION ABOVE AND POWERPOINT 7 AND LINKS BELOW

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Microsoft_PowerPoint_Presentation3.pptx

Encountering Buddhism: The Middle Path to Liberation

Learning Outcomes

Explain the meaning of Buddhism and related terms

Summarize how Buddhism was founded and developed into what it is today

Outline the essential Buddhist teachings

State the main ethical precepts of Buddhism for both monastics and laypeople

Discuss the way Buddhists worship and meditate

State the main features of Buddhist life around the world today, especially in North America

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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The Name “Buddhism”

Founded by Siddhartha Gautama who became the Buddha

Buddha: “Enlightened One”

Applies to all who attain enlightenment

Buddhism: Religion of enlightenment

Teaches that anyone can become enlightened

LO 1

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Photo caption - The Buddha teaching monks, sculpture in Wat Charkyai, Thailand. This common scene in Buddhist art shows the importance of monasticism in the Buddhist religion.

Gautama’s Road to Enlightenment

Born into the royal Shakya clan in southern Nepal, Gautama’s early life was comfortable and affluent

Married Princess Yashodhara at the age of sixteen and had a son

Four passing sights

Gautama’s encounter with old age, sickness, death, and an ascetic

Provoked him to renounce his wealth, kingdom, and family to seek answers and devise the Middle Path overtime

LO 2

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Achieving Enlightenment

Gautama attained enlightenment after long meditation under the Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya

Gained complete knowledge of himself and his past lives

Postponed entrance into nirvana to help others find liberation

Was called Tathagata

Tathagata: One who has gone to enlightenment

LO 2

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Photo caption - Traditional Thai style painting of the Buddha on a temple wall. Note that the Buddha is no longer painfully thin.

Achieving Enlightenment (continued 1)

The Buddha taught throughout northeastern India for forty-five years

Shared the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path

Established an order of monks called the sangha

Asked people to take refuge in the Buddha, his dharma (teaching), and the sangha

Also known as the Three Refuges

LO 2

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Achieving Enlightenment (continued 2)

The Buddhist movement thrived with the support of kings and merchants

The Buddha passed through several levels of meditative trance before he achieved parinirvana

Refused to appoint a successor

Monks met in Rajagrha after his death

Finalized and formally recited the monastic rules (Vinaya) and the teachings of the Buddha

LO 2

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India, Sri Lanka, and Theravada

Diversity arose at the second Buddhist council around 375 B.C.E.

One group advocated change while the traditional Theravada strictly followed to the earliest practices of Buddhism

Theravada was belittled as Hinayana, “the small vehicle” Buddhists

Of the eighteen different Theravadin groups, only the Sri Lankan Theravada survives today

LO 2

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India, Sri Lanka, and Theravada (continued)

In the 3rd century B.C.E., the Indian ruler Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire devoted himself to spread Buddhism

Erected thousands of pillars bearing the Buddha’s teachings

Built monasteries and schools of higher learning

Sent monks and his own children as missionaries all over India and south Asia

LO 2

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Fourth Buddhist Council

Convened in Sri Lanka in the first century B.C.E.

All sutras (scriptures) were recorded in Pali

Tipitaka: Three Baskets, the main internal divisions of the canon

Vinaya Pitaka - Monastic rules

Sutta Pitaka - Buddha’s teachings

Abhidamma Pitaka - Higher teachings for monks

Sri Lankan monks saved the Theravada branch from extinction

LO 2

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The Rise of Mahayana

Mahayana: “Large vehicle” branch of Buddhism found today in China, Japan, and Tibet

Monks of the Great Sangha promoted expansion of Buddhism to include laity

Adapted to indigenous religions

Doctrine of Trikaya was developed

Trikaya: Three bodies of the Buddha

Historical Buddha, heavenly buddhas, and Buddhist teachings

LO 2

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The Rise of Mahayana (continued)

Placed importance on bodhisattva

Bodhisattva: One who comes very close to achieving full Buddha nature but postpones it to help others

Local divinities, spirits, and heroes of other religions were reinterpreted as bodhisattvas

Buddhist groups in China and Japan

The Pure Land School of Buddhism

Ch’an in China (Japanese name - Zen)

LO 2

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Ch’an or Zen

Brought to China by Bodhidharma around 520 C.E.

Silent transmission of teachings about enlightenment

Focuses on developing the immediate awareness of the Buddha mind through meditation on emptiness

Koan: Zen riddle used to reach non-rational enlightenment

Zazen: Prolonged seated meditation

LO 2

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Ch’an or Zen (continued)

Known for rejecting the written word and its rough physical tactics

Pure Land group became popular among Japan’s lower classes in 900 C.E.

Ch’an was adopted by the Samurai warrior class and renamed Zen in the 1200s

Branches - Rinzai and Soto

LO 2

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Photo caption - Japanese daruma dolls depicting Bodhidharma suggest his unconventionality.

Nichiren

Monk who lived from 1222 to 1282

Believed that the Lotus Sutra contained everything Buddhists needed

Intolerant to other forms of Buddhism

Nichiren School is highly popular in Japan

LO 2

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Tibet and the Diamond Vehicle

Tibetan legend

In 700s C.E., Indian Tantric monk Rinpoché defeated Tibetan demons and made them protectors of Tibetan Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhism has elements of the native Bön religion

Developed into four main schools

Dalai Lama: Ocean of wisdom

Head of the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism

LO 2

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Tibet and the Diamond Vehicle (continued)

Vajrayana: Diamond Vehicle

Formal name for Tibetan Buddhism

Features

Many divinities and demons

Incarnation of a bodhisattva in the whole line of Dalai Lamas

Use of prayer wheels, prayer flags, religious pictures made of colored sand, and oracles

Unusual scriptures such as the “Tibetan Book of the Dead”

LO 2

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Dalai Lama

Tenzin Gyatso was identified as reincarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama

In 1950, he became the 14th Dalai Lama

In 1951, the Communist Chinese invaded and permanently annexed Tibet

Dalai Lama fled in 1959 to exile in north India and has regularly met world leaders asking for help for Tibet

LO 2

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Photo caption - President Obama met four times with the Dalai Lama.

Buddhist Teachings - The Four Noble Truths

All life is suffering

Suffering is caused by desire

To end desire is to end suffering

To end desire, one must follow the Noble Eightfold Path

LO 3

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Buddhist Teachings - The Noble Eightfold Path

Right understanding

Right intention

Right speech

Right conduct

Right livelihood

Right effort

Right mindfulness

Right contemplation

LO 3

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Buddhist Teachings - Characteristics of Existence

Outer appearance of all things is constantly changing, but the inner essence does not

Impermanence or anicca

Unhealthy attachment to things hampers satisfaction and leads to suffering

Suffering or dukkha

There is no permanent soul or self

No soul or anatta

LO 3

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General Buddhist Morality

Sila - Virtuous behavior, morality, ethics, or precept

Percept: Moral command

Action committed in a deed, a word, or in the mind

Keeping percepts brings peace of mind, peace with others, and prevents rebirth in hell or as an animal

General commands - Nonviolence, moderation, and compassion

LO 4

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Precepts

Universal percepts

One must not:

Kill sentient beings

Steal

Commit sexual immorality

Lie

Drink any intoxicants

LO 4

Additional percepts

One must not:

Eat between noon and the following sunrise

Dance, enjoy music, jewelry, or cosmetics

Attend artistic performances

Use luxurious seats and beds

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Precepts and Moral Rules for Monks

Additional percepts for novice monks

One must not:

Dance, listen to, or engage in music, singing, or shows

Use things that beautify the body

Accept money

Use high seats and luxurious beds

Two hundred additional precepts apply for fully initiated monastics

LO 4

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Photo caption - A twenty-year old Thai man enters the monastery to live as a monk for three months.

Relationship between Monks and Laity and Temples

Monks and laity live in reciprocal relationship

Each group provides the other with an opportunity to gain merit

Mahayana and Tibetan temples are more elaborately decorated in comparison to Theravada temples

LO 5

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Images of the Buddha

Usually depicted as seated in the lotus meditational position

Eyes are closed or partially closed

Urna, a circular mark on the forehead

Large earlobes

Modestly dressed and healthy, but not overfed

Arms show various mudras

Buddha reclining on the right side symbolizes his entry into nirvana

LO 5

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Prayer and Meditation

There is no main deity to receive worship and prayer

Monastics value meditation

Forms practiced

Trance meditation

Insight meditation

LO 5

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Photo caption - Tibetan woman using a prayer wheel to earn good karma.

Protective Rituals

Recitation of scripture texts called parittas in public to avert collective danger

Theravada

Use of brief statements of Buddhist teachings and short mantras

Mahayana and Vajrayana

LO 5

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Funeral Rituals

Monks bestow blessings, but do not generally perform life-cycle rituals

Visit the dying, because one’s state of mind while dying influences his or her rebirth

Buddhist funeral practices for leading monks originated in India

After cremation, ashes and bones are collected and stupas are built over them

Dead bodies of ordinary monks and laypeople undergo cremation

LO 5

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Early Buddhist Immigration to North America

Late 1800s saw mass immigration of Chinese Buddhists to the west coast of North America

Provoked backlash in the form of discriminatory laws and practices

Japanese immigrants built cultural associations and temples

Contact with Buddhism on the East Coast came through books

LO65

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Early Buddhist Immigration to North America (continued)

Many Japanese Buddhists became Protestant Christians during WWII

Surge of interest in Zen Buddhism after the war was caused by the migration of Asian Buddhists to the United States

Many Americans traveled to Japan and began a more serious, committed study of Zen

American troops deployed in Japan were influenced by cultural contact

LO 6

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Features of the Next Wave of Buddhist Immigration

Establishing of Tibetan meditation centers in North America

1970s

Post Vietnam war surge of immigrants from South Vietnam

1975

Post Pol Pot regime brought a wave of Cambodian refugees

1979

Rise in celebrity Buddhism shaped the American perception of the religion

1990s

LO 6

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Key Terms

Buddhism

Buddha

Dharmachakra

Middle Path

Shakyamuni

Four Passing Sights

Bodhi Tree

Tathagata

Sangha

Three Refuges

Parinirvana

Hinayana

Theravada

Sutra

Tipitaka

Mahayana

Trikaya

Bodhisattva

Zen

Koan

Zazen

Dalai Lama

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KEY TERMS

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Key Terms (continued)

Vajrayana

Lama

Dharma

Karma

Samsara

Nirvana

Four Noble Truths

Noble Eightfold Path

Mindfulness

Three Characteristics of Existence

Anicca

Mandala

Dukkha

Anatta

Percept

Mudra

Trance meditation

Insight meditation

Paritta

Mantra

Stupa

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KEY TERMS (continued)

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Summary

Buddhism is the religion of enlightenment

Gautama Buddha devised the Middle Path and founded Buddhism

Buddhism aims at complete and definitive liberation from the painful transience of life

Buddhism has five universal precepts and places importance on meditation

Several countries around the world have significant Buddhist populations

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SUMMARY

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End of Chapter 5

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Microsoft_PowerPoint_Presentation4.pptx

Encountering Jainism: The Austere Way to Liberation

Encountering Jainism: The Austere Way of Liberation

Learning Outcomes

Explain the meaning of Jainism and related terms

Summarize how the main periods of Jainism’s history have shaped its present

Outline the essential Jain teachings in your own words

State the main ethical precepts of Jainism for monks/nuns and laity, and relate them to Jain teachings

Outline the way Jains worship and practice other rituals

Explain the main aspects of Jain life around the world today, especially in North America

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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The Name “Jainism”

Originated from the Sanskrit word for “conquer”

Conquer - The battle within an individual to gain full knowledge that leads to enlightenment

Jina: “Conqueror,” one who has achieved Jain enlightenment

Jains: Followers of the Conquerors

LO 1

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Photo caption - Symbol of Jainism

Founding and the First Thousand Years (600 B.C.E.–ca. 400 C.E.)

Began during the seventh century B.C.E. in the Ganges River valley

Opposed dominant Hindu priestly groups

Promoted asceticism

Asceticism: Physical denial and mental self-discipline to achieve liberation

Abandoned sacrificial rituals in order to pursue an enlightenment that would bring freedom from reincarnation

LO 2

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Tirthankaras

“Ford finders” who lead the way across the rivers of constant reincarnation

Not gods but enlightened humans who lead the way for others

Parshvanatha: Twenty-third Tirthankara

Mahavira: Founder of Jainism

Twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara for this age

LO 2

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Photo caption - Seated Tirthankara in the Jain temple, Mumbai

Mahavira (Vardhamana)

Was born into the Kshatriya class

Renounced his privileged status for an ascetic life at the age of thirty

Experienced a sudden flash of enlightenment after he pushed himself to the point of death several times

Formed a monastic community with his eleven male disciples

Believed to have attracted 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns to Jainism

LO 2

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Groups That Were Formed After Mahavira’s Death

Shvetambar group

“White clothed”

Own few possessions, such as scripture books and a whisk for clearing away small beings as they walk

Believes that women can be liberated

Digambar group

“Sky clothed”

Advocates nakedness for monks as a symbol of complete denial of the world

Has no possessions

Believes that a female body cannot reach liberation

LO 2

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The Next Thousand Years (600–1600)

Digambar Jainism flourished

Monks acted as spiritual teachers and counselors to rulers and their advisors

Jain communities were given tax revenues

500–1200 C.E.

Monks of both groups gave up wandering asceticism to settle permanently in temples

Digambars ordained monks to lead Jain institutions

Shvetambars in the north suffered under the conquest of India by Muslims

LO 2

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Early Modern Times through Today (1600–Present)

Changes provoked reform movements among laity of both main groups

Digambar reform stressed the mystical and ascetic elements of the Jain path

Opposed temple ritual, corruption, and worldly comforts for leading monks

Atmaramji revived monasticism and image-veneration

LO 2

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Photo caption - Statue of Gommateshvara in Shravanabelagola, India. The scaffolding in back of the statute has been erected, and is being prepared for the ceremonies to anoint the statue.

Current Statistics

Shvetambar groups have about 2,500 monks and 10,000 nuns

Digambar groups have 550 monks and 500 nuns

Total number of Jains - 5 million

Saman Suttam

“Common Scripture” recognized by all Jain groups, compiled in 1974

LO 2

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Photo caption - A group of Digambara monks “clothed with the sky” at a Jain temple in Rajasthan, India, where they are resting from wandering during the rainy season.

Key Teachings - No Gods

Gods are unnecessary

The world is eternal and thus there is no need for a divine creator

Process of karma and reincarnation works on its own

Good and evil spirits and other heavenly beings exist

Not considered gods

Spirits are worshiped for protection and guidance, not for eternal release

LO 3

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Key Teachings - Time and the World

Time is compared to a twelve-spoked wheel

Six ascending spokes signify time of improvement

Six descending spokes signify deterioration of human life

Two directions make a kalpa, one whole rotation of the wheel of time

A kalpa is 4.3 billion years

Kalpas repeat forever

LO 3

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Key Teachings - Time and the World (continued)

Visible physical world is real, eternal, and uncreated

Comprises five building blocks of reality

Soul, matter, space, motion, and rest

Building blocks are eternal, and they interact constantly

Constant interaction makes the cosmos and everything in it run

LO 3

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Photo caption - Three stories of the Jain cosmos: heaven (top), earth and hell.

Key Teachings - Parts of the Universe

Lowest part

Comprises seven vertical levels, with the worst level at the bottom

Hell

Has concentric continents separated by seas

Humans live in two continents at the center

Middle world

Has twelve parts divided into two layers

One layer houses those far from their deliverance and the other layer houses those who are close to it

Heavenly world

Eternal home of the souls that have permanently escaped the material world

Top of the cosmos

LO 3

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Key Teachings - Jiva and Ajiva

Jiva: Soul made of a living substance

Either immobile or mobile

Immobile souls inhabit tiny particles of earth, water, fire, and air, and plants

Mobile souls inhabit bodies

Each jiva is eternally individual

Individual souls are not part of one cosmic soul

Ajiva: Not a soul, an inanimate substance

LO 3

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Key Teachings - Karma

Each soul is pure but becomes impure over time by its contact with matter

Karma: Deeds and the negative result of deeds

Small matter that attaches to the soul and causes it to be reborn after death

Souls may be reborn as:

Humans, animals, or plants on earth

Humans or other beings in heaven

Humans or other beings in hell

LO 3

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Key Teachings - Karma (continued)

A Jain must stop collecting new karma and remove all previous karma by:

Fasting, restricting diet to approved Jain foods, and controlling taste and other senses

Retreating to lonely places

Following strict discipline of the body

Exhibiting modesty

Reading Jain scriptures

Engaging in service and meditation

Controlling one’s ego

LO 3

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Key Teachings - Moksha

Release from reincarnation

Central teaching of Jainism

Prevented by accumulation of karma

Prevents achievement of nirvana

Demands mental, moral, and physical observance of Jainism

Current period of cosmic decline precludes liberation

Jain nuns and monks practice Jainism as well as they can to pursue reincarnation

LO 3

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Key Teachings - Theories of Knowledge

Divided into the following stages:

Subjective knowledge

Scripture knowledge

Unmediated knowledge

Direct, immediate knowledge

Possessor of this knowledge is called Kevalin

Yoga - Means to attain full knowledge and liberation

LO 3

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Photo caption - One step at a time to nirvana: A Jain priest praying in a Jain temple in Jaisalmer, India. He wears a cloth over his mouth to protect small flying insects.

Ethics - The Five Cardinal Virtues

Do no harm (ahimsa)

Speak the truth

Do not steal

Do not be possessive

Be chaste

LO 4

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Life of Monks and Nuns

Characterized by strong self-denial and self-control to attain liberation

Ritual activities

Scripture study and recitation, meditation, begging for meals, and teaching laity

Walk barefoot to protect small beings

Constantly wander to avoid attachment to people and material things

Consume uncooked food

LO 5

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The Life of Monks and Nuns (continued)

Do not shave or cut their hair

Digambar nuns and all Shvetambar monastics wear unstitched white clothes

Do not make class, caste, age, or gender distinctions

Teach the path of a righteous and self-controlled life to all Jains

May practice holy death at the end of their lives

LO 5

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Life of the Laity

Daily rituals are either adapted from Hinduism or formed in opposition to Hinduism

Acts of compassion and ahimsa

Worship of Jain images in the home

Meditating 1–3 times daily for 48 minutes

Involves releasing all passions and negative attitudes and gaining a sense of purity and peace

Namokar Mantra: Main prayer of Jainism

LO 5

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Temple Puja Activities

Ritual washing of the idol/image

Engaging in a series of prayers over three days to help remove karma

Paying respect to the images of the Tirthankaras

Ritual of prayer focused on a lotus-shaped image with five praiseworthy beings

A Tirthankara, a liberated soul, a religious teacher, a religious leader, and a monk

LO 5

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Funerals and Festivals

Jains believe that death is a natural part of the circle of life, death, reincarnation, and the soul of the deceased is reborn immediately

Funerals

Paryusana: Eight-day period of repentance and fasting

Diwali: Indian festival of lights, which marks the anniversary of Mahavira’s death for Jains

Festivals

LO 5

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Jainism in America Today

Political unrest in India during the 1960s forced the relocation of many Jains

High point of Jain immigration to the West was in the late 1970s and 1980s

Prosperity enabled Jains to build and operate over sixty social centers, temples, and organizations in the United States

In 1981, the Federation of Jain Associations in North America (JAINA) was formed

Jains have been addressing environmental issues in recent times

LO 6

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Key Terms

Jina

Jains

Mahavira

Asceticism

Reincarnation

Parshvanatha

Tirthankaras

Shvetambar

Digambar

Saman Suttam

Holy death

Kalpa

Jiva

Ajiva

Karma

Moksha

Nirvana

Kevalin

Ahimsa

Namokar Mantra

Paryusana

Diwali

JAINA

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KEY TERMS

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Summary

“Jainism” originated from a Sanskrit word meaning “conquer”

Is said to be eternal

Has no gods

Places importance on honesty, selflessness, and chastity

Worship is based on the idea that strong self-denial and self-control are needed to attain liberation

The Federation of Jain Associations in North America (JAINA) was formed in 1981

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SUMMARY

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End of Chapter 4

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Encountering Sikhism: The Way of God’s Name

Learning Outcomes

Explain the meaning of Sikhism and related terms

Summarize how Sikhism developed over time, especially its founding by the ten gurus and its life from the British Empire through the present

Explain the essential Sikh teachings

State and discuss the main ethical precepts of Sikhism

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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Learning Outcomes (continued)

Outline the way Sikhs worship and practice other rituals, especially life-cycle rituals

Summarize the main features of Sikh life around the world today, especially in North America

LEARNING OUTCOMES (continued)

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Sikhism

Sikh: Disciple or student

Gurmat: Guru’s Way

Formal name of Sikhism among Sikhs

Panth: “Path”

An early name for Sikhism

Founded by Guru Nanak around 1499 C.E. and then led by nine other gurus

LO 1

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Photo caption - Symbol of Sikhism

Sikhism (continued)

All gurus are believed have had the same soul

The soul is believed to have transferred to the Guru Granth after the death of the tenth guru

Guru Granth: Main scripture of Sikhism

The soul is believed to reside in each and every true copy of the scripture

LO 1

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Photo caption - Symbol of Sikhism

Guru Nanak

Began teaching around 1499

Raised as a Hindu, he accepted features of the Sant (saint) tradition

Preached a message of universal love and tolerance

Highlighted similarities in religions

Composed many mystical hymns that were eventually collected in the Sikh scripture

LO 2

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Gurus That Succeeded Nanak

Angad Dev

Amar Das

Ram Das

Founded the city of Amritsar

Arjan

First Sikh martyr

Made Amritsar the religious center of Sikhism and began compiling the Adi Granth

LO 2

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Photo caption - Guru Nanak and Gobind Singh, with the other eight gurus and the richly covered Guru Granth at the center, in a Sikh devotional poster.

Gurus That Succeeded Nanak (continued 1)

Har Gobind

Engaged in spiritual leadership along with governmental leadership

Har Rai

Har Krishnan

Tegh Bahadur

Was executed by a Mughal ruler

Gobind Singh

Finished compiling the Adi Granth and renamed it Guru Granth

LO 2

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Gurus That Succeeded Nanak (continued 2)

Formed the Khalsa

Khalsa: Sikh society dedicated to strict observance

Established the current Sikh rite of initiation and the distinctive dress of the Sikhs

Dasam Granth: “Book of the Tenth Guru”

Compilation of Gobind Singh’s sayings

LO 2

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Photo caption - 5 Ks of Sikhism: The turban is often thought by non-Sikhs to be one of the 5 Ks, but the K is what it covers, uncut hair.

Darbar Sahib

Also called Harmandir Sahib

“House of God” temple in Amritsar

Known popularly as the Golden Temple

LO 2

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Sikhism From British Rule Until Today

British troops defeated Sikh armies and took over the Sikh territory in Punjab

In 1819, the Sikh rebellion for freedom was unsuccessful

Sikhs were recruited into the British army and its police forces

Began migrating to Africa and the west

Partition of India and Pakistan divided the state of Punjab

LO 2

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Sikhism From British Rule Until Today (continued)

Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale

Captured the Sacred Court complex in Amritsar and demanded an independent Sikh homeland called Khalistan in 1983

Indian Army launched an assault to stop the rebellion

Resulted in the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards

LO 2

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Sikh Teachings - The One God

Sikhs worship one universal God

Ek Onkar: “One God”

Prominent symbol of Sikhism

Believe that God:

Is One, holy, loving, and gracious

Does not have a body, does not incarnate in human form, and cannot be pictorially represented

Waheguru

LO 3

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Photo caption - The Ek Onkar symbol

Sikh Teachings - Devotion to God

Devotion to God in knowledge, emotion, and behavior is central to Sikhism

Music - Key in cultivating and expressing devotion

Salvation comes from devoting life to God

People undergo transmigration of soul

Cycle of reincarnation causes suffering and ignorance of God

Release is only through remembering the divine Nam (name)

LO 3

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Sikh Ethics - Rejection of Hindu Caste

Caste is irrelevant for access to God, God’s name, and liberation from sin, ignorance, and transmigration

Langar: Communal meal following main service in which all Sikhs are treated equal

Sikhs have castes and typically marry within their castes

LO 4

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Sikh Ethics - Moral Rules

Use of alcohol, drugs, or addictive substances is forbidden

Belief in hard work and generous charity

Personal ethics

Required to wear the Five Ks

Must avoid cutting their hair, eating meat not butchered according to Sikh rules, adultery, and using tobacco or intoxicants

Khalsa

LO 4

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Sikh Ethics - Codes of Conduct for Moral Life

Remember and worship only the One God

Work hard and honestly and share gains with others

Be truthful

Women are equal to men in God’s sight and must be treated equally

All humans are members of one human family

Do not trust in superstitions or follow empty rituals

LO 4

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Sikh Ethics - Codes of Conduct for Moral Life (continued)

Dress simply and modestly

Sikh women should not wear a veil, and no body piercing is allowed for both women or men

One should marry and have children and remain in the married state

Keep faith in the Guru Granth, not any other book or person

Control the Five Evils

Practice the Five Virtues

LO 4

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The Gurdwara

“The Guru’s Door” or the residence of the Guru Granth

Place of everyday worship

Children’s school for learning the Sikh faith

Community and social-welfare center for Sikhs

Supervised by a community drawn from the membership

LO 5

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Photo caption - A reader in Karachi, Pakistan, recites from the Sikh scriptures as an assistant fans the book with a chaur.

The Gurdwara (continued 1)

Four doors of peace, livelihood, learning, and grace

Modeled after the doors of the main temple in Amritsar

One must remove shoes and cover his or her head before worship

There are no candles, bells, incense, statues, or religious pictures

Flowers may be used, especially in front of the Guru Granth

LO 5

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The Gurdwara (continued 2)

Focus of attention is on the Guru Granth

Treated with the same respect as a human guru

Kirtan: Hymn singing accompanied by music

Vak lao: “Taking God’s word” by opening the Guru Granth at random

Sikhs believe that God guides which page falls open and gives a message for the day through that page

LO 5

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The Gurdwara (continued 3)

Any male Sikh may lead prayer and recite scripture

Granthi: Official who cares for the Guru Granth, reads from it, and organizes daily services

Parshad: Simple food served at the end of a Sikh service

Langar meal

Helps build social and spiritual solidarity

Food must be uniform and plain

LO 5

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Sikh Life-Cycle Rituals

Naming ceremony for newborns

A hymn is selected at random from the Guru Granth and parents choose a name that begins with the first letter on the left-hand page

Singh (Lion) is given as a second name to males and Kaur (Princess) to females

Marriage

Considered to be a blissful union

The bride and groom walk four times around the Guru Granth as one of its hymns is sung

LO 5

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Sikh Life-Cycle Rituals (continued)

Amrit

Initiation ceremony for joining the Khalsa

Involves the drinking of amrit (“nectar of immortality”) and reciting the lines that begin the Guru Granth

Funeral ceremony

Designed to release the soul from the body so that reincarnation can occur

Involves cremation and scattering of ashes into fresh, flowing water soon after death

LO 5

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Festivals

Three annual holidays for each guru

Mark their birth, their becoming a guru, and their death

Eight major festivals

Four mark important events in lives of gurus

Installation of the Guru Granth

The New Year festival of Baisakhi

Diwali, the Indian winter festival of lights

Hola Mahalla

LO 5

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Sikh Life in the United States

First immigrants suffered mistreatment by other Americans

Seen as unwelcome competitors for jobs by labor unions

The California Alien Land Act in 1913 prohibited noncitizens from owning property

In 1917, the U.S. Congress ended all immigration from India and other Asian regions

Sikh citizenship was revoked by the U.S. Department of Justice

LO 6

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Sikh Life in the United States (continued)

The Supreme Court ruled that Sikhs were unqualified for citizenship

In 1912, the first gurdwara was established in Stockton, California

Ghadar Movement

Founded by Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs of Punjabi background

Raised money for resistance to British colonial rule in India

Some Sikhs returned to Punjab to lead attacks on the British

LO 6

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Second and Third Waves of Immigration to North America

New federal legislation lifted old prohibitions and quotas

Large numbers of Sikhs, many of them educated professionals, immigrated to the United States

Newcomers were more traditional than the ones assimilated in the United States

Third smaller wave of immigrants arrived after the violence in Amritsar in 1984

Sikhism in North America thrives despite challenges

LO 6

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Sikhism in Post-9/11 America

Many residents in the United States are unable to distinguish Sikhs from Muslims

Has led to widespread prejudice and violence against Sikhs

Sikhs have responded with a patient effort to educate other Americans about the differences

LO 6

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Key Terms

Khanda

Sikh

Panth

Gurmat

Guru Granth

Sant

Darbar Sahib (Harmandir Sahib)

Khalsa

Dasam Granth

Waheguru

Five Ks

Ek Onkar

Nam

Langar

Gurdwara

Chaur

Kirtan

Vak lao

Granthi

Parshad

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HIST4 | CH6

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KEY TERMS

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RELG4 | CH6

Summary

“Sikh” means a “disciple” or “student”

Guru Nanak and Gobind Singh shaped Sikhism to its present form

Sikhs believe in one God and devotion to the one God

Sikhs reject caste distinctions

The gurdwara is the Sikh house of worship

Despite being in the West for many years, Sikhs have faced discrimination and prejudice

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HIST4 | CH6

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HIST4 | CH6

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SUMMARY

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RELG4 | CH6

End of Chapter 6

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RELG4 | CH6

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Encountering Daoism & Confucianism: Two Views of the Eternal Way

Encountering Dao and Confucianism: Two Views of the Eternal Way

Learning Outcomes

Explain the names Daoism and Confucianism and related terms

Outline how Daoism and Confucianism developed over time into what they are today

Explain the essential teachings of Daoism and Confucianism, especially their similarities and differences

Paraphrase in your own words the main ethical principles of Daoism and Confucianism

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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RELG4 | CH7

Learning Outcomes (continued)

Outline the way Daoists and Confucianists worship and practice other rituals

Summarize the main features of Daoism and Confucianism around the world today, especially in North America

LEARNING OUTCOMES (continued)

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RELG4 | CH7

Daoism and Confucianism

Daoism: Religion of the natural Way

Dao means “way, path, or road” and is extended to mean “way of life”

Categories - Philosophical, religious, and folk Daoism

Confucianism

Western term referring to the religion based on reforms by Confucius

LO 1

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Photo caption - Dao and yin-yang

China Before the Rise of Confucianism and Daoism

The Chinese civilization began before 3000 B.C.E, with scattered settlements along the Yellow River basin

Highly militarized society

People worshipped many gods and poetry inscribed on pottery

Used animal bones and shells in divination and clay phallic statues in fertility rituals

LO 2

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China Before the Rise of Confucianism and Daoism - Shang Dynasty

Agricultural society that was ruled by powerful landowning aristocrats

System of writing using pictograms and ideograms as characters developed during this time

Oracle bones: Inscribed animal bones used to foretell the future

Feng Shui: Positioning of objects to maximize good effects of the flow of energy

LO 2

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China Before the Rise of Confucianism and Daoism - Shang Dynasty (continued)

Shang rulers led the worship of gods

Practiced human sacrifice and wrote religious books that would become scriptures

Jing: “Classics,” books that have spiritual standing

LO 2

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China Before the Rise of Confucianism and Daoism - Zhou Dynasty

King’s duty was to lead the worship of the gods to insure a good harvest

His right to rule depended on how those prayers were answered

Distinctive religious beliefs about heaven arose in the Zhou times

Heaven: Impersonal cosmic force working for the continuation and enrichment of life

LO 2

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Origins of Daoism (ca.500 B.C.E–200 C.E.)

Traced back to the following periods:

Chinese folk religions in the beginning of the first millennium B.C.E.

Composition of the Daode Jing around 350–250 B.C.E.

Founding of the Celestial Masters school by Zhang Daoling around 150 C.E.

Early Daoism was a combination of religious ideas of Daoist thinkers and ancient local rituals and beliefs

LO 2

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Origins of Daoism (ca.500 B.C.E–200 C.E.) (continued)

Laozi

Traditional founder of Daoism

No direct, dependable evidence has been found regarding his existence

Said to be the author of the Daode Jing and the Zhuangzi

LO 2

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Photo caption - Laozi riding an ox in a traditional portrait

Daoism From 200 C.E. to 1664 C.E.

Developed into various monastic orders

Each order wrote its own literature and gave rise to the Daoistic canon, the Daozang

Martial arts

Began as a meditational technique coupled with exercise and later evolved into a form of fighting

Developed other meditational techniques and a fuller evolution of its philosophical teachings

LO 2

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Daoism From 200 C.E. to 1664 C.E. (continued)

Neo-Daoism: Rebirth and reform of Daoism after the Han dynasty

Wang Bi and Guo Xiang wrote commentaries on the Daode Jing and the Zhuangzi

Influenced calligraphy, painting, music, and poetry

Ge Hong - Famous Neo-Daoist philosopher

Wrote the Inner Chapter of the Master Embracing Simplicity or Baopuzi

LO 2

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The Near-Destruction of Daoism (1644–1980)

Manchurian rulers of the Confucian camp

Trimmed the political and cultural power of Daoism

Christian missionaries

Converted a large number of Daoists in the 1780s

Hakka rebellion in southern China

Followed Hong Xiuquan in open rebellion against the emperor

Better known as the Taiping Rebellion

LO 2

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The Near-Destruction of Daoism (1644–1980) (continued)

New Life Movement

Induced students to destroy Daoist sites and scriptures

Communist takeover of China in 1949

Daoism was banned and leaders were re-educated in China but flourished in Taiwan and Hong Kong

After the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, the government allowed a small measure of religious freedom

LO 2

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Confucius was born in Qufu around 551 B.C.E

Gained mastery of ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic

Developed an attachment to Chinese history and traditional poetry

Began teaching in his thirties

Developed concepts about society and government

His loyalty to the king provoked opposition

Confucius and the Origins of Confucianism (551–479 B.C.E.)

LO 2

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Photo caption - Statue of Confucius

Confucius and the Origins of Confucianism (551–479 B.C.E.) (continued)

Left Lu at the age of fifty-six

Was as an occasional advisor to rulers but was never able to get his teachings adopted in any Chinese state

Died at the age of seventy-three

Confucius, the reformer

Retrieved the meaning of the past by breathing new life into it

Formed a coherent system of thought and life that would shape the future of China and several other lands

LO 2

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The Rise of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism (ca. 350 B.C.E - 1200 C.E.)

Influencers of Confucianism

Mengzi (known in the West as Mencius)

The Book of Mencius reflects his positive view of the basic goodness of human nature

Dong Zhongshu

Promoted Confucian teachings during the second century B.C.E.

Confucianism was recognized as the official state religion in the Han dynasty

LO 2

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The Rise of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism (ca. 350 B.C.E - 1200 C.E.) (continued 1)

New religious elements added

Four main Confucian books canonized

Confucian ethics have had the strongest influence on the moral fabric of China

Neo-Confucianism: Revival of Confucian thought in the Song dynasty

Incorporated Daoist and Buddhist ideas

Replaced traditional Confucianism in higher levels of society

LO 2

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The Rise of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism (ca. 350 B.C.E - 1200 C.E.) (continued 2)

Philosopher Zhu Xi believed that Confucian ideas had been misrepresented

Advocated the return to original teachings of moral self-improvement directed by reason

A Ming emperor reformed Confucian cult to focus more on Confucius’s teachings than on the sage himself

LO 2

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The Rise of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism (ca. 350 B.C.E - 1200 C.E.) (continued 3)

Veneration of Confucius declined after the founding of the Chinese Republic

National Studies movement urged return to traditional Confucianism

Blamed Daoism for the fall of the Ming dynasty and the establishment of the Qing dynasty

LO 2

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The Modern Period of Daoism and Confucianism (1912–Present)

Daoism and Confucianism were revived after Mao’s death

Current government permits and supervises activities of Daoism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity

There is greater Chinese openness to Confucianism

China’s move toward a modified form of a free-enterprise system is seen by rulers as inimical to China’s well-being

LO 2

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Ancient Teachings Common to Daoism and Confucianism

Cosmic way of life

Dao

Essence of the Dao, the energy of life

Seen operating in dualistic form, the yin-yang

The One

Power or working that enables one to follow the Dao

LO 3

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Ancient Teachings Common to Daoism and Confucianism (continued)

Cosmic energy that enables beings to live and links them to the universe

Basic material of all that exists

Heaven - Impersonal cosmic force that guides events on earth and distinguishes right from wrong

An order and principle that both transcends the world and is deeply embedded in it

Tian

Each family was expected to remember names of its male ancestors and pay regular homage

Ancestors in the spirit world can bless or haunt their living descendants

Ancestor veneration

LO 3

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Traditional Daoist Deities

The Jade Emperor

The Earth God

Mazu

City gods

Lords of pestilence (Wang Ye)

LO 3

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Daoist Teachings - Wu Wei and Immortality

Wu Wei: “Not asserting” or going along with the nature of the world

Daoists try to live balanced and harmonious lives that are attuned to the Dao as it is seen in nature

Spiritual immortality is a special goal of some Daoists

Can be achieved by changing all one’s qi into primordial qi and then refining it

LO 3

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Daoist Ethics

Based on Daode Jing

One must follow the Dao in order to live a good life

Humans do not follow the Dao as naturally as other beings do

Human distinctions generate troubles and problems of existence

Ideas are carried out in everyday practice

LO 4

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Confucian Ethics

Xiao: Filial piety

The honor and obedience to one’s parents and deceased ancestors

Extended by analogy to the Five Relationships, each with specific duties

Ren

Humaneness, reciprocity, and virtue

The more powerful person in every relationship must act with humane, gentle reciprocity toward the less powerful

LO 4

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Confucian Ethics (continued)

Zhong: Loyalty

Extension of one’s duties to friends and family as carried out in the Five Relationships

Junzi: A prince or lord’s child

In the teaching of Confucius, a “superior man”

Expresses the process of self-cultivation and self-improvement

LO 4

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Daoist Temples and Worship

Temples are elaborate and ornately decorated

Statues of the gods are placed behind the altar

Flowers are placed and incense is burned at the altar

People visit temples for individual experiences or to attend group ceremonies

LO 5

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Photo caption - Offering incense to Daoist gods

Confucian Temples and Worship

Prior to twentieth century C.E., every county in China had one official temple to Confucius

Temples do not have images

State-mandated worship of Confucius focused on offering sacrifices

The Eight-Row Dance is performed on his birthday

Animal sacrifices and incense are offered

LO 5

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Photo caption - The temple of Confucius in Tainan, Taiwan—the oldest on the island—shows the simplicity of Confucian temples when compared to Daoist or Buddhist temples.

The Traditional Chinese Funeral

Ritual reflects ancient Chinese beliefs about life, death, and afterlife

The body is buried

Cremation is rare because it is believed to destroy the remaining qi in the bones

Funerals take place in the home and cemetery

An undertaker is hired to oversee all rites, especially actions involving physical contact with the corpse

LO 5

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Final Comparison of Daoism and Confucianism

Daoism

Human distinctions generate troubles and problems of existence

Dao naturally makes life full and right

Better to be passive than active, yielding rather than assertive, quiet rather than vocal

Confucianism

The yang, the active and assertive side of life, and proactive in setting human life straight

Study, plan, educate, and develop solutions to China’s problems

LO 5

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Daoism in the West

Advocated by Professor Henri Maspero and Michael Saso

Arrived with the first Chinese who came to participate in California’s gold rush

Immigrants established several temples in San Francisco

Federal Chinese Exclusion Act - Stopped Chinese immigration until the 1965 Immigration Act

Many Daoist organizations have been established in the West

LO 6

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Confucianism in the West

Knowledge of Confucianism spread via Müller’s “Sacred Books of the East” series in the 1800s

Contained translations of the Analects and the Mencius

Social and educational associations were built instead of temples

Confucius Centers or Confucius Institutes have been established, usually connected with universities

LO 6

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Key Terms

Daoism

Confucianism

Yin-yang

Taiji

Oracle bones

Feng shui

Jing

Yi Jing

Heaven

Daozang

Neo-Daoism

Mandate of Heaven

Neo-Confucianism

Dao

Tian

Jade Emperor

Earth God

Mazu

City gods

Wu wei

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HIST4 | CH6

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KEY TERMS

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RELG4 | CH7

Key Terms (continued)

Xiao

Ren

Zhong

Junzi

Confucius Centers

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HIST4 | CH6

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HIST4 | CH6

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KEY TERMS (continued)

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Summary

Daoism is the religion of the natural way, while Confucianism is based on reforms by Confucius

Both religions:

Went with and against each other for more than two thousand years

Share teachings, such as Dao, the One, and De

Center their worship in temples

Spread into the wider world when their scriptures were translated

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SUMMARY

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End of Chapter 7

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Encountering Indigenous Religions: Ways to Tribal Life

Learning Outcomes

State and evaluate the different names for indigenous religions

Explain in your own words the challenges to the study of indigenous religions

Discuss the common features of indigenous religions

State and explain the main features of Lakota religion

State and explain the main features of Yoruba religion

State and explain the main features of Vodou religion

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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Names of Types of Religions

Present in various societies around the world before European and American expansion

Traditional religion

Not derived from other religions

Primitive (primal) religion

Belief that individual spirits exist in people and individual things in nature

Animism

LO 1

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Names of Types of Religions (continued 1)

Spirit of one primary source in nature provides the basis of human life in one’s tribe

Totemism

Belief in an impersonal spiritual power that permeates the world as a whole

Manaism

Based on the work of shamans

Shamanism

LO 1

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Names of Types of Religions (continued 2)

Held by relatively small societies

Small-scale religion

Has a stronger connection to the natural environment than other religions

Nature religion

Religion of the people, usually a tribe, original to an area

Present in a given place for centuries before the arrival of other cultures with different religions

Indigenous religion

LO 1

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Challenges in Studying Indigenous Religions

Lack of written sources

Difficulty discerning continuity and discontinuity

Mainstream guilt

Misrepresentations in popular culture

Misuse of indigenous rituals

LO 2

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Features of Indigenous Religions

Importance of place

Global distribution

Many gods and spirits

Influenced by other cultures

Based on orality, story, and myth

Oriented more toward practice than to belief

LO 3

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Features of Indigenous Religions (continued 1)

In-group based

Does not seek converts

Does not allow full entry to people who are not of their group

Goodness of the world

Indigenous people believe that all parts of nature have a spiritual aspect

All things in the world are related to humans in a cosmic natural balance

LO 3

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Features of Indigenous Religions (continued 2)

Religious specialists

Known by many names, such as:

Holy men, medicine men, healers, priest/priestesses, and Shamans

Tricksters: God, spirit, human, or wily animal that acts in unconventional ways often for the good of others

Continuing vitality

Native peoples’ numbers and cultural influence have risen dramatically in recent generations

LO 3

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Native American Religion - Lakota

Sioux - Seven tribal groups organized into three main political units

Originally lived in the western Great Lakes area and later moved to the plains

Name is derived from the term Nadouwesou, meaning “poisonous snakes”

Call themselves the Seven Fire Places People

LO 4

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Photo caption - Ceremonial pipe

Features of Lakota Religion

Black Hills of South Dakota

Sacred place of creation and life

Wakan Tanka

All that is mysterious, sacred

Spirit world of the Lakota, which created the universe

Wakanpi: Gods and spirits within Wakan Tanka who have power and control over everything

LO 4

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Photo caption - Cactus used in making peyote

Features of Lakota Religion (continued)

Pass down their religion to each new generation in story form

Tribal history is passed along orally

Guided by myths of origin

Death and the afterlife in the spirit world is assumed to be a natural part of life

LO 4

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Photo captions - Cactus used in making peyote

2.2 Lakota Medicine Wheel

LO 4

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Figure

RELG4 | CH2

Lakota Rituals

Vision quest

Ritual passage to adulthood through which one undergoes a symbolic death and rebirth and gains a guardian spirit

Spirit stones - Protect against danger or illness

Sacred pipe: Used to forge a link between Wakan Tanka and humankind

Sweat lodge: Ritual sauna meant to cleanse participants’ spirits

LO 4

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Lakota Rituals (continued)

Use of peyote

Peyote: Mild hallucinogenic cactus bud used in rituals

Sun dance festival

Main festival ceremony of Plains tribes

Ritually enacts continuity between life and death and renews the tribe’s life as connected to the earth

LO 4

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Lakota Culture and Religion - Decline and Signs of Revival

Reasons for decline

Confinement to reservations

Voluntary and forced assimilation into mainstream culture

Signs of revival

Growth in tribal identities

State recognized casino gambling is bringing in financial resources for tribal use

LO 4

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African Religion - Yoruba

Originated in west-central Africa

Varies significantly in different regions but shares similar structure and purpose

A supreme but remote god rules the world along with hundreds of lower gods who have specific areas of rule

Gods guide believers to find their life’s destiny, which is determined at the moment of reincarnation but forgotten

LO 5

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Photo caption - A doll with bananas, both tied with red ribbon, as offerings to Shango

High Gods and Other Gods of the Yoruba

Olorun: “Ruler of the Sky”

Olodumare - “All-powerful One”

Orisha: Deities that control relations between the earth and the high god

Form vast group of supernatural beings, numbers being between 401 and 601

Myth - Orishala and Odudua created the world and humans

Ogun: Highest orisha

Chief god of war, ironworking, and hunting

LO 5

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High Gods and Other Gods of the Yoruba (continued)

Shango - Storm god

Was brought to the New World by African slaves

Shokpona - God of smallpox

Became important during the smallpox plagues that arose during the west African intertribal wars

Trickster gods blur lines between good and evil

LO 5

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Yoruba - Religious Specialists

Babalawo: Male priests

“Father of secrets”

Iyalawo: Female priests

“Mother of secrets”

Help people understand the destinies they chose in the spirit world

Empower people to make their destinies come true

LO 5

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Photo caption - Ivory wand or tapper used in Yoruba Ifa divination practice, Nigeria. The diviner taps an Ifa board with the point of the tapper repeatedly to summon the attention of the gods.

Yoruba - Spirits of the Ancestors

Dead ancestors are venerated

Some groups believe that dead ancestors become semidivine figures

Possession of one’s body by the gods

Priests act as mediums and take on the individual characteristics of the deities

LO 5

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Afro-Caribbean Religion - Vodou

Vodou originates from West African Ewe Fon language

Means both god and worship

Concerned with bringing followers into harmony with the gods that control the natural world

The African version is not blended with Roman Catholicism as it is in the Americas

LO 6

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Afro-Caribbean Religion - Vodou (continued)

Centered on different groups of gods, or loas

Fon myth - Different deities reign in each one of the three regions of the world

Sky - Where the creator god lives

Earth - Where Vodou gods live

Clouds - Where souls of dead humans and spirits that have never been tied to matter live

LO 6

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Vodou Groups

Gods and rites are divided into groups according to their geographical regions of origin

Rada and Petro

Priests may support both groups

Believers of one group can take part in ceremonies of the other

LO 6

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Vodou Worship

Vodou is described as a possession cult

Animal sacrifice and trance dances forge and maintain possession by the gods

Rites are practiced by initiated members (hunsi), presided over by priests and priestesses (hugan and mambo)

Worship is held in sacred cabins or temples with a central post to enable deities to descend

Zombie - Human revived after death by a powerful magician

LO 6

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Vodou Worship (continued)

Can be used as a slave with no mind, will, or soul

Baron Samedi: “Lord of the Dead”

Appears like a corpse prepared in a Haitian-style for burial

Charged with sexual energy and is known for obscenity and debauchery

Worshiped in order to keep him at bay

LO 6

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Photo caption - Vodou has so entered the popular imagination that even animated Disney films for children can feature (and exploit) it. In The Princess and the Frog, the Vodou character known as Dr. Facilier resembles Baron Samedi, dressed in tails and a top hat with a sign of death on it.

Voudou - Spells and Counter-Spell Rituals

Magic is used to seek deliverance from the difficulties of life

Difficulties are seen as the effect of demonic spells

Gris-gris: Cloth bags containing items gathered under the direction of a god for protection

Vodou has been a subject of exoticism

LO 6

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Photo caption - A shop selling Vodou supplies in the French Quarter of New Orleans.

Key Terms

Primitive religion

Animism

Totemism

Manaism

Shamanism

Small-scale religion

Nature religion

Indigenous religion

First Nations

Aboriginals

Genocide

Noble savages

Pan-Indian movement

Cosmogonic myth

Etiological myth

Semihistorical myth

Tricksters

Wakan Tanka

Wakanpi

Vision quest

Sacred pipe

Sweat lodge

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KEY TERMS

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Key Terms (continued)

Peyote

Native American Church

Sun dance

Assimilation

Little Big Horn

Ghost dance

Olorun

Massacre at Wounded Knee

Orisha

Kahuna

Kapu

Ogun

Babalawo

Iyalawo

Ifa

Loas

Possession cult

Baron Samedi

Gris-gris

Exoticism

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KEY TERMS (continued)

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Summary

There are no proper records or timelines for studying indigenous religions

Indigenous religions place importance on place and worship many gods

Lokota is a popular Native American religion, and Yoruba is an indigenous religion from Africa

Vodou is an Afro-Caribbean religion and is a subject of exoticism

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SUMMARY

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End of chapter 2

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Chapter 1 Beginning Your Study of World Religions

Beginning Your Study of World Religions

Learning Outcomes

State and explain your own preunderstanding of religion

State and explain the definition of religion used in this book

Give your own answer to the question: Why study religion?

List and describe the six different dimensions of religion

Discuss how the various academic disciplines contribute to the study of religion

Explain the special issues in the study of religion today

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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Preunderstanding

State of one’s understanding of reality with which one makes sense of one’s new experiences

Changes as one’s knowledge, beliefs, and convictions are altered over time

LO 1

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Photo caption - Like all human thinking, knowing about one’s preunderstanding of religion is a process

Preunderstanding of Religions: Questions to Be Considered

Is one’s view of religion unprejudiced?

Can one encounter religion objectively after suspending his or her beliefs?

Can one study other religions without feeling threatened of one’s own religion?

Can one encounter practices that seem unusual without getting too upset?

Can one be humble and provisional in his or her conclusions?

LO 1

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Religion

Pattern of beliefs and practices

Monotheism: Belief in one God

Polytheism: Belief in many Gods

Expresses and enacts what is sacred and/or ultimate about life

Formed by a community of like-minded people

LO 2

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Photo caption - Ethical and ritual dimensions come together in a Hindu wedding in Ahmedabad, India, where a priest offers a sacrifice for the well-being of the married couple.

Secularism - Life Without Religion

Rejects religion for:

Perceived evils of extremism

Inappropriateness of religious training for children

Better view on life offered by science

Has reduced religious belief and practice and has led to widespread religious illiteracy

People often combine aspects of secular life with religious life

LO 2

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Secularism - Life Without Religion (continued)

Secularization hypothesis: Suggests that science and education will spell the end of religion in modern world

Has been discredited because religion:

Has a visible role in global and cultural conflicts

Has become a main marker of human identity

LO 2

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Photo caption - The rise of secularism has challenged most religions for the past two hundred years

Study of Religion

Offers training in both academic and everyday skills by helping one:

Link religious thought and practice to everyday life and understand conflicts within and between nations

Appreciate religious language and values

Analyze and understand important texts both critically and empathetically

Develop cultural intelligence

LO 3

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1.1 Dimensions of Religion

LO 4

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Figure

RELG4 | CH1

Ways of Studying Religion

Study of a religion, based on a religious commitment to that religion, in order to promote it

Theology

Aims to understand religious traditions objectively

Students are not asked to make religious commitments

Religious studies

LO 5

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1.1 Distribution of World Religions Today

LO 5

Map

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Map 1.1 Distribution of World Religions Today

Christianity has the most believers in the world today and is the dominant faith in the Americas, Oceania, Europe, Russia, and central and southern Africa. Most people in the northern half of Africa, western Asia, and central Asia embrace Islam. Hindus are concentrated in India and Buddhists in East and Southeast Asia.

Although China has been largely atheistic or nonreligious under Communist rule, its main religions—Daoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity—are growing, now espoused by about 25 percent of the population.

Academic Disciplines That Contribute to the Study of Religion

History

Psychology

Sociology

Cultural anthropology

Women’s studies

Biology

LO 5

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History

Main method in the study of religion

Studies the process of a religion’s beginnings, growth, diversity, and decline

Approaches to studying religion

Historical-critical method: Uses methods such as archaeology and studying texts in their original languages

History of religions school: Studies religion as a social and cultural phenomenon

LO 5

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Psychology

Has interest in religion because of:

Religion’s role in shaping human behavior

How religions understand the human self

Concerned with research in conversion, mysticism, and meditation

LO 5

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Photo caption - Meditating in a simple yoga position

Views of Psychologists on Religion

Sigmund Freud

Religion is a neurotic condition for which therapy is needed when it persists into adulthood

Belief in God stems from an adult’s need for a father figure

Carl Jung

Conceptions of the divine related to an ancient archetypal pattern that resides in the subconscious of all human minds

LO 5

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Views of Psychologists on Religion (continued)

William James

Primary focus of the psychology of religion should be on the religious experience of individuals, not institutions

Andrew Newberg

Brain scans of subjects who meditate and pray show physical and emotional benefits over time

LO 5

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Sociology

Aims at explaining religion’s role in society

Current debates centered on:

Pace of secularization and civil religion

Cohesiveness of religions and practices in the face of globalization, multiculturalism, and pluralism

Émile Durkheim’s view

Religion creates group identity and reinforces moral values of a society

LO 5

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Cultural Anthropology

Uncovers underlying values of cultures

Studies broad cultural dynamics

Places special focus on the shaman

Shaman: Religious specialist who acts as a medium between visible and spiritual worlds

Victor Turner’s theory

Ritual creates the social breaks and thresholds of new kinds of life

LO 5

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Photo caption - Amazonian shaman in Ecuador, 2015

Women’s Studies

Scholars argue that most religions stem from patriarchy

Explains the nearly worldwide subordination of women to men

Primary religious duty of women is to obey their husbands and raise their children

LO 5

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Biology

Scientists seek to explain religion in genetic terms

Dean Hamer’s book, The God Gene: How Faith Is Hardwired into Our Genes

claims that religion is made possible by a genetic adaptation

Generally accepted hypothesis

Some early humans became capable of transcending themselves, which was passed on by natural selection

LO 5

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Conclusions about Methods of Studying Religion

Study of religions is multidisciplinary

Religious studies is a human, and not a divine, way of knowing

LO 5

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Issues in the Study of Religion

Religious tolerance and atheism

Violence

Pluralism

Religion and ecological crisis

New religious movements

LO 6

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Key Terms

Preunderstanding

Religion

Monotheism

Polytheism

Private religion

Secularism

Secularization hypothesis

Cultural intelligence

Ritual

Pilgrimage

Myths

New religious movements (NRMs)

Laity

Theology

Religious studies

Historical-critical method

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KEY TERMS

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Key Terms continued

History of religions schools

Sociology

Civil religion

Cultural anthropology

Shaman

Life-cycle rituals

Feminism

Patriarchy

Phenomenology of religion

Atheism

New Atheists

Agnostics

Tolerance

Pluralism

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KEY TERMS (continued)

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Summary

Religion is a pattern of beliefs and practices that expresses what a community considers sacred and/or ultimate about life

Study of religion offers a foundation for a successful career in fields such as psychology

Religion can be divided into six dimensions and there are two ways to study religion

Religious tolerance, violence, and pluralism are some issues in the study of religion

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SUMMARY

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Chapter 01

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Encountering Hinduism: Many Paths to Liberation

Learning Outcomes

Explain what Hinduism means and its strengths and weaknesses as a name

Explain how the main periods of Hinduism’s history have shaped its present, especially its unity and diversity

Outline the essentials of Hindu teachings in your own words

Relate Hindu ethics to the essential Hindu teachings

Outline the ways Hindus worship, at home and in temples

State the main aspects of Hindu life around the world today, especially in North America

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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Hinduism

Umbrella term gradually imposed on Hindus, and then accepted by them

Hindu - First appeared around 500 B.C.E as a Persian word for the Indus River and the inhabitants of the valley

Upper-class Hindus in India refer to their religion as the “eternal way of life”

LO 1

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Photo caption - Om and the swastika

The Vedic Period

Around 2500 B.C.E., the Indus Valley civilization thrived in northwest India

Main city-states - Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

Inhabited by dark-skinned Dravidians

Traded internationally

Declined around 1500 B.C.E., when the Aryans migrated into northwest India

LO 2

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The Vedic Period (1500–600 B.C.E.)

Aryans brought oral collections called Vedas

Vedas: Books of knowledge

Consist of Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas

Comprise hymns to various deities, instructions and songs for sacrifice, and spells to bring on blessings and keep away evil

LO 2

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The Vedic Period (1500–600 B.C.E.) (continued 1)

Rituals

Sacrifice by means of fire

Heart of Vedic religion

Vedic sacrificial rituals aimed at aiding and strengthening deities

Deities strengthen the world so that those who offer sacrifice may prosper

Agnihotra ritual to the sun

Symbolizes Agni carrying sacrifice to Indra, Varuna, and Brahma

LO 2

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The Vedic Period (1500–600 B.C.E.) (continued 2)

Rishi: “Seer” of the divine

Writer of the Vedas

Took a trip to the realm of the deities and experienced their hidden truth when he drank soma

Sacrifice became a necessity in Aryan society

Religious and social power were consolidated in the hands of the Brahmins

Brahmanas - Books detailing sacrifice

LO 2

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Upanishadic Period (600–400 B.C.E)

Upanishads: Philosophical scriptures at the end of the Vedic period

Included dialogues between teachers and students who sought sacred knowledge through a withdrawal from ordinary life

Brahman: Foundation of all physical matter, energy, time, space, and being itself

Present in all people as atman

Atman: Individual’s innermost self or soul

LO 2

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Upanishadic Period (600–400 B.C.E) (continued)

Religious quest is to realize that brahman and one’s atman are the same

Realization brings freedom from ignorance and misery, and liberation from the endless cycle of reincarnation

Teachings coalesced into yoga

LO 2

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Classical Period (400 B.C.E–600 C.E.)

Rise of converts to Jainism and Buddhism prompted integration of foreign elements

Upanishads were accepted into the Vedic body of scriptures

Low gods of the non-Aryan classes were incorporated

Non-Aryans were taken into the religious system as lower castes and outcastes

LO 2

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Important Literature from the Classical Period

Mahabharata

Ramayana

Bhagavad Gita

Laws of Manu

LO 2

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The Devotional Period (600 C.E.–Present)

Rise of devotional movements

Bhakti: Devotion

Advocates of bhakti in southern India used poetry and song to praise Shiva and Vishnu around the sixth century C.E.

Spread into most Hindu traditions by the seventeenth century

Famous devotees - Mahadeviyakka and Mirabai

LO 2

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The Devotional Period (600 C.E.–Present) (continued 1)

Tantrism

Writings in the Tantric movement based on practices outside the elite Brahmin tradition

Tantras criticize the religious establishment and also affirm traditional Hindu teachings

Right-handed path - Employs mantra, mandala, and ritual techniques based on body geography

Left-handed path - Ritual actions forbidden in mainstream Hinduism

LO 2

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The Devotional Period (600 C.E.–Present) (continued 2)

Rise of Hindu reform movements or revisionism

Caused by the arrival of European colonizers and Christian missionaries in the nineteenth century

Aimed at ending:

The harshest features of the caste system

Superstitions

Popular blessings and curses

Worship of images

LO 2

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The Devotional Period (600 C.E.–Present) (continued 3)

Government of modern India has tolerated all religions

Has brought significant improvement to the lives of the lower classes and the outcastes

Has provoked a religious–political reaction widely referred to as Hindu fundamentalism

LO 2

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Shiva - God of Destruction

Guides and empowers destruction in the cosmic cycle of creation, destruction, and recreation

Destruction symbolizes removal of obstacles to salvation

Consorts - Parvati, Durga, and Kali

Son - Ganesha, the elephant- headed god

Main symbols - Lingam, Nandi, and trident

LO 3

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Photo caption - Statue in Bangalore, India, of the god Shiva meditating in the lotus yoga position

Vishnu - God of Life

Supervises universal order and prosperity

Protects and preserves the world

Incarnates when needed to defeat enemies of humans and gods

Rama in Ramayana

Krishna in Bhagavad Gita

Consort - Lakshmi, goddess of fortune

LO 3

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Shakti - The Goddess

Portrayed in the Rig Veda as the powerful upholder of the universe

Worshiped as Devi and Mahadevi

Female power in the goddess is seen as the cause of creation, preservation, and end of the world

Forms - Lakshmi, Kali, and Durga

Yoni: Symbol that represents the feminine power of the cosmos

LO 3

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Photo caption - Shakti (standing) and Shiva in a mural in a temple in Hyderabad, India

Hindu Doctrinal Concepts

Dharma

Righteousness, law, duty, moral teachings, religion, or order in the universe

Specific to one’s social position, caste membership, stage of life, and gender

A Hindu must conform primarily to his or her class and caste dharma, which will lead to better reincarnation

LO 3

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Hindu Doctrinal Concepts (continued)

Stages of life

Samsara: Cycle of reincarnation

Jiva: Personal soul that collects karma and is subject to reincarnation

Karma: Deeds or acts that influence reincarnation

Moksha: Liberation from rebirth and samsara

LO 3

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Photo caption - A soul, symbolized by a ray of light, travels to enlightenment through seven different lives

Paths to Moksha

Path of deeds (karma)

Path of knowledge

Path of devotion

LO 3

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3.3 The Hindu Varna System and the Dalits

LO 4

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Figure

RELG4 | CH3

Four Stages of a Man’s Life in the Upper Three Castes

Gaining knowledge for caste duties

Student stage

Marrying and raising a family

Householder stage

Retiring

Forest-dweller stage

Becoming a renunciant

Sanyasin stage

LO 4

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Goals of Life

Social morality and ritual duties

Dharma

Material success and prosperity

Artha

Aesthetic pleasure of mind and body

Kama

Release from life

Moksha

LO 4

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Lives of Hindu Women

Hindu women get married while young

Bear children, raise them, and run the home

Traditionally not allowed at the shrine or in the kitchen during menstruation

Abortion is legal and frequent

Prenatal gender-testing is outlawed since 1994 because of selective abortion of females

Divorced or widowed women are considered unlucky

LO 4

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Hindu Rituals

Puja

Honor or veneration of the gods

A daily ritual event for observant Hindus

Murti: Representation of the deity

Suggests something beyond the visible form that receives worship offered in visible form

Power or essence of the deity is believed to inhabit the murti

LO 5

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Photo caption - An image draws the mind to the greater essence of the god; here the bull Nandi represents Shiva

Temple Worship

Deity and temple belong to one of the strands within the Hindu pantheon

Shaivite, Vaishnavite, or Shakta

The murti is central and treated as an honored guest

Essence of the food offered is received by the deity and the leftovers are given back as prasad

Fragrance, light, and hymns of praise are offered, and devotees bows to show respect

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Home Shrines

Family god has the center stage

Daily worship involves:

Bathing and purification of space with mantra

Ringing a bell to honor gods and get their attention

Lamp swung before the shrine

Divinity resides in the fire and worshipers receive it by holding fingers over the flame and then touching their eyes

LO 5

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Pilgrimage, Festivals, and Funerals

Brings purification from sin and ritual impurity, gains merit, fulfills vows, and leads to betterment of this life and the next

Kumbha Mela is the largest pilgrimage event in the world

Pilgrimage

Indicate change of seasons, celebrate harvests, and promote fertility of animals and crops

Dedicated to gods or goddesses, and mark events from Indian epics

Festivals and holidays

Death rites enable the deceased to join dead ancestors happily

Funerals

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Yoga

Tool for achieving liberation, or the mental discipline that can lead to liberation

Types

Hatha yoga

Karma yoga

Jnana yoga

Bhakti yoga

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Photo caption - Yoga classes in the West tend to emphasize the physical and emotional benefits

of yoga over the religious benefits, and appeal to a wide variety of cultures. Here, women practice the “cobra” pose.

Yogic Steps to Achieve Samadhi or “Bliss”

Follow ethical guidelines on behavior toward others

Follow guidelines on behavior toward oneself

Learn and use formal yoga postures

Perform breathing exercises, coordinated with physical postures

Withdraw senses from the exterior world

Concentrate on one single thing

Meditate to move beyond concentration

LO 5

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Hinduism in North America Today - Hindu Gurus

First successful Hindu missionary to the West

Established first Hindu temple in North America

Stressed the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads

Vivekananda

Founded the Self-Realization Fellowship of North America in 1920

Teaches yoga that enables one to realize the god within

Paramahansa Yogananda

LO 6

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Hinduism in North America Today - Hindu Gurus (continued)

Founder of Spiritual Regeneration Movement or Transcendental Meditation (TM)

Teachings emphasize one’s inner divine essence and the liberation in knowing one’s true identity

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi

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Hindu Migration and Life in North America

Ways in which Hindu traditions are preserved

At home

By joining cultural organizations and by sending children to Hindu summer camps

By building authentic temples

Marriage within caste is a necessity

Most marriages are arranged to an extent

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Key Terms

Atman

Reincarnation

Yoga

Sadhus

Bhagavad Gita

Laws of Manu

Bhakti

Tantras

Mantra

Hindutva

Lingam

Indus Valley Civilization

Om (Aum)

Swatika

Dravidians

Aryans

Vedas

Agnihotra

Rishi

Upanishads

Brahman

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KEY TERMS

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Key Terms (continued 1)

Shudras

Outcastes

Dalits

Jati

Student stage

Householder stage

Forest-dweller stage

Sannyasin stage

Artha

Kama

Bindi

Yoni

Dharma

Samsara

Jiva

Karma

Moksha

Caste

Varna

Brahmins

Kshatriyas

Vaishyas

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KEY TERMS (continued 1)

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Key Terms (continued 2)

Suttee

Puja

Murti

Kumbha Mela

Transcendental Meditation (TM)

Diaspora

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KEY TERMS (continued 2)

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Summary

“Hinduism” is derived from an ancient Persian word for Indus River Valley

Main deities in the three devotional movements are Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga

Main concepts are dharma, karma, and moksha

Spread of Hinduism in the West began with Swami Vivekananda

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SUMMARY

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End of Chapter 3

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