sociology short answers

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Course: SOC 311

Instructor authorizing: Jepson

Extracted from (source citation): Social Theory, a Reader: Volume II from Modern to Contemporary Theory / edited by Roberta Garner & Black Hawk Hancock. North York, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014.

Source owned by: Instructor

po w er, th a t is, “ e q u a l e lig ib ility f o r e le c t io n to p o s i t io n s o f p o w e r.” D e m o c r a c y n o l o n g e r h a s th e g o a l o f r a t io n a liz in g a u th o rity t h r o u g h th e p a r t ic i p a t i o n o f c itiz e n s in d i s c u r ­ sive p r o c e s s e s o f w ill- f o r m a t io n . It is i n t e n d e d , i n s t e a d , to m ake p o s s ib le compromises b e tw e e n r u li n g e lite s . T h u s , th e su b sta n c e o f c la s s ic a l d e m o c r a t ic th e o r y is fin a lly s u r r e n ­ d e r e d . N o l o n g e r all p o lit ic a lly c o n s e q u e n t ia l d e c is io n s , b u t o n ly th o s e d e c is io n s o f th e g o v e r n m e n t s till defined as political, a re to b e s u b je c t to th e p r e c e p ts o f d e m o c r a t ic w ill- fo r m a t io n . I n t h is way, a p l u r a lis m o f e lite s , r e p la c in g the s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t io n o f th e p e o p le , m a k e s p r iv a te ly e x ­ e rc ise d so c ia l p o w e r in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p r e s s u r e s o f l e g i t ­ im a t io n a n d im m u n iz e s it a g a in s t th e p r in c i p l e o f ra t io n a l fo r m a tio n o f w ill. . . .

Reading 15.3.2: Excerpt from Habermas’s The Theory of Communicative Action (1981)

[Source: Jurgen Habermas, The Theory o f Communicative Action. Vol. 2, Lifeworld and System: A Critique o f Functionalist Reason, trans. Thomas McCarthy (1981; Boston: Beacon Press,

1985), 119-20,136-38,140-43,153-56, 324-31.]

I. The Concept o f the Lifeworld and the Hermeneutic Idealism

o f Interpretive Sociology

I w o u ld lik e to e x p lic a t e th e c o n c e p t o f th e life w o r ld , a n d to th is e n d I sh a ll p ic k u p a g a in th e t h r e a d s o f o u r r e f le c ­ tio n o n c o m m u n ic a t io n th e o r y . It is n o t m y i n t e n t i o n to carry f u r t h e r o u r f o r m a l - p r a g m a t i c e x a m in a t io n o f s p e e c h acts a n d o f c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c t io n ; r a th e r , I w an t to b u i l d u p o n th ese c o n c e p ts so f a r as th ey h ave a lr e a d y b e e n a n a ­ lyzed, a n d take u p th e q u e s t io n o f h o w th e life w o r ld —as th e h o r iz o n w ith in w h ich c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c t io n s a re “ alw ays alre ad y ” m o v in g —is in t u r n lim it e d a n d c h a n g e d by the str u c tu r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f so c ie ty as a w h o le .

I have p r e v io u s ly i n t r o d u c e d th e c o n c e p t o f th e l i f e ­ w orld r a th e r c a su a lly a n d o n ly f r o m a r e c o n s t r u c t iv e re se arch p e r sp e c t iv e . It is a c o n c e p t c o m p le m e n t a r y to that o f c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c t io n . L ik e th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l life w o rld a n a ly sis o f th e la te H u s s e r l , 1 o r th e la te W it tg e n ­ stein ’s an a ly sis o f f o r m s o f life (w h ich w ere n o t , to b e s u r e , c a r rie d o u t w ith a sy ste m a tic i n t e n t ) , 2 f o r m a l- p r a g m a t ic analysis a im s at s t r u c t u r e s th a t, in c o n t r a s t to th e h i s t o r ­ ical sh a p e s o f p a r t ic u la r life w o r ld s a n d l i f e - f o r m s , a r e p u t

fo r w a r d as in v a r ia n t . W ith th is f ir s t s te p we a r e t a k in g in t o th e b a r g a in a s e p a r a t io n o f f o r m a n d c o n t e n t . S o l o n g as we h o ld to a f o r m a l p r a g m a t ic r e s e a r c h p e r sp e c t iv e , w e c a n tak e u p q u e s t io n s th a t h av e p r e v io u s ly b e e n d e a lt w ith in th e fr a m e w o r k o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p h ilo s o p h y —in th e p r e s ­ e n t c o n te x t , we c a n fo c u s o u r a t t e n t io n o n s t r u c t u r e s o f th e life w o r ld in g e n e r a l.

I s h o u ld lik e to b e g in b y (A) m a k in g c le a r h ow th e l i f e ­ w o r ld is r e la te d to t h o se th r e e w o r ld s o n w h ich s u b je c t s a c t ­ in g w ith a n o r ie n t a t io n to m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g b a se t h e ir c o m m o n d e f in it io n s o f s it u a t io n s . (B) I w ill th e n e la b o r a te u p o n th e c o n c e p t o f th e life w o r ld p r e s e n t as a c o n te x t in c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c t io n a n d re la te it to D u r k h e i m ’s c o n c e p t o f th e c o lle c tiv e c o n s c io u s n e s s . C e r t a in ly , it is n o t a c o n ­ c e p t th a t c a n b e p u t to e m p ir ic a l u s e w ith o u t f u r t h e r a d o . (C ) T h e c o n c e p ts o f th e life w o r ld n o r m a lly e m p lo y e d in in te r p r e t iv e [verstehenden] so c io lo g y a re lin k e d w ith e v e ry ­ day c o n c e p ts th a t a r e , to b e g in w ith , se r v ic e a b le o n ly f o r th e n a r r a tiv e p r e s e n t a t io n o f h is t o r ic a l e v e n ts a n d s o c ia l c ir c u m s t a n c e s . (D) A n in v e s tig a tio n o f th e f u n c t io n s th a t c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c t io n tak e s o n in m a in t a i n i n g a s t r u c t u r ­ ally d if f e r e n t ia t e d w o r ld o r ig in a t e s f r o m w ith in t h is h o r i ­ z o n . I n c o n n e c t io n w ith th e se f u n c t io n s , we c a n c la r ify th e n e c e ssa r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r a r a t io n a liz a t io n o f th e life w o r ld . (£ ) T h i s tak e s u s to th e lim it o f t h e o r e t ic a l a p p r o a c h e s th a t id e n tify s o c ie ty w ith th e life w o r ld . I sh a ll t h e r e fo r e p r o ­ p o s e th at we c o n c e iv e o f so c ie ty s im u lt a n e o u s ly as a sy ste m a n d as a life w o r ld .

A . —I n e x a m i n i n g th e o n t o l o g i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o f t e le o lo g ic a l, n o r m a t iv e ly r e g u la t e d , a n d d r a m a t u r g i ­ c a l a c t io n [. . . ] , I d i s t i n g u is h e d t h r e e d if fe r e n t a c t o r - w o r ld r e l a t i o n s th a t a s u b je c t c a n tak e u p to s o m e t h i n g i n a w o r ld —to s o m e t h i n g th a t e it h e r o b t a i n s o r c a n b e b r o u g h t a b o u t in th e o n e o b je c t iv e w o r ld , to s o m e t h i n g r e c o g n iz e d as o b lig a t o r y in th e s o c ia l w o r ld s u p p o s e d ly s h a r e d b y a ll th e m e m b e r s o f a c o lle c tiv e , o r to s o m e t h in g th a t o t h e r a c t o r s a t t r ib u t e to th e s p e a k e r ’s o w n s u b je c t iv e w o r ld (t o w h ic h h e h a s p r iv ile g e d a c c e s s ) . T h e s e a c t o r - w o r ld r e la t io n s t u r n u p a g a in in th e p u r e ty p es o f a c t io n o r ie n t e d to m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . B y a t t e n d in g to th e m o d e s o f l a n g u a g e u s e , we c a n c la r ify w h at it m e a n s f o r a s p e a k e r , in p e r f o r m i n g o n e o f th e s t a n d a r d s p e e c h a c ts, to tak e u p a p r a g m a t ic r e la t io n

to s o m e t h in g in th e o b je c tiv e w o r ld (a s th e to ta lity o f e n tit ie s a b o u t w h ich t r u e sta te m e n t s a re p o s s i b l e ) ; o r

549

to s o m e t h in g in th e s o c ia l w o r ld (a s th e to ta lity o f le g itim a te ly r e g u la t e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s ) ; o r to s o m e t h in g in th e su b je c t iv e w o r ld (a s th e to ta lity o f e x p e r ie n c e to w h ich a sp e a k e r h as p r iv ile g e d a c c e ss a n d w h ich h e c a n e x p r e ss b e fo r e a p u b l i c ) ;

s u c h th a t w h at th e sp e e c h act r e f e r s to a p p e a r s to th e s p e a k e r a s s o m e t h in g o b je c t iv e , n o r m a t iv e , o r s u b je c ­ tiv e. I n i n t r o d u c i n g th e c o n c e p t o f c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c ­ t i o n , 3 I p o i n t e d o u t th a t th e p u r e ty p es o f a c t io n o r ie n t e d to m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r e m e re ly lim it c a se s. I n fa c t, c o m m u n ic a t iv e u t t e r a n c e s a r e alw ays e m b e d d e d in v a r i­ o u s w o r ld r e la t io n s at th e sa m e t im e . C o m m u n ic a t iv e a c ­ t io n r e lie s o n a c o o p e r a t iv e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r p r e t a t io n in w h ich p a r t ic ip a n t s re la te s im u lt a n e o u s ly to s o m e t h in g in th e o b je c tiv e , th e s o c ia l, a n d th e s u b je c tiv e w o r ld s , ev e n w h e n th ey thematically stress only one o f th e th r e e c o m p o n e n t s in t h e ir u t t e r a n c e s . S p e a k e r a n d h e a r e r u s e th e r e fe r e n c e sy ste m o f th e th r e e w o r ld s as a n in te r p r e t iv e fr a m e w o r k w ith in w h ich they w o rk o u t t h e ir c o m m o n s it u a t io n d e f i ­ n i t i o n s . T h e y d o n o t re la te p o i n t - b l a n k to s o m e t h in g in a w o r ld b u t r e la tiv iz e t h e ir u t te r a n c e s a g a in s t th e c h a n c e th a t t h e ir v a lid ity w ill b e c o n t e s t e d b y a n o t h e r a c to r. C o m i n g to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g [Vmfandigung] m e a n s th a t p a r t ic ip a n t s in c o m m u n ic a t io n re a c h a n a g r e e m e n t LEi'nigiing] c o n c e r n ­ in g th e v a lid ity o f a n u t t e r a n c e ; a g r e e m e n t [£inz;erstcin<frm] is th e in te r s u b je c tiv e r e c o g n it io n o f th e v a lid ity c la im th e s p e a k e r r a ise s f o r it.

[. . .] T h i s every d ay c o n c e p t c a rv e s o u t o f th e o b je c tiv e w o r ld

th e r e g io n o f n a r r a t a b le e v e n ts o r h is t o r ic a l fa c ts. N a r ­ ra tiv e p r a c t ic e n o t o n ly se rv e s tr iv ia l n e e d s f o r m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a m o n g m e m b e r s tr y in g to c o o r d in a t e t h e ir c o m m o n ta sk s; it a ls o h as a f u n c t io n in th e s e l f - u n ­ d e r s t a n d in g o f p e r s o n s . T h e y h ave to ob j'ectiv ate t h e ir b e lo n g in g to th e life w o r ld to w h ich , in t h e ir a c tu a l r o le s as p a r t ic ip a n t s in c o m m u n ic a t io n , they d o b e lo n g . F o r they ca n d e v e lo p p e r s o n a l id e n t it ie s o n ly i f they r e c o g n iz e th a t th e s e q u e n c e s o f t h e ir o w n a c t io n s f o r m n a r r a tiv e ly p r e ­ se n ta b le life h is t o r ie s ; th ey c a n d e v e lo p s o c ia l id e n t it ie s o n ly i f they r e c o g n iz e th a t th ey m a in t a in t h e ir m e m b e r s h ip in s o c ia l g r o u p s by way o f p a r t ic ip a t in g in in t e r a c t io n s , a n d th u s th a t they a re c a u g h t u p in th e n a r r a tiv e ly p r e s e n t ­ a b le h is t o r ie s o f c o lle c tiv itie s . C o lle c tiv it ie s m a in t a in t h e ir id e n t it ie s o n ly to th e e x t e n t th a t th e id e a s m e m b e r s h ave

o f t h e ir life w o r ld o v e r la p s u f fic ie n t ly a n d c o n d e n s e in to u n p r o b l e m a t i c b a c k g r o u n d c o n v ic t io n s .

T h e lay c o n c e p t o f th e life w o r ld r e f e r s to th e to ta lity o f s o c io c u lt u r a l fa c ts a n d t h u s p r o v id e s a j u m p i n g - o f f p o in t f o r s o c ia l th e o r y . I n m y view , o n e m e t h o d o lo g ic a lly p r o m ­

i s in g way to c la r ify t h is c o n c e p t w o u ld b e to an a lyz e the f o r m o f n a r r a tiv e s ta te m e n t s, as A r t h u r D a n t o w as o n e o f th e f ir s t to d o , 4 a n d to a n a ly z e th e f o r m o f n a r r a tiv e tex ts. I n th e g r a m m a r o f n a r r a tiv e s w e c a n se e h o w we id e n tify a n d describe sta te s a n d e v e n ts th a t a p p e a r in a life w o r ld ; how w e interlink a n d sequentially organize in t o c o m p le x u n it ie s m e m ­ b e r s ’ in t e r a c t io n s in s o c ia l s p a c e s a n d h is t o r ic a l t im e s ; how w e e x p la in th e a c t io n s o f in d iv id u a ls a n d th e e v e n ts that b e f a ll th e m , th e a cts o f c o lle c tiv itie s a n d th e fa te s they m e e t w ith , f r o m th e p e r sp e c t iv e o f m a n a g in g situ a tio n s . I n a d o p t in g th e n a r r a tiv e f o r m , we a r e c h o o s in g a p e r s p e c ­ tive th a t “ g r a m m a tic a lly ” f o r c e s u s to b a s e o u r d e s c r ip t io n s o n a n every d ay c o n c e p t o f th e life w o r ld a s a cognitive reference system.

T h i s in tu it iv e ly a c c e s s ib le concept o f the sociocultural lifeworld c a n b e r e n d e r e d t h e o r e t ic a lly f r u i t f u l i f we c a n d e v e lo p f r o m it a r e f e r e n c e sy ste m f o r d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d e x p la n a ­ t io n s re le v a n t to th e life w o r ld a s a w h o le a n d n o t m erely to o c c u r r e n c e s w ith in it. W h e re a s n a r r a tiv e p r e se n t a t io n r e f e r s to w h at is in n e r w o r ld ly , t h e o r e t ic a l p r e se n t a t io n is in t e n d e d to e x p la in th e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e life w o rld it s e lf. I n d iv id u a ls a n d g r o u p s m a in t a in t h e m se lv e s by m a s t e r in g s it u a t io n s ; b u t h o w is th e life w o r ld , o f w hich each s it u a t io n f o r m s o n ly a s e g m e n t, m a in t a i n e d ? A n a r ­ r a t o r is a lr e a d y c o n s t r a in e d g r a m m a tic a lly , t h r o u g h the f o r m o f n a r r a tiv e p r e s e n t a t io n , to tak e a n in te r e s t in the id e n tity o f th e p e r s o n s a c t in g as w ell as in th e in te g r ity o f t h e ir life - c o n t e x t . W h e n we tell s t o r ie s , we c a n n o t av oid a ls o sa y in g in d ir e c tly h o w th e s u b je c t s in v o lv e d in them a r e f a r in g , a n d w hat fa te th e co lle c tiv ity th ey b e lo n g to is e x p e r ie n c in g . N e v e r t h e le s s , we c a n m a k e h a r m to p e r so n a l id e n tity o r t h r e a ts to s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n v isib le o n ly i n d i ­ re ctly in n a r r a tiv e s . W h ile n a r r a tiv e p r e s e n t a t io n s d o p o in t to h ig h e r - le v e l r e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s —to th e m a in t e ­ n a n c e im p e r a tiv e s o f life w o r ld s —th ey c a n n o t tak e as th e ir th e m e th e s t r u c t u r e s o f a life w o r ld th e way th ey d o with w h at h a p p e n s in it. T h e every d ay c o n c e p t o f th e life w o rld th a t we b r i n g to n a r r a tiv e p r e s e n t a t io n as a r e fe r e n c e sys­ t e m h a s to b e w o rk e d u p f o r t h e o r e t ic a l p u r p o s e s in such a way as to m a k e p o s s ib le s ta te m e n t s a b o u t th e r e p r o d u c ­

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tio n o r s e lf- m a in t e n a n c e o f c o m m u n ic a t iv e ly s t r u c t u r e d life w o rld s.

W h erea s th e life w o r ld is g iv e n f r o m th e perspective o f p a r­ ticipants o n ly as th e h o r i z o n - f o r m in g c o n te x t o f a n a c t io n situ a tio n , th e every d ay c o n c e p t o f th e life w o r ld p r e s u p ­ p o s e d in th e perspective o f narrators is a lr e a d y b e in g u s e d f o r c o g n itiv e p u r p o s e s . T o m a k e it t h e o r e t ic a lly f r u i t f u l we have to sta rt f r o m th o se b a s ic f u n c t io n s th a t, as we le a r n e d fr o m M e a d , th e m e d iu m o f la n g u a g e f u lfills f o r th e r e p r o ­ d u c t io n o f th e life w o r ld . I n c o m in g to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g with o n e a n o t h e r a b o u t t h e ir s it u a t io n , p a r t ic ip a n t s in in te r a c tio n s ta n d in a c u lt u r a l t r a d it i o n th a t th ey at o n c e use a n d re n e w ; in c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e ir a c t io n s by way o f in te rsu b je c tiv e ly r e c o g n iz in g c r it ic iz a b le v a lid ity c la im s, they a re at o n c e r e ly in g o n m e m b e r s h ip in s o c ia l g r o u p s an d s t r e n g t h e n in g th e in t e g r a t io n o f t h o se sa m e g r o u p s ; th r o u g h p a r t ic ip a t in g in in t e r a c t io n s w ith c o m p e t e n tly a ctin g r e fe r e n c e p e r s o n s , th e g r o w in g c h ild in t e r n a liz e s the va lu e o r ie n t a t io n s o f h is s o c ia l g r o u p a n d a c q u ir e s g e n ­ e ra liz e d c a p a c itie s f o r a c t io n .

U n d e r th e f u n c t io n a l a sp e c t o f mutual understanding, c o m ­ m u n ic a tiv e a c t io n se rv e s to t r a n s m it a n d r e n e w c u ltu r a l k n o w le d g e; u n d e r th e a sp e c t o f coordinating action, it se rv e s so cial i n t e g r a t io n a n d th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f so lid a r it y ; finally, u n d e r th e a sp e c t o f s o c ia liz a t io n , c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c tio n se rv e s th e f o r m a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t it ie s . T h e sy m b o lic s t r u c t u r e s o f th e life w o r ld a r e r e p r o d u c e d by way o f th e c o n t in u a t io n o f v a lid k n o w le d g e , s t a b iliz a t io n o f g r o u p so lid a r it y , a n d s o c ia liz a t io n o f r e s p o n s ib le a c t o r s . T h e p r o c e s s o f r e p r o d u c t i o n c o n n e c t s u p n e w s it u a t io n s with th e e x is t in g c o n d i t i o n s o f th e life w o r ld ; it d o e s t h is in th e semantic d i m e n s io n o f m e a n in g s o r c o n te n t s ( o f th e c u ltu ra l t r a d it i o n ) , as w ell as in th e d i m e n s io n s o f social space ( o f s o c ia lly in t e g r a t e d g r o u p s ) , a n d historical time ( o f su ccessiv e g e n e r a t i o n s ) . C o r r e s p o n d i n g to th e se p r o c e s s e s o f cultural reproduction, social integration, a n d socialization a r e th e str u c tu r a l c o m p o n e n t s o f th e life w o r ld : c u ltu r e , so ciety , p e r so n .

I u s e th e t e r m culture f o r th e sto c k o f k n o w le d g e f r o m w hich p a r t ic ip a n t s in c o m m u n ic a t io n s u p p ly th e m se lv e s w ith i n t e r p r e t a t io n s as th ey c o m e to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t s o m e t h in g in th e w o r ld . I u s e th e t e r m society f o r the le g itim a te o r d e r s t h r o u g h w h ich p a r t ic ip a n t s r e g u la te th e ir m e m b e r s h ip s in s o c ia l g r o u p s a n d th e re b y se c u r e so lid a r ity . B y personality I u n d e r s t a n d th e c o m p e t e n c e s

th a t m a k e a s u b je c t c a p a b le o f s p e a k in g a n d a c tin g , th a t p u t h im in a p o s i t io n to take p a r t in p r o c e s s e s o f r e a c h ­ in g u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d th e re b y to a s s e r t h is o w n id e n tity . T h e d i m e n s io n s in w h ich c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c t io n e x t e n d s c o m p r is e th e s e m a n t ic fie ld o f s y m b o lic c o n te n t s , s o c ia l s p a c e , a n d h is t o r ic a l t im e . T h e in t e r a c t io n s w o v en in to th e fa b r ic o f every c o m m u n ic a t iv e p r a c t ic e c o n s tit u te the m e d iu m t h r o u g h w h ich c u ltu r e , so ciety , a n d p e r s o n get r e p r o d u c e d . T h e s e r e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s c o v e r the sy m ­ b o lic s t r u c t u r e s o f th e life w o r ld . We h ave to d is t in g u is h f r o m th is th e m a in t e n a n c e o f th e m a t e r ia l s u b s t r a t u m o f th e life w o r ld .

Material reproduction tak es p la c e t h r o u g h th e m e d iu m o f th e p u r p o s iv e activ ity w ith w h ich s o c ia t e d in d iv id u a ls in te r v e n e in th e w o r ld to r e a liz e t h e ir a im s . A s W eb er p o i n t e d o u t , th e p r o b le m s th a t a c t o r s h ave to d e a l w ith in a g iv e n s it u a t io n c a n b e d iv id e d in to p r o b le m s o f “ in n e r n e e d ” a n d p r o b l e m s o f “ o u t e r n e e d . ” T o th e se c a t e g o r ie s o f task s as v iew ed f r o m th e p e r sp e c t iv e o f a c t io n , th e re c o r ­ r e s p o n d , w h e n th e m a tt e r is v iew ed f r o m th e p e r sp e c t iv e o f life w o r ld m a in t e n a n c e , p r o c e s s e s o f sy m b o lic a n d m a t e ­ r ia l r e p r o d u c t i o n .

I w o u ld lik e n o w to e x a m in e h o w d if fe r e n t a p p r o a c h e s to in te r p r e t a tiv e s o c io lo g y c o n c e iv e o f s o c ie ty as a l i f e ­ w o r ld . T h e s t r u c t u r a l c o m p le x it y o f a life w o r ld , as it h a s r e v e a le d i t s e l f to o u r c o m m u n ic a t io n t h e o r e t ic a l a n a l ­ y sis, d o e s n o t c o m e in t o view a lo n g t h is p a th . W h e n e v e r “ th e l ife w o r ld ” h a s b e e n m a d e a fu n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t o f s o c ia l th e o r y w h e th e r u n d e r t h is n a m e , as in H u s s e r l a n d h is fo llo w e r s , o r u n d e r th e title o f “ f o r m s o f l i f e , ” “ c u l ­ t u r e , ” “ la n g u a g e c o m m u n i t ie s , ” o r w h a te v e r th e a p p r o a c h h a s r e m a in e d se le c tiv e ; th e s tr a t e g ie s o f c o n c e p t f o r m a t i o n u su a lly c o n n e c t u p w ith o n ly o n e o f th e t h r e e s tr u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s o f th e life w o r ld .

[. - .] D.—T h e c u lt u r a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e life w o r ld e n s u r e s

t h a t n ew ly a r i s i n g s it u a t io n s a r e c o n n e c t e d u p w ith e x i s t ­ in g c o n d i t i o n s i n th e w o r ld in th e s e m a n t ic d i m e n s io n : it se c u r e s a continuity o f t r a d it i o n a n d coherence o f k n o w le d g e su f fic ie n t f o r d a ily p r a c t ic e . C o n t in u it y a n d c o h e r e n c e are m e a s u r e d b y th e rationality o f th e k n o w le d g e a c c e p te d as v a lid . T h i s c a n b e s e e n in d is t u r b a n c e s o f c u lt u r a l r e p r o ­ d u c t io n th a t g e t m a n if e s t e d in a lo s s o f m e a n in g a n d le a d to c o r r e s p o n d i n g l e g it im a t io n a n d o r ie n t a t io n c r is e s . I n s u c h c a se s, th e a c t o r s ’ c u ltu r a l sto c k o f k n o w le d g e c a n n o

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lo n g e r c o v e r th e n e e d f o r m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g th a t a r is e s w ith n ew s it u a t io n s . T h e in t e r p r e t iv e s c h e m e s a c c e p t e d as v a lid f a il, a n d th e r e s o u r c e “ m e a n i n g ” b e c o m e s sc a r c e .

T h e s o c ia l i n t e g r a t io n o f th e life w o r ld e n s u r e s th a t new ly a r i s i n g s it u a t io n s a r e c o n n e c t e d u p w ith e x is t in g c o n d it io n s in th e w o r ld i n th e d i m e n s io n o f s o c ia l s p a c e : it ta k e s c a re o f c o o r d i n a t i n g a c t io n s b y way o f le g itim a te ly r e g u la t e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e la t io n s a n d s ta b iliz e s th e i d e n ­ tity o f g r o u p s to a n e x t e n t s u f f ic ie n t f o r everyday p r a c t ic e . T h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f a c t io n s a n d th e stabilization o f group iden­ tities a r e m e a s u r e d b y th e solidarity a m o n g m e m b e r s . T h i s c a n b e s e e n in d is t u r b a n c e s o f s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n , w h ich m a n ­ ife s t th e m se lv e s in anomie a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n f lic t s . I n su c h ca se s, a c t o r s c a n n o l o n g e r c o v e r th e n e e d f o r c o o r d i ­ n a t io n th a t a r is e s w ith n e w s it u a t io n s f r o m th e in v e n to r y o f le g itim a te o r d e r s . L e g itim a te ly r e g u la t e d s o c ia l m e m ­ b e r s h ip s a re n o l o n g e r s u ffic ie n t , a n d th e r e s o u r c e “ s o c ia l s o lid a r it y ” b e c o m e s sc a r c e .

F in a lly th e s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f th e m e m b e r s o f a li f e w o r l d e n s u r e s t h a t n ew ly a r i s i n g s i t u a t i o n s a r e c o n n e c t e d u p w ith e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n s i n th e w o r ld in t h e d i m e n s i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l t im e : it s e c u r e s f o r s u c c e e d in g g e n e r a t i o n s th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f generalized competences fo r action a n d s e e s to it th a t individual life histories are in harmony with collective forms o f life. I n t e r a c t iv e c a p a c it ie s a n d sty le s o f l if e a r e m e a s u r e d b y th e responsibility o f persons. T h i s c a n b e s e e n in d i s t u r ­ b a n c e s o f th e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , w h ic h a r e m a n i f e s t e d in p s y c h o p a t h o lo g ie s a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h e n o m e n a o f a l i e n a t i o n . I n s u c h c a s e s , a c t o r s ’ c o m p e t e n c e s d o n o t s u ffic e to m a in t a i n th e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y o f c o m m o n ly d e f in e d a c t io n s i t u a t i o n s . T h e p e r s o n a l i t y s y ste m c a n p r e s e r v e its i d e n t it y o n ly b y m e a n s o f d e f e n s iv e s t r a t e g ie s t h a t a r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n o n a r e a l is t i c b a s i s , s o t h a t th e r e s o u r c e “ e g o s t r e n g t h ” b e c o m e s s c a r c e .

O n c e o n e h a s d r a w n th e se d i s t i n c t i o n s , a q u e s t io n a r is e s c o n c e r n i n g th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f th e in d iv id u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s to m a in t a i n i n g th e s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s o f th e lif e w o r ld . I f c u ltu r e p r o v id e s s u f f i ­ c ie n t v a lid k n o w le d g e to c o v e r th e g iv e n n e e d f o r m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g in a life w o r ld , th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f c u l ­ t u r a l r e p r o d u c t i o n to m a in t a i n i n g the two other c o m p o n e n t s c o n s is t , o n th e o n e h a n d , i n legitimations f o r e x is t in g i n s t i ­ t u t io n s a n d , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , in socialization patterns f o r th e a c q u is i t io n o f g e n e r a liz e d c o m p e t e n c e s f o r a c t io n . I f so c ie ty is s u f fic ie n t ly in t e g r a t e d to c o v e r th e g iv e n n e e d

f o r c o o r d i n a t i o n in a life w o r ld , th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the i n t e g r a t io n p r o c e s s to m a in t a i n i n g the two other c o m p o n e n t s c o n s is t , o n th e o n e h a n d , in legitimately regulated social member- sh ip s'o f in d iv id u a ls a n d , o n th e o t h e r , in m o r a l d u t ie s o r obligations: th e c e n t r a l s to c k o f c u lt u r a l v a lu e s in s t i t u t i o n a l ­ iz e d in le g it im a t e o r d e r s is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a n o rm a tiv e re a lity th a t is, i f n o t c r i t i c i s m - p r o o f , at le a s t r e s is ta n t to c r it ic is m a n d to t h is e x t e n t b e y o n d th e r e a c h o f c o n t in u ­ o u s t e s t in g b y a c t io n o r ie n t e d to r e a c h in g u n d e r s t a n d in g . I f, fin a lly , p e r s o n a lit y sy ste m s h av e d e v e lo p e d s u c h str o n g i d e n t it ie s th a t th ey c a n d e a l o n a r e a lis t ic b a s is w ith the s it u a t io n s th a t c o m e u p i n t h e i r life w o r ld , th e c o n t r ib u ­ t io n o f s o c ia liz a t io n p r o c e s s e s to m a in t a i n i n g the other two c o m p o n e n t s c o n s is t s , o n th e o n e h a n d , in interpretive accom­

plishments a n d , o n th e o t h e r , in motivations fo r actions that conform to norms.

2. The Uncoupling o f System and Lifeworld

T h e p r o v i s io n a l c o n c e p t o f s o c ie t y p r o p o s e d h e r e is r a d ­ ic a lly d i f f e r e n t i n o n e r e s p e c t f r o m th e P a r s o n i a n c o n ­ c e p t : th e m a t u r e P a r s o n s r e i n t e r p r e t e d th e s tr u c tu r a l c o m p o n e n t s o f the life w o rld —c u ltu re , society, perso n ality — as a c t io n sy ste m s c o n s t i t u t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s f o r o n e a n ­ o t h e r . W it h o u t m u c h a d o , h e s u b s u m e d th e c o n c e p t o f th e l ife w o r ld g a i n e d f r o m a n a c t i o n - t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c ­ tiv e u n d e r s y s t e m s - t h e o r e t ic a l c o n c e p t s . A s w e s h a ll see b e lo w , th e s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s o f th e l ife w o r ld b e ­ c o m e s u b s y s t e m s o f a g e n e r a l s y ste m o f a c t io n , to w hich th e p h y sic a l s u b s t r a t u m o f th e lif e w o r ld is r e c k o n e d a lo n g w ith th e “ b e h a v io r s y s t e m .” T h e p r o p o s a l I a m a d v a n c ­ in g h e r e , b y c o n t r a s t , a t t e m p t s to ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t the m e t h o d o lo g ic a l d if fe r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e i n t e r n a l is t an d t h e e x t e r n a lis t v ie w p o in ts c o n n e c t e d w ith th e tw o c o n ­ c e p t u a l s tr a t e g ie s .

F r o m th e p a r t ic ip a n t p e r sp e c t iv e o f m e m b e r s o f a l i f e ­ w o r ld it lo o k s as i f so c io lo g y w ith a s y st e m s - th e o r e tic a l o r i ­ e n t a t io n c o n s id e r s o n ly o n e o f th e t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s o f th e life w o r ld , n a m e ly , th e i n s t it u t io n a l sy ste m , f o r w hich c u ltu r e a n d p e r s o n a lit y m e re ly c o n s t it u t e c o m p le m e n t a r y e n v ir o n m e n t s . F r o m th e o b s e r v e r p e r sp e c t iv e o f sy stem s th e o r y , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , it lo o k s as i f life w o r ld an a ly ­ s is c o n f in e s i t s e l f to o n e s o c ie t a l su b s y s t e m sp e c ia liz e d in m a in t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n s ( p a t t e r n m a in t e n a n c e ) ; in t h is view; th e c o m p o n e n t s o f th e lif e w o r ld a r e m erely i n t e r n a l d if f e r e n t ia t io n s o f t h is su b s y s t e m w h ich sp e c ifie s

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the p a r a m e t e r s o f s o c ie t a l s e lf - m a in t e n a n c e . It is a lr e a d y e v id e n t o n m e t h o d o lo g ic a l g r o u n d s th at a sy ste m s th e o r y o f so c iety c a n n o t b e s e lf- s u f fic ie n t . T h e s t r u c t u r e s o f th e life w o rld , w ith t h e ir o w n in n e r lo g ic p la c in g in t e r n a l c o n ­ str a in ts o n sy ste m m a in t e n a n c e , have to b e g o tt e n at b y a h e r m e n e u tic a p p r o a c h th a t p ic k s u p o n m e m b e r s ’ p r e t h e - o r e tic a l k n o w le d g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , th e o b je c tiv e c o n d it io n s u n d e r w h ich th e s y st e m s - th e o r e tic a l o b je c t ific a t io n o f th e life w o r ld b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y have th e m se lv e s o n ly a r is e n in the c o u r se o f s o c ia l e v o lu t io n . A n d t h is c alls f o r a type o f e x p la n a tio n th a t d o e s n o t a lr e a d y m o v e w it h in th e sy stem p e r sp e c tiv e .

I u n d e r s t a n d s o c ia l e v o lu t io n as a s e c o n d - o r d e r p r o c e s s o f d if fe r e n t ia t io n : sy ste m a n d life w o r ld are d if fe r e n t ia t e d in th e s e n se th a t th e c o m p le x it y o f th e o n e a n d th e r a t i o ­ n ality o f th e o t h e r gro w . B u t it is n o t o n ly q u a sy stem a n d q u a life w o r ld th a t th ey a re d if f e r e n t ia t e d ; they g e t d i f f e r ­ e n tia te d f r o m o n e a n o t h e r at th e sa m e t im e . It h a s b e c o m e c o n v e n tio n a l f o r s o c io lo g is t s to d is t in g u is h th e sta g e s o f so c ia l e v o lu t io n as t r ib a l s o c ie t ie s, t r a d it i o n a l s o c ie t ie s, o r so c ie tie s o r g a n iz e d a r o u n d a sta te , a n d m o d e r n s o c ie t ie s (w here the e c o n o m ic sy ste m h a s b e e n d if fe r e n t ia t e d o u t ) . F r o m th e sy ste m p e r sp e c t iv e , th e se sta g e s a re m a r k e d by

the a p p e a r a n c e o f n e w sy ste m ic m e c h a n ism s a n d c o r r e ­ s p o n d in g le v e ls o f c o m p le x ity . O n t h is p la n e o f a n a ly sis, the u n c o u p li n g o f sy ste m a n d life w o r ld is d e p ic t e d in su c h a way th at th e life w o r ld , w h ich is at f ir s t c o e x te n siv e w ith a sc arce ly d if fe r e n t ia t e d s o c ia l sy ste m , g e ts cu t d o w n m o r e an d m o r e to o n e s u b sy ste m a m o n g o t h e r s . I n th e p r o c e s s , sy stem m e c h a n ism s g e t f u r t h e r a n d f u r t h e r d e t a c h e d f r o m the so c ia l s t r u c t u r e s t h r o u g h w h ich s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n takes p la c e . A s we sh a ll se e , m o d e r n s o c ie t ie s a t ta in a lev el o f sy stem d if fe r e n t ia t io n at w h ich in c r e a s in g ly a u t o n o m o u s o r g a n iz a tio n s a re c o n n e c t e d w ith o n e a n o t h e r v ia d e lin - g u is t ifie d m e d ia o f c o m m u n ic a t io n : th e se sy ste m ic m e c h ­ a n is m s —f o r e x a m p le , m o n e y —s t e e r a s o c ia l i n t e r c o u r s e that h a s b e e n la r g e ly d is c o n n e c t e d f r o m n o r m s a n d v a lu e s, above a ll in t h o s e s u b sy ste m s o f p u r p o s iv e r a t io n a l e c o ­ n o m ic a n d a d m in is t r a t iv e a c t io n th a t, o n W e b e r’s d i a g ­ n o s is, have b e c o m e in d e p e n d e n t o f t h e ir m o r a l- p o lit ic a l fo u n d a t io n s .

A t the sa m e t im e , th e life w o r ld r e m a in s th e su b sy ste m that d e f in e s th e p a t t e r n o f th e s o c ia l sy ste m as a w h o le . T h u s , sy ste m ic m e c h a n ism s n e e d to b e a n c h o r e d in th e life w o r ld : th ey h ave to b e in s t it u t io n a liz e d . T h i s i n s t i t u ­ t io n a liz a t io n o f n ew le v e ls o f sy ste m d i f fe r e n t ia t io n ca n

a lso b e p e r c e iv e d f r o m th e in t e r n a l p e r sp e c t iv e o f th e l ife w o r ld . W h e re a s sy ste m d i f f e r e n t ia t io n in t r ib a l s o c i ­ e tie s o n ly le a d s to th e in c r e a s in g c o m p le x it y o f p r e g iv e n k in s h ip sy ste m s, at h ig h e r le v e ls o f in t e g r a t io n n ew s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e s tak e s h a p e , n am e ly , th e sta te a n d m e d ia - s t e e r e d su b s y s t e m s. I n s o c ie t ie s w ith a lo w d e g r e e o f d if f e r e n t i a ­ t io n , sy ste m ic in t e r c o n n e c t io n s are tig h tly in te rw o v e n w ith m e c h a n is m s o f s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n ; in m o d e r n s o c i e t ­ ie s they a re c o n s o lid a t e d a n d o b je c t ifie d in t o n o r m - f r e e s t r u c t u r e s . M e m b e r s b e h a v e t o w a rd fo r m a lly o r g a n iz e d a c t io n sy ste m s, s t e e r e d v ia p r o c e s s e s o f e x c h a n g e a n d p o w e r, as t o w a rd a b lo c k o f q u a s i- n a t u r a l re a lity ; w ith in th e se m e d ia - s t e e r e d su b sy ste m s s o c ie ty c o n g e a ls in to a s e c ­ o n d n a t u r e . A c t o r s h av e alw ays b e e n a b le to s h e e r o f f f r o m a n o r ie n t a t io n to m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a d o p t a s tr a t e g ic a t tit u d e , a n d o b je c t ify n o r m a t iv e c o n te x t s in t o s o m e t h in g in th e o b je c tiv e w o r ld , b u t in m o d e r n s o c ie t ie s , e c o n o m ic a n d b u r e a u c r a t ic sp h e r e s e m e r g e in w h ich s o c ia l r e la t io n s a re r e g u la t e d o n ly v ia m o n e y a n d p o w e r. N o r m - c o n f o r - m a tiv e a t tit u d e s a n d id e n t i t y - f o r m i n g s o c ia l m e m b e r s h ip s a re n e it h e r n e c e s s a r y n o r p o s s i b l e in th e se s p h e r e s ; they a re m a d e p e r ip h e r a l in s t e a d .

[. • J T h e u n c o u p li n g o f sy ste m a n d life w o r ld c a n n o t b e

c o n c e iv e d as a second-order d if f e r e n t ia t io n p r o c e s s s o l o n g as we stic k e ith e r to th e sy ste m p e r sp e c t iv e o r to th e l i f e ­ w o r ld p e r sp e c t iv e in s t e a d o f t r a n s f o r m i n g e a c h in to th e o th e r . I w ill, t h e r e f o r e , an a ly z e th e c o n n e c t io n s th at o b t a in b e tw e e n th e i n c r e a s in g c o m p le x it y o f th e sy stem a n d th e r a t io n a liz a t io n o f th e life w o r ld . I w ill view t r ib a l s o c ie t ie s (A) f ir s t as s o c io c u lt u r a l lifeW o rld s a n d t h e n (B) as s e l f - m a in t a i n i n g sy ste m s, in o r d e r to sh o w th a t sy s­ te m in t e g r a t io n a n d s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n a r e s till tig h tly in te r w o v e n at t h is le v e l o f d e v e lo p m e n t . T h e n I w ill (C ) d e s c r ib e f o u r m e c h a n ism s th a t su c c e ssiv e ly tak e th e le a d in s o c ia l e v o lu t io n , in each case b r i n g i n g a b o u t a n ew lev el o f d i f fe r e n t ia t io n o r, in D u r k h e i m ’s p h r a s e , o f th e “d iv i­ s i o n o f l a b o r . ” E v e ry n ew le v e l o f sy ste m d if fe r e n t ia t io n r e q u ir e s a c h a n g e in th e in s t it u t io n a l b a s i s ; it is (D ) th e e v o lu t io n o f law a n d m o r a lity th a t p la y s th e r o le o f p a c e ­ m a k e r in t h is t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e r a t io n a liz a t io n o f th e life w o r ld c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d (£ ) in t e r m s o f su c c e ssiv e r e le a s e s o f th e p o t e n t ia l f o r r a tio n a lit y in c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c t io n . A c t io n o r ie n t e d to m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g g a in s m o r e a n d m o r e in d e p e n d e n c e f r o m n o r m a t iv e c o n te x t s. A t th e sa m e t im e , e v er g r e a t e r d e m a n d s are m a d e u p o n

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t h is b a s ic m e d iu m o f ev ery d ay la n g u a g e ; it g e ts o v e r lo a d e d in th e e n d a n d r e p la c e d by d e lin g u is t if ie d m e d ia . W h en t h is te n d e n c y to w a rd a n u n c o u p li n g o f sy ste m a n d l i f e ­ w o r ld is (F) d e p ic t e d o n th e lev el o f a sy ste m a tic h is t o r y o f f o r m s o f m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , th e ir r e s is t ib le ir o n y o f th e w o r ld - h is t o r ic a l p r o c e s s o f e n lig h t e n m e n t b e c o m e s e v id e n t: th e r a t io n a liz a t io n o f th e life w o r ld m a k e s p o s s i ­ b le a h e ig h t e n in g o f sy ste m ic c o m p le x ity , w h ich b e c o m e s so h y p e r t r o p h ie d th a t it u n le a s h e s sy ste m im p e r a tiv e s th a t b u r s t th e c a p a c ity o f th e life w o r ld th ey in s t r u m e n t a liz e .

[. • J T h e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y h a s le ft litt le o f th is o p t i m i s m

in ta c t ; b u t n ow , as t h e n , t h e r e is a d if fe r e n c e o f o p i n i o n as to w h e th e r we s h o u ld h o ld fa s t to th e in t e n t i o n s o f th e E n lig h t e n m e n t , in h o w e v e r r e f r a c t e d a f o r m , o r s h o u ld give u p th e p r o j e c t o f m o d e r n it y as lo s t —w h e th e r, f o r in st a n c e , c o g n itiv e p o t e n t ia ls th a t d o n o t flo w in t o t e c h ­ n ic a l p r o g r e s s , e c o n o m ic g r o w th , a n d r a t io n a l a d m i n ­ is t r a t io n s h o u ld b e d a m m e d u p in th e e n c la v e s o f t h e ir h ig h - c u lt u r a l f o r m s so th a t h a b its d e p e n d e n t o n b l in d t r a ­ d it io n c a n r e m a in u n t o u c h e d b y th e m .

T h e p r o c e s s e s o f r e a c h in g u n d e r s t a n d i n g u p o n w h ich th e life w o r ld is c e n te r e d r e q u ir e a c u ltu r a l t r a d it i o n a c r o s s th e w h o le s p e c t r u m . I n th e c o m m u n ic a t iv e p r a c t ic e o f every d ay life , c o g n itiv e in t e r p r e t a t io n s , m o r a l e x p e c t a ­ t io n s , e x p r e s s io n s , a n d v a lu a t io n s h av e to i n t e r p e n e t r a t e a n d f o r m a r a t io n a l in t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s via th e t r a n s f e r o f v a lid ity th a t is p o s s ib le in th e p e r fo r m a t iv e a t tit u d e . T h i s c o m m u n ic a t iv e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e is t h r e a te n e d b y two i n t e r ­ lo c k in g , m u tu a lly r e i n f o r c i n g t e n d e n c ie s : systemically induced reification a n d cultural impoverishment.

T h e life w o r ld is a s s im ila t e d to j u r i d i f i e d , fo r m a lly o r g a n iz e d d o m a in s o f a c t io n a n d s im u lt a n e o u s ly c u t o f f f r o m th e in flu x o f a n in ta c t c u lt u r a l t r a d it i o n . I n th e d e f o r m a t io n s o f every day p r a c t ic e , s y m p to m s o f r ig id if i- c a t io n c o m b in e w ith sy m p to m s o f d e s o la t io n . T h e f o r m e r , th e o n e - s id e d r a t io n a liz a t io n o f everyday c o m m u n ic a t io n , g o e s b a c k to th e g r o w in g a u t o n o m y o f m e d ia - s t e e r e d s u b ­ sy ste m s, w h ich n o t o n ly get o b je c t ifie d in t o a n o r m - f r e e re a lity b e y o n d th e h o r iz o n o f th e life w o r ld , b u t w h o se im p e r a tiv e s a lso p e n e t r a t e in t o th e c o re d o m a in s o f th e life w o r ld . T h e la tte r , th e d y in g o u t o f v ita l t r a d it io n s , g o e s b a c k to a d if f e r e n t ia t io n o f s c ie n c e , m o r a lity , a n d a r t, w hich m e a n s n o t o n ly a n i n c r e a s in g a u t o n o m y o f s e c to r s d e a lt w ith b y e x p e r ts , b u t a ls o a s p l i t t i n g - o f f f r o m t r a d i ­

t io n s ; h a v in g lo s t t h e ir c r e d ib ility , th e se t r a d it i o n s c o n ­ t in u e a lo n g o n th e b a s is o f ev ery d a y h e r m e n e u t ic s a s a k in d o f s e c o n d n a t u r e th a t h a s lo s t its f o r c e .

W o r k in g W e b e r ’s d i a g n o s is o f th e t im e s i n t o o u r i n t e r ­ p r e t iv e f r a m e w o r k h a s th e a d v a n t a g e o f e l u c i d a t in g , in t e r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n th e o r y , th e s e n s e in w h ic h the p h e n o m e n a h e o b s e r v e d , w h e n th e y a p p e a r w ith b r o a d e f f e c t , s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s p a t h o l o g i e s , t h a t i s , as s y m p t o m s o f a d i s t o r t e d ev e ry d a y p r a c t ic e . T h i s d o e s n o t e x p l a in , h o w e v e r , w hy p a t h o l o g ie s o f t h is k in d a p p e a r in th e f ir s t p la c e . O u r r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f W e b e r ’s p a r a d o x o f s o c ie t a l r a t io n a liz a t io n is by n o m e a n s c o m p le t e . We have n o t e x p la in e d , f o r in s t a n c e , w hy th e d if f e r e n t ia t io n o f e c o ­ n o m ic a n d a d m in is t r a t iv e sy ste m s o f a c t io n at a ll p u s h e s b e y o n d th e b o u n d s o f w h at is n e c e s s a r y f o r th e i n s t i t u t i o n ­ a liz a t io n o f m o n e y a n d p o w e r, w hy th e s u b sy st e m s b u ild u p ir r e s is t ib le in t e r n a l d y n a m ic s a n d sy ste m a tica lly u n d e r ­ m in e d o m a in s o f a c t io n d e p e n d e n t u p o n s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n . N o r h av e we e x p la in e d w hy c u lt u r a l r a t io n a liz a t io n n o t o n ly se ts f r e e th e i n n e r lo g ic s o f c u lt u r a l v a lu e s p h e r e s , b u t a ls o r e m a in s e n c a p s u la t e d in e x p e r t c u lt u r e s ; why m o d e r n s c ie n c e se rv e s t e c h n ic a l p r o g r e s s , c a p it a lis t g r o w th , a n d r a t io n a l a d m in i s t r a t i o n , b u t n o t th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g that c o m m u n ic a t in g c itiz e n s h ave o f th e m se lv e s a n d th e w o rld ; why, in g e n e r a l, th e e x p lo s iv e c o n t e n t s o f c u ltu r a l m o d e r ­ n ity h av e b e e n d e f u s e d . I n s u c h m a t t e r s , W eb er h im s e l f h ad r e c o u r s e o n ly to th e in n e r lo g ic s o f c u lt u r a l v a lu e sp h e re s a n d th e e ffe c tiv e n e ss o f n e w f o r m s o f o r g a n iz a t io n .

B u t t h is d o e s n o t e x p la in why m o d e r n iz a t io n fo llo w s a h ig h ly se lec tiv e p a t t e r n th a t a p p e a r s to e x c lu d e two t h in g s at o n c e : b u i l d i n g i n s t it u t io n s o f f r e e d o m th a t p r o ­ tect c o m m u n ic a t iv e ly s t r u c t u r e d a r e a s o f th e p r iv a te an d p u b lic s p h e r e s a g a in s t th e r e ify in g i n n e r d y n a m ic s o f the e c o n o m ic a n d a d m in is t r a t iv e s y st e m s ,5 a n d r e c o n n e c tin g m o d e r n c u ltu r e to a n every d ay p r a c t ic e th a t, w h ile d e p e n ­ d e n t o n m e a n in g - b e s t o w in g t r a d it i o n s , h a s b e e n im p o v e r ­ is h e d w ith t r a d it io n a lis t , l e f t o v e r s .6

It is n o m e r e a c c id e n t th a t P a r s o n s c a n b a se h is ra th e r t o o h a r m o n io u s p ic t u r e o f m o d e r n it y o n W e b e r’s an a lyz es. I n c o m p a r i s o n to P a r s o n s , W eb er w as, to b e s u r e , se n sitiv e t o th e p r ic e th a t th e c a p it a lis t m o d e r n iz a t io n o f th e life - w o r ld e x a c te d f o r a n ew lev el o f sy ste m d if fe r e n t ia t io n , b u t h e t o o f a ile d to in v e stig a te th e d r iv e m e c h a n is m b e h in d th e a u t o n o m iz e d e x p a n s io n o f th e e c o n o m ic sy ste m a n d its g o v e r n m e n t a l c o m p le m e n t .

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CHAPTER 15: CONCEPTIONS OF CULTURE

P e r h a p s a n e x p la n a t io n o f th e M a r x ia n typ e c o u ld h e lp h e r e . It p o in t s u s in th e d ir e c t io n o f a n e c o n o m ic a lly c o n s tit u te d cla ss d o m in a t io n , w h ich w ith d ra w s in t o th e a n o n y m o u s in t e r n a l d y n a m ic s o f v a lo r iz a t io n p r o c e s s e s u n c o u p le d f r o m o r ie n t a t io n s to u se v a lu e s. A n d t h is m ig h t e x p la in why th e im p e r a tiv e s W eb er c o n n e c t e d w ith th e id e a o f “ b u r e a u c r a t iz a t io n ” p e n e t r a t e in t o c o m m u n ic a t iv e ly str u c tu r e d d o m a in s o f a c t io n , so th a t th e sp a c e o p e n e d u p by th e r a t io n a liz a t io n o f th e life w o r ld f o r m o r a l- p r a c t ic a l w ill- f o r m a t io n , e x p r e ss iv e s e l f - p r e s e n t a t io n , a n d a e sth e tic s a t isfa c t io n d o e s n o t g e t u t iliz e d .

. . . I f we a p p r o p r i a t e W e b e r’s d ia g n o s is o f th e t im e s fr o m th is M a r x ia n p e r sp e c t iv e , th e p a r a d o x o f s o c ie ta l r a t io n a liz a t io n lo o k s r a th e r d if fe r e n t . T h e r a t io n a liz a t io n o f the life w o r ld m a k e s it p o s s ib le to d if fe r e n t ia t e o f f a u t o n - o m iz e d s u b sy ste m s a n d at th e sa m e t im e o p e n s u p th e u t o ­ p ia n h o r iz o n o f a b o u r g e o i s s o c ie ty in w h ic h th e fo r m a lly o r g a n iz e d s p h e r e s o f a c t io n o f th e bourgeois (th e e c o n o m y a n d the sta te a p p a r a t u s ) f o r m th e f o u n d a t i o n o f th e p o s t - t r a d it io n a l life w o r ld o f th e homme (th e p r iv a t e s p h e r e ) a n d the citoyen (th e p u b lic s p h e r e ) . S in c e th e e ig h te e n th c e n ­ tury, th e f e a tu r e s o f a f o r m o f life in w h ich th e r a t io n a l p o t e n tia l o f a c t io n o r ie n t e d to m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g is se t fre e have b e e n r e fle c te d in th e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e h u m a n is tic a lly im b u e d E u r o p e a n m id d le c la sse s—in t h e ir p o lit ic a l t h e o r ie s a n d e d u c a t io n a l id e a ls , in t h e ir a r t a n d l it e r a t u r e .7 M e t a p h y s ic a l- r e lig io u s w o rld v ie w s c e d e d th e fu n c tio n o f l e g it im a t in g d o m i n a t i o n to th e b a sic id e a s o f r a tio n a l n a t u r a l law ; w h ich o f f e r e d a j u s t i f ic a t i o n f o r th e m o d e r n sta te f r o m th e p e r sp e c t iv e o f a s o c ia l o r d e r fr e e o f v io le n c e a n d c e n te r e d o n m a r k e t s o r g a n iz e d by p r iv a te law. A t th e sa m e t im e , b o u r g e o i s id e a ls p e n e t r a t e d p r iv a te sp h e r e s o f lif e ; th ey s ta m p e d th e in d iv id u a lis m o f r e l a t i o n ­ sh ip s o f lo v e a n d f r i e n d s h i p as w ell as th e c u ltu r e o f m o r a l ­ ity a n d fe e lin g in i n t e n s ifie d fa m ily r e la t io n s . F r o m t h is p o in t o f view, th e s u b je c t o f p r iv a t e law ; w h o w as w h o lly a b s o r b e d by th e f u n c t io n a l in t e r c o n n e c t io n s o f m a t e r ia l r e p r o d u c t io n , c o u ld b e u n c e r e m o n io u s ly id e n t if ie d w ith the human being w h o w as f o r m e d in th e p r iv a te s p h e r e a n d r e a liz e d h im s e l f th e r e , a n d w ith th e private person w h o , t o g e th e r w ith o t h e r s, f o r m e d th e public o f c itiz e n s o f th e state.

T o be s u r e , t h is utopia o f reason, formed in the Enlightenment,8 was p e r sis t e n t ly c o n t r a d ic t e d by th e r e a lit ie s o f b o u r g e o is life a n d sh o w n to b e a bourgeois ideology. B u t it w as n e v e r a

m e r e ill u s io n ; it w as a n o b je c tiv e ill u s io n th a t a r o s e f r o m th e s t r u c t u r e s o f d if f e r e n t ia t e d life w o r ld s w h ich , w h ile c e r ta in ly lim it e d in c la s s - s p e c if ic w ays, w ere n o n e t h e ­ le ss r a t io n a liz e d . T o th e e x te n t th a t c u ltu r e , so ciety , a n d p e r s o n a lit y s e p a r a t e d o f f f r o m o n e a n o t h e r a s M e a d a n d D u r k h e im s a id th ey d id , a n d th e v a lid ity b a s is o f c o m m u ­ n ic a tiv e a c t io n r e p la c e d th e sa c r e d f o u n d a t io n s o f s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n , th e re w as at le a st an appearance o f posttraditional everyday communication su g g e st e d by th e s tr u c t u r e s o f th e l i f e ­ w o r ld . It w as, s o to sp e a k , a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a p p a r i t i o n — d e t e r m in in g b o u r g e o is id e o lo g y , w h ile yet s u r p a s s i n g it. In it, c o m m u n ic a t io n w as r e p r e s e n t e d as s t a n d in g o n its o w n fe e t, s e t t in g lim it s to th e in n e r d y n a m ic s o f a u t o n ­ o m o u s su b s y s t e m s, b u r s t in g e n c a p s u la t e d e x p e r t c u ltu r e s , a n d th u s as e s c a p in g th e c o m b in e d t h r e a t o f r e if ic a t io n a n d d e s o la t io n .

T h e p a r a d o x , h o w ev er, is th a t th e r a t io n a liz a t io n o f th e life w o r ld s im u lt a n e o u s ly gave r ise to both th e sy ste m ica lly i n d u c e d r e if ic a t io n o f th e life w o r ld and th e u t o p ia n p e r ­ sp e c tiv e f r o m w h ich c a p it a lis t m o d e r n iz a t io n h a s alw ays a p p e a r e d w ith th e s ta in o f d is s o lv in g t r a d it io n a l l i f e - f o r m s w it h o u t s a lv a g in g t h e ir c o m m u n ic a t iv e s u b s ta n c e . C a p i ­ t a list m o d e r n iz a t io n d e str o y s th e se f o r m s o f l ife , b u t d o e s n o t t r a n s f o r m t h e m in s u c h a way th a t th e in t e r m e s h in g o f c o g n it iv e - in s t r u m e n t a l w ith m o r a l- p r a c t ic a l a n d e x p r e s ­ sive m o m e n t s , w h ich h a d o b t a in e d in every d ay p r a c t ic e p r i o r to its r a t io n a liz a t io n , c o u ld b e r e t a in e d at a h ig h e r le v e l o f d if f e r e n t ia t io n . A g a in s t t h is b a c k g r o u n d , im a g e s o f t r a d it io n a l f o r m s o f life —o f r u r a l a n d p e a sa n t lif e , o r th e lif e o f to w n d w e lle r s a n d c r a ft s m e n , e v e n th e p le b ia n way o f life o f th e a g r ic u lt u r a l l a b o r e r s a n d c o t t a g e - in d u s - try p ie c e w o r k e r s re c e n tly d r a g g e d in t o th e a c c u m u la t io n p r o c e s s 9—r e t a in e d th e m e la n c h o ly c h a r m o f ir r e t r ie v a b le p a s ts a n d th e r a d ia n c e o f n o s ta lg ic r e m e m b r a n c e o f w hat h a d b e e n s a c r ific e d to m o d e r n iz a t io n . B u t m o r e th a n t h is , m o d e r n iz a t io n p r o c e s s e s h av e b e e n f o llo w e d , as i f by a sh a d o w , b y w hat m ig h t b e c a lle d a n in s t in c t f o r m e d b y r e a s o n : th e a w a re n e ss th a t, w ith th e o n e - s id e d c a n a l i ­ z a tio n a n d d e s t r u c t io n o f p o s s i b il i t ie s f o r e x p r e s s io n a n d c o m m u n ic a t io n in p r iv a t e a n d in p u b lic s p h e r e s , c h a n g e s are f a d i n g th at we c a n b r i n g t o g e t h e r a g a in , in a p o s t t r a ­ d it io n a l ev ery d a y p r a c t ic e , th o s e m o m e n t s th a t, in t r a d i ­ t io n a l f o r m s o f l if e , o n c e c o m p o s e d a u n ity —a d if fu s e o n e su rely , a n d o n e w h o se r e lig io u s a n d m e ta p h y sic a l i n t e r p r e ­ t a tio n s w ere c e r t a in ly illu so r y .

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I n u n d e r s t a n d i n g W e b e r’s p a r a d o x o f s o c ie t a l r a t i o n a l ­ iz a tio n in t h is way, w e a r e m a k in g tw o d e c isiv e c h a n g e s in h is a r g u m e n t . S in c e its b e g in n in g s in th e la te e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y , b o u r g e o i s c u lt u r a l c r it ic is m h as alw ays w a n te d t o a t tr ib u te th e p a t h o lo g ie s o f m o d e r n it y to o n e o f tw o c a u s e s : e it h e r to th e fa c t th a t s e c u la r iz e d w o rld v ie w s lo s e t h e ir so c ia lly in t e g r a t in g p o w e r, o r to th e fa c t th a t so c ie t y ’s h ig h lev el o f c o m p le x it y o v e r ta x e s th e i n d iv id u a l’s p o w e r to in te g r a t e . L ik e a n e c h o , b o u r g e o i s c u lt u r a l a p o lo g e t ic s h as fu r n i s h e d tw o m i r r o r - a r g u m e n t s , m a in t a i n i n g th a t d i s e n ­ c h a n tm e n t a n d a lie n a t io n a r e str u c tu r a lly n e c e s s a r y c o n ­ d i t i o n s o f fr e e d o m (w h e re th e la t t e r is alw ays r e p r e s e n t e d m e re ly as in d iv id u a l c h o ic e a m o n g in st it u t io n a lly g u a r a n ­ t e e d p o s s i b il i t ie s ) . W eb er t r i e d to c o m b in e b o t h p a i r s o f a r g u m e n t s a n d c o u n t e r a r g u m e n t s t h r o u g h th e id e a o f a p a r a d o x b u ilt in t o O c c id e n t a l d e v e lo p m e n t it s e lf. H is t h e ­ se s o f th e lo s s o f m e a n in g a n d f r e e d o m p ic k u p o n t h e m e s o f b o u r g e o i s c u lt u r a l c r it ic is m ; h e v a r ie s th e m , h o w ev er, w ith th e id e a th a t it is p r e c is e ly in th e se p h e n o m e n a th a t th e r e a s o n o f O c c id e n t a l r a t i o n a l is m e s ta b lis h e s it s e lf —a n d th u s t r ie s to m e e t a p o lo g e t ic n e e d s .

T h e m o d if ic a t io n s I h av e m a d e in W e b e r’s t h e s is d o n o t fit in t o t h is p a t t e r n o f a r g u m e n t a t io n w ith o u t b o u r ­ g e o is c u ltu r a l th e o ry . T h e y r u n c o u n t e r to th e c r it ic a l a n d a p o lo g e t ic lin e s o f a r g u m e n t n o le ss t h a n t h e ir p a r a d o x i ­ cal c o m b in a t io n . T h e d e f o r m a t i o n s th a t in t e r e s t e d M a rx , D u r k h e im , a n d W eb er—each in h is ow n way—o u g h t n o t b e a t t r ib u t e d e it h e r to th e r a t io n a liz a t io n o f th e life w o r ld as su c h o r to in c r e a s in g sy ste m c o m p le x ity as su c h . N e i ­ th e r th e s e c u la r iz a t io n o f w o rld v ie w s n o r th e s tr u c tu r a l d if fe r e n t ia t io n o f so c ie ty h a s u n a v o id a b le p a th o lo g ic a l s id e e ffe c ts p e r se . It is n o t th e d if fe r e n t ia t io n a n d i n d e ­ p e n d e n t d e v e lo p m e n t o f c u lt u r a l v a lu e sp h e r e s th a t le a d to th e c u ltu r a l im p o v e r is h m e n t o f every day c o m m u n i c a ­ tive p r a c t ic e , b u t a n e litis t s p l i t t i n g - o f f o f e x p e r t c u ltu r e s f r o m c o n te x t s o f c o m m u n ic a t iv e a c t io n in d a ily life . It is n o t th e u n c o u p li n g o f m e d ia - s t e e r e d su b sy ste m s a n d o f t h e ir o r g a n iz a t io n a l f o r m s f r o m th e life w o r ld th a t le a d s to th e o n e - s id e d r a t io n a liz a t io n o r r e if ic a t io n o f everyday c o m m u n ic a t iv e p r a c t ic e , b u t o n ly th e p e n e t r a t io n o f fo r m s o f e c o n o m ic a n d a d m in is t r a t iv e r a tio n a lit y in to a r e a s o f a c t io n th a t r e s is t b e in g c o n v e r t e d o v e r to th e m e d ia o f m o n e y a n d p o w e r b e c a u s e th ey a re s p e c ia liz e d in c u ltu r a l t r a n s m i s s io n , s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n , a n d c h ild r e a r in g , a n d r e m a in d e p e n d e n t o n m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g as a m e c h a ­ n is m f o r c o o r d in a t in g a c t io n . I f we a s s u m e , f u r t h e r , th a t

th e p h e n o m e n a o f a lo s s o f m e a n in g a n d fr e e d o m d o n o t t u r n u p by c h a n c e b u t a r e str u c tu r a lly g e n e r a t e d , we m u st try to e x p la in why m e d ia - s t e e r e d s u b sy st e m s d e v e lo p irre­ sistible inner dynamics th a t bring about b o th th e c o lo n iz a t io n o f th e life w o r ld a n d its s e g m e n t a t io n f r o m s c ie n c e , m o ra lity , a n d a r t.

N O TES 1. On the phenomenological concept o f the lifeworld see L. Land-

grebe, Phanomenologie und Metaphysik (Heidelberg, 1949), pp. 10ff.; and idem. Philosophic der Gegenwart (Bonn, 1952), pp. 65ff; A. Gurwitsch, The field o f Consciousness (Pittsburg, 1964); G. Brand, Welt, Ich und Zeit (The Hague, 1955); H. Hohl, Lebenswelt und Geschichte (Freiburg, 1962); W. Lippitz, “Der phanomenol- ogische Begriff der Lebenswelt,” Zeitschrift f u r Philosophische Forschung 32 (1978): 416ff.; K. Ulmer, Philosophie der modernen Lebenswelt (Tubingen, 1972).

2. On the sociological analysis of forms o f life see P. Winch, The Idea o f a Social Science (London, 1958); R. Rhees, Without Answers (New York, 1969); D. L. Philips and H. O. Mounce, M oral Practi­ ces (London, 1970); H. Pitkin, Wittgenstein an d Justice (Berkeley, 1972); P. McHugh et al., On the Beginning o f Social Inquiry (Lon­ don, 1974).

3. See l:99ff., 305ff., and 325ff., this work. 4. Arthur Danto, Analytical Philosophy o f History (Cambridge,

1968). See also P. Gardiner, ed., The Philosophy o f History (Oxford, 1974). For the Germ an discussion, see H. M. Baumgartner, Kon- tinuitat und Geschichte (Frankfurt, 1972); R. Koselleck and W. Stempel, eds. Geschichte, Ereignis undErzahlung (Munich, 1973); K. Acham, Analytische Geschichtsphilosophie (Freigurg, 1974); J. Riisen, Fur eine erneuerte Historik (Stuttgart, 1976); H. Baumgart­ ner and J. Riisen, eds. Geschichte und Uteorie (Frankfurt, 1976).

5. This is the basic guiding intention o f Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (New York, 1958); and item, The Life o f the Mind, vols. 1 and 2 (New York, 1978). Cf. J. Habermas, "Hannah Arendt on the Concept of Power,” in Philosophical-Political Profiles (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), pp. 171-87; J. T. Knauer, “Motive and Goal in Han­ nah Arendt’s Concept of Political Action,” American Political Sci­ ence Review 74 (1980): 721ff.

6. On this basic intention of Benjamin’s theory of art, see J. Haber­ mas, “Consciousness-Raising or Rescuing Critique,” in Philosoph­ ical-Political Profiles, pp. 129-63.

7. Theorists inspired by Marxism, such as Adorno, Block, Lukacs, Lowenthal, and Hans Mayer, have worked up this utopian con­ tent in the classical works of bourgeois art and literature. See, for instance, L. Lowenthal, D as burgerliche Bewusstsein in der Litera- tur, vo. 2 of Gesammelte Schriften (Frankfurt, 1981).

8. P. Kondylis, Die Aufklarung im Rahmen des neuzeitlichen Ration- alism us (Stuttgart, 1981).

9. E. P. Thompson, The Making o f the English Working Class (Har- mondsworth, 1968); P. Kriedte, H. Medick, and J. Schimbohm, Industrialisierung vor der Industrialisierung (Gottingen, 1978).

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