Multiple choice

Chapter Forty-Nine

PAUL

CaPTIVITY AND PaSTORAL EPISTLES

the Letter to the CoLoSSIANS

Author. The author of Colossians twice identifies himself as the Apostle Paul, once at the opening of the letter (1:1) and once at its closing (4:18). The Church Fathers accepted this claim from earliest times, and Christian scholarship continued to uphold the tradition of Pauline authorship until the early nineteenth century, at which time some began to question the link between Paul and Colossians. Modern scholarship remains divided over whether Colossians came from the hand of Paul or from one of Paul’s admirers writing in his name. The case against Pauline authorship is built on perceived differences of style and theology that make Colossians stand out from the acknowledged writings of the apostle. This type of comparative analysis is easily overdrawn, however, since Colossians addresses an altogether unique situation in the early Church, and this could well account for the unique approach of the letter. In any case, the undeniable presence of Pauline themes in the letter is precisely what leads more skeptical scholars to assign the letter to one of Paul’s disciples.

In favor of Paul’s authorship, the letter appears to have been written under the same set of circumstances as the Letter to Philemon, a work that scholarship continues to accept as authentically Pauline. Both letters have Paul in prison (Colossians 4:3; Philemon 1); both are sent jointly by Paul and Timothy (Colossians 1:1; Philemon 1); both have Paul surrounded by the same circle of friends (Colossians 4:10-14; Philemon 23-24); and both mention the return of a runaway slave named Onesimus back to the area (Colossians 4:9; Philemon 12). In light of this and other evidence that links the letter to Paul’s personal situation, it is best to appreciate the uniqueness of Colossians without dissociating the letter from the apostle.

Date. Advocates of Pauline authorship generally date the letter between A.D. 60 and 62, when Paul spent two years under house arrest in Rome (Acts 28:16, 30). This judgment puts Colossians alongside his other “Captivity Epistles” (Ephesians, Philippians, Philemon), which are traditionally dated within this same time frame. Some, however, think that Colossians was written during the mid-50s, while Paul was in Ephesus. Scholars who read Colossians as a non-Pauline letter tend to date it much later, usually in the 80s.

Destination. The city of Colossae was built along the Lycus River in the Roman province of Asia (western Turkey). It was once a thriving industrial center positioned on a major trade route that stretched across Asia Minor from the western city of Ephesus to the eastern city of Tarsus. By New Testament times, Colossae had considerably declined in importance. More prominent in this region were the cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis, both located within 15 miles of Colossae (4:13). Interestingly, Paul had neither founded nor visited the Church he addresses in this letter (2:1). A native Colossian named Epaphras was the first to bring the gospel to the city years earlier (1:7). He was likely converted while Paul was preaching in Ephesus and gaining a wide hearing from Jews and Greeks all over Asia Minor (Acts 19:10). Despite an established Jewish population in the region, the Colossian Church was comprised mainly of uncircumcised Gentiles (Colossians 2:13).

Purpose. The same Epaphras who founded the Colossian Church (1:7) also traveled to Rome to update Paul on their recent successes and struggles (4:12). Among other things, he informed Paul that certain agitators were planting doubts in the minds of the Colossians about their new faith. Paul wrote to address this danger and to reassure these believing Gentiles of their Christian inheritance (1:12, 21-22). Unfortunately, commentators have reached no clear consensus on the precise identity of these Colossian troublemakers. Some view them as proponents of pagan religion, while others contend they were teachers of an early form of Gnosticism that combined religious and philosophical elements from Jewish and Hellenistic thought. More probably, Paul is addressing the growing friction between Jewish and Christian communities in Colossae. This would explain why Paul gives focused attention to controversies over Jewish legal rites like circumcision, dietary restrictions, and adherence to the liturgical feast days of the Old Covenant (2:11-13, 16-18). Apparently the local Colossian Jews were outspoken critics of the new Christian movement and dismissed the claim that Gentiles could enjoy full membership in God’s covenant family apart from the legal observances handed down through Moses.

Themes and Characteristics. In many ways Colossians is unique among Paul’s letters. Its closest parallel is the Letter to the Ephesians, with which it shares several common themes and expressions and sometimes even identical teachings. Both letters were written to young believers unknown to Paul personally, and both were probably composed during Paul’s imprisonment in Rome in the early 60s. Nevertheless, while Ephesians has a calm and contemplative tone, Paul’s stance in Colossians is more aggressive, as he confronts false notions that are making inroads into the local Church and muddling the thinking of many young Christians.

Since Paul does not address his opponents directly, we are left to infer from his comments the basic thrust of their teaching. It may be said, along these lines, that Paul in Colossians is engaged in constructive apologetics, as he spends most of his energy clarifying the truth of Christian doctrine rather than attacking in detail the errors he deems so dangerous. Two motifs stand out in Paul’s preaching.

[1] The Supremacy of Christ. Towering above every theme in Colossians is the doctrine of Jesus Christ’s preeminence over all things (1:18). Paul stresses this point by sketching for his readers a map of the cosmos, positioning Christ at its very summit. Every person, every nation, every angel – indeed, every created thing – is subject to the Lord Jesus and is compelled to acknowledge him as King. No corner of the universe lies outside his dominion because Jesus is the Creator who brought it into being and the Redeemer who renews it with the grace he pours out through the Church. Paul soars to these heights especially in the hymn of 1:15-20, but elsewhere too he proclaims the divinity of Christ (2:9) and reminds us that the crucified Christ has triumphed over the entire army of demonic spirits (2:15). We can assume from Paul’s emphasis on these matters that his Jewish opponents tried to depreciate the person and position of Jesus Christ in the minds of the Colossian Christians.

[2] The Completeness of Christians in Christ. The practical side of Christ’s supremacy is, for Paul, Christ’s sufficiency. This is something he needs to stress to the Colossian Gentiles, who are bending under the pressure of local Jews to adopt the Jewish way of life. Paul warns them against this in 2:8-23, where he drives home the point that Christians have no future in their Jewish past and that Judaism has nothing to offer them that they do not already possess in greater abundance in Jesus Christ. In a word, the baptized Colossians are already complete in Christ (2:12); they have no need for the shadows of the Old Covenant when they already possess the “substance” of the New (2:17). Fully furnished, then, with God’s rich blessings, the Colossians are challenged to conform their lives to the gospel (3:5-17) and to allow Christ to transform their homes into places of love, forgiveness, and harmony (3:18-4:1).

Outline

1. Opening Address (1:1-14)

1.1 Greetings (1:1-2)

1.2 Prayer and Thanksgiving (1:3-14)

2. Christian Belief (1:15-2:23)

2.1 The Preeminence of Christ (1:15-23)

2.2 The Ministry of Paul (1:24-2:7)

2.3 The Cross and the Circumcision of Christ (2:8-15)

2.4 The Shadows of the Old Covenant (2:16-23)

3. Christian Behavior (3:1-4:6)

3.1 A New Mind in Christ (3:1-4)

3.2 A New Life in Christ (3:5-17)

3.3 Family Life in Christ (3:18-4:1)

3.4 Prayer and Conversation in Christ (4:2-6)

4. Closing Farewell (4:7-18)

4.1 The Commendation of Tychicus and Onesimus (4:7-9)

4.2 Final Greetings and Instructions (4:10-18)

the Letter to the EPHESIANS

Author. The author of Ephesians twice identifies himself as the Apostle Paul, once at the beginning of the letter (1:1) and once in the middle (3:1). This claim was universally accepted by the early Church and remained an unquestioned tradition until Erasmus of Rotterdam first raised doubts about it in the sixteenth century. Since then, many have either questioned or denied that Paul wrote Ephesians, alleging that the tone and style of the letter differ so markedly from Paul’s undisputed letters that it could not have come from the same author. It is widely held today that Ephesians was written in Paul’s name by a Pauline disciple who wished to honor the apostle by developing his doctrine and applying it to new situations in the Church.

Although the distinctiveness of Ephesians among the letters of Paul should not be minimized or overlooked, it need not imply that Paul was not the author. Stylistic differences between Ephesians and Paul’s other letters can largely be explained by the circumstances of his readers. No doubt Paul writes with a more terse and aggressive style in his other epistles, where he is wrestling with doctrinal and moral problems that plagued his missionary churches. His Ephesian readers, however, were not entrenched in controversy at this time, so it is not surprising that this letter has a more calm and lyrical style than is found elsewhere in Paul’s writings. Claims that theological differences set Ephesians apart from the genuine Pauline writings are likewise overdrawn, since the presence of numerous Pauline ideas in the letter is precisely what leads scholars to insist that it must have been written by one of Paul’s disciples. If anything, the New Testament collection of Paul’s letters shows him to be an exceptionally versatile writer who can adapt both his manner and his message to the needs of his audience. It is important, therefore, not to exaggerate the uniqueness of Ephesians at the expense of other factors that cohere nicely with the traditional view.

Date. The question of when Ephesians was written depends upon the prior question of authorship. Supporters of Pauline authorship naturally date the letter within the time frame of the apostle’s ministry. Most correlate the imprisonment mentioned in 3:1, 4:1, and 6:20 with Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome, where he lived under house arrest from A.D. 60 to 62, awaiting trial before the tribunal of Caesar (Acts 28:16, 30). This would imply a date for Ephesians in the early 60s alongside Paul’s other “Captivity Epistles”: Philipians (Phil 1:12-14), Colossians (4:3), and Philemon (Philem 9). Scholars who contend the letter was written by one of Paul’s admirers date it as late as the 90s, long after the apostle’s martyrdom in the mid 60s.

Destination. The intended readership of Ephesians is more difficult to establish than it first appears. This is because the textual tradition underlying the letter’s opening verse is uncertain: the words “in Ephesus” are missing from some of the most ancient manuscripts of the epistle in existence and, for this reason, may have been added after the letter was originally written. Identification of the readers thus depends on whether or not the disputed words are original. (1) If the phase “in Ephesus” is authentic, then Paul was writing to Christians in the leading metropolis of the Roman province of Asia (southwest Turkey). This would not be surprising, as Paul spent several years ministering to the Ephesians and disseminating the gospel throughout the region (Acts 19:1-10; 20:31). (2) If the phrase was not part of the original letter, as many scholars maintain, then it seems the intended audience was more general than specific. Advocates of this position often describe Ephesians as a circular letter that Paul intended for several churches in Asia Minor. In this case, the Church at Ephesus was probably only one of several churches he expected to receive the letter.

Themes and Characteristics. Ephesians sets before us a vision of Christ reigning in heaven next to the Father (1:20) and renewing the earth through his Church (3:10). Though Paul often attacks doctrinal error and moral laxity in his letters, he seizes the opportunity in Ephesians to step back from these controversies and to contemplate and articulate in a more reflective way God’s saving work in Jesus. Instead of pastoral surgery, then, Paul gives the Ephesians a dose of preventative medicine, hoping that a deeper appreciation of God’s blessings will lead them to a more mature commitment to the gospel. Since many of Paul’s readers are recent converts, Ephesians might best be described as Paul’s mystagogical catechesis for the newly baptized.

The towering theme of Ephesians is the “mystery” of Jesus Christ once concealed but now revealed (1:9; 3:4, 9). This is first of all the mystery of Christ the Redeemer, whose violent death on the Cross was a vicarious sacrifice for the redemption of Israel and the Gentiles alike (1:7; 2:16; 5:2). Having died to restore peace between the Father and the human family, Christ now reigns supreme over all things at the right hand of the Father in heaven (1:20). So far is he exalted above creation that even the angels find themselves under his feet (1:21-22). As Paul reflects upon these redeeming achievements of Christ, he is not content to view them as events confined to the past. Rather, the Resurrection, Ascension, and Enthronement of Christ are saving mysteries that continue to grace our lives and souls in the present, making us participants in his royal, priestly, and prophetic mission to the world (2:4-6; 5:2).

The mystery of Christ is also the mystery of the ecclesial body, the Church. Nowhere does Paul give a more majestic presentation of this truth than in Ephesians. The Church he describes is nothing less than God’s new creation in Christ (2:10, 15; 2 Cor 5:17). She is a holy and universal community that shines out to a world shattered by sin. Her life comes from the divine Trinity, as her members are made the children of the Father (1:5), the body and bride of the Son (5:22-32), and the temple of the Holy Spirit (2:21-22). Her dimensions are international, as she gathers together all peoples and nations into the family of the New Covenant (2:11-12; 3:4-6). The grace that unites the Church with her Lord is the grace of being “in Christ” (1:3; see 1:7, 10, 13). This union between Christ in his glorified body and Christ in his mystical body was first revealed to Paul at his conversion (Acts 9:3-5). Now, after many years of preaching and meditation, he is able to explain its heights and depths in simple yet profound terms for those newly acquainted with the gospel.

Outline

1. Opening Address (1:1-2)

2. Doctrinal Exposition (1:3-3:21)

2.1 Divine Origin of the Church (1:3-14)

2.2 Prayer for the Church (1:15-23)

2.3 Building up the Church (2:1-22)

2.4 Mystery of the Church (3:1-13)

2.5 Prayer for the Church (3:14-21)

3. Moral Exhortation (4:1-6:20)

3.1 Unity of the Church (4:1-16)

3.2 Moral Maturity in the Church (4:17-5:20)

3.3 Household Life in the Church (5:21-6:9)

3.4 Spiritual Warfare in the Church (6:10-20)

4. Closing Farewell (6:21-24)

the Letter to the PHILIPPIANS

Author and Date. The Apostle Paul is widely regarded as the author of Philippians (1:1). Only a few scholars have ever challenged this tradition, and their attempts to offer alternative theories of authorship have failed to convince the majority of interpreters to follow their lead. Internal evidence bears out the traditional view, for its many personal references cohere well with the life and experiences of Paul known from the Book of Acts and his other epistles. The style and theology of Philippians are likewise Pauline, although the letter shows a friendly side of the apostle that is sometimes hidden in his more formal and polemical writings.

Scholars debate whether Philippians is one letter or a combination of two, since there is an abrupt transition between 3:1 (which sounds like a conclusion) and 3:2 (which goes in a new direction).

Attempts to date Philippians generally begin with Paul’s stated imprisonment (1:7, 13-14, 17). Though Paul was jailed a number of times in different places (2 Corinthians 11:23), this likely refers to his first imprisonment in Rome between A.D. 60 and 62, where he lived with a Roman soldier under house arrest (Acts 28:16, 30). References to the “praetorian guard” (Phil 1:13) and “Caesar’s household” (4:22) lend credence to Rome as the setting of the letter, and Paul’s expectation of an imminent trial (1:26; 2:24) points to A.D. 62 as a likely date for its composition. Alternative views maintain that Paul was writing from Ephesus, Corinth, or Caesarea and propose earlier dates for the letter in the middle or late 50s.

Destination. Philippi was the leading city of eastern Macedonia (northern Greece) in the first century and held a strategic position on the Egnatian Way, the major travel route connecting Italy and the West with Asia Minor and the East. The city was named after Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, and was established by Caesar Augustus as a Roman colony in the first century B.C. Its inhabitants were mainly retired army veterans who enjoyed the status of Roman citizenship and other civic privileges. Unlike many prestigious cities of the Roman world at this time, Philippi had only a small Jewish population. Paul and his companions founded the Church here on his second missionary journey about A.D. 50 (Acts 16:11-40) and made one or more return visits on his third missionary journey (Acts 20:1-6). It is difficult to determine how long Paul stayed in Philippi on these occasions, but it was long enough to develop a close relationship with the young community. The Philippian Church was the first to be established by Paul on the mainland of Europe.

Purpose. Philippians does not address any doctrinal or disciplinary crisis; rather, it is a letter of thanks and encouragement to a congregation of dear friends. The gratitude that Paul expresses throughout the letter is a response to their generosity. The Philippians supported the imprisoned apostle through their constant prayers (1:19), as well as by sending him financial assistance by the hand of Epaphroditus (4:18). The Philippians had come to Paul’s assistance several times in this way, acquiring for themselves a reputation as one of the most gracious congregations (4:15-16). Paul sent this letter back to them by the same messenger, Epaphroditus (2:25-30), to thank them for their gift, to update them on personal matters, and to assure them of God’s rich blessings in return (2:25-30; 4:19). The only real concerns that Paul addresses in the letter have to do with resolving a personal conflict between two Philippian women (4:2-3) and with putting the congregation on guard against Judaizing missionaries, who, should they make their way to Philippi, would likely pressure them to receive circumcision (3:2-3). Lastly, Paul wrote to prepare the Philippians for the arrival of Timothy (2:19-23) and to express his own desire to see them if possible (2:24).

Themes and Characteristics. Philippians follows an informal structure and is marked by a joyous and personal tone. The letter is almost entirely positive, with only brief warnings and almost no polemics. Because Paul is not formulating an extended argument on a controversial issue, his thoughts sometimes skip from one topic to another, much as a personal letter is loosely arranged according to the wishes of the sender. Doctrine is present in the letter but is not predominant. Paul gives most of his attention to exhortation and encouragement.

Much of this letter challenges the Philippians to grow in spiritual maturity by imitating both their Savior and their founding apostle. For this reason, Paul holds up Jesus Christ as the model of humility and selfless love and himself as a model of patient endurance.

[1] Jesus the Servant. The example of Christ comes in 2:1-11, where Paul admonishes readers to serve one another in the Lord. To overcome pride and disunity, he summons them to live like Jesus by putting their neighbors’ interests above their own (2:4). This calls for a spirit of sacrifice and humility (2:3). Inspiration for this is drawn from a poetic account of the humiliation and exultation of Jesus (2:5-11). Although divine and infinitely glorious, Christ freely “emptied himself” to become a man (2:7). He lived entirely at the service of others, and his heroic obedience to the Father carried him all the way to the Cross. This, says Paul, was so pleasing in God’s eyes that he exalted Christ to the highest summit of heavenly glory. A similar inheritance awaits believers who tread the same path of suffering and obedience marked out by their Lord (2:12-18).

[2] Paul the Servant. Paul is likewise a worthy model for imitation (3:17; 4:9). Though in prison, his apostolic zeal emboldens others to witness to the faith as he did (1:14). Though persecuted, his joy and optimism go forth to encourage readers undergoing their own struggles (4:4-7). Paul’s confidence reaches its peak in his devotion to Jesus Christ, whom he is prepared to honor with his whole life, whether by preaching the gospel after his release or by marching to his death as a martyr (1:19-26). The secret of Paul’s serenity is in the Lord, who sustains his spirit even in the most trying circumstances of life. He shares this secret with the Philippians, urging them to follow his lead by taking everything in stride – be it prosperity or persecution – confident that Jesus will supply the strength needed to live every moment for the glory of God (4:10-13).

Outline

1. Opening Address (1:1-11)

1.1 Salutation (1:1-2)

1.2 Prayer and Thanksgiving (1:3-11)

2. Paul’s Imprisonment (1:12-30)

2.1 The Advance of the Gospel (1:12-18)

2.2 Personal Update (1:19-26)

2.3 Exhortation to Stand Firm (1:27-30)

3. Imitating Jesus Christ (2:1-18)

3.1 Christ’s Humility and Obedience (2:1-11)

3.2 Living like Christ (2:12-18)

4. The Arrival of Timothy and Epaphroditus (2:19-30)

5. Striving for the Goal (3:1-21)

5.1 Warning against Judaizers (3:1-11)

5.2 Pursuing the Heavenly Prize (3:12-21)

6. Final Instructions and Praise (4:1-20)

6.1 Working for Unity (4:1-3)

6.2 Rejoicing in the Lord (4:4-9)

6.3 Gratitude for the Philippians’ Assistance (4:10-20)

7. Conclusion (4:21-23)

The Letter to Philemon

Author and Date. Three times the author of Philemon identifies himself as the Apostle Paul (1, 9, 19). Because the letter also bears the distinctive imprint of Paul’s personality and style, the vast majority of ancient and modern scholars have accepted this claim without hesitation. Only a handful of critics have ever challenged the authenticity of Philemon as a genuine letter from Paul.

There is less agreement on the date of the epistle. It is clear that Paul is writing the letter from prison (1, 9, 10, 13, 23); and, for this reason, Philemon is classified as one of the “Captivity Epistles” of Paul, the others being Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians. It is unclear, however, whether this corresponds to his detainment in Caesarea (Acts 23:31-35), Rome (Acts 28:16-31), or some other place (2 Corinthians 11:23). All things considered, the most likely background for the epistle is Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome, where he lived under house arrest from A.D. 60 to 62 (Acts 28:16, 30).

Destination. Paul addressed this letter to a believer and slave owner named Philemon, as well as to Apphia (possibly his wife) and to a Christian leader named Archippus (possibly his son). Nothing in the letter specifies where these individuals lived, but the close connection between this epistle and Colossians suggests that Philemon resided either in Colossae itself or in a neighboring city of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). In support of this, it is commonly held that the slave Onesimus mentioned in verse 10 is the same man that Paul sent along with Tychicus to hand deliver the Letter to the Colossians (Col 4:7-9). Presumably they would have delivered this epistle as well.

Purpose. The letter is Paul’s impassioned appeal to Philemon, urging him to welcome back one of his runaway slaves, Onesimus (10). Formerly, Onesimus was a useless servant who not only deserted his master but may have stolen money or property from him, as well (11, 18). In the meantime, Onesimus has become a Christian through an encounter with Paul. The apostle is now sending him back to Philemon and asking that he be received, no longer as a bondservant, but as a beloved brother in Christ (16). Secondarily, Paul asks that preparations be made for his own arrival, pending his expected release from prison (22).

Themes and Characteristics. Philemon is the shortest of Paul’s surviving letters and certainly one of his most personal. Throughout the epistle, Paul shows himself adept at the art of persuasion, as he tries to win over both the head and heart of Philemon. So insistent are his pleas on behalf of Onesimus that Paul is barely able to hold back from demanding that Philemon comply with his requests (8-9). Theological and spiritual themes, so prominent in Paul’s other writings, are more often assumed than asserted in Philemon.

The impact of this short letter cannot be felt without some understanding of its background. Slavery was an accepted institution in the Roman civilization of the first century. In fact, the slave population in Paul’s day outnumbered the population of free citizens. This unbalanced situation was kept under control by Roman law, which made runaway slaves liable to the death penalty. Aware that such consequences could be in store for Onesimus, Paul decides to intercede for the life and well-being of this newly baptized slave. Paul insists that he return to his master to make amends for his desertion and thievery, and the apostle is even willing to pay Philemon whatever Onesimus owes him to ensure that justice is served (18-19). On the other end, Paul is challenging Philemon with a standard far higher than any Roman law. It is a standard of Christian mercy. Not only should this master forgive and forget the wrongdoing of his returning slave, but Paul drops several hints that Philemon should emancipate him entirely (16, 21)! Since Philemon himself has experienced the mercy and freedom of Christ in his own life, Paul reasons it is now time for him to extend that gift to Onesimus, who has likewise been freed by Christ and is coming home as a brother in the Lord.

Outline

1. Opening Address (1-3)

2. Thanksgiving for Philemon (4-7)

3. Paul’s Appeal for Onesimus (8-22)

4. Closing Greetings and Benediction (23-25)

PASTORAL EPISTLES

the First Letter to TIMOTHY

Author. First Timothy purports to be a letter from the Apostle Paul (1:1), as do the letters of 2 Timothy (2 Timothy 1:1) and Titus (Titus 1:1). These three epistles, closely related to one another in theme and purpose, are collectively known as the Pastoral Epistles. From earliest times, Christians accepted these letters as authentic compositions of Paul. Bishops such as Clement of Rome (A.D. 95) and Polycarp (A.D. 120) allude to the Pastoral Epistles as genuine Pauline writings, and later theologians such as Irenaeus (A.D. 180), Tertullian (A.D. 200), and Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 200) make direct assertions to this effect.

Despite the constancy of this view in early Christian times, the tradition of Pauline authorship came under fire in the nineteenth century. Increasingly scholars began to regard the Pastoral Epistles as pseudoepigraphical letters that were written in Paul’s name by one or more of his disciples several decades after his death. This position, which continues to dominate much of modern scholarship, contends that the Pastoral Epistles are conspicuously different from Paul’s undisputed letters in vocabulary, style, and emphasis, and for this reason, they cannot be regarded as genuine writings of the apostle. Regarding their historical content, some insists these writings bear witness to an advanced stage of Church government that did not exist in Paul’s day and that the details they claim to provide of Paul’s missionary efforts are inconsistent with his travels known from the Book of Acts and the other Pauline epistles. These and other arguments provide the basis for the pseudoepigraphical hypothesis.

That being said, the distinctiveness of the Pastoral Epistles is a factor that must be weighted carefully, for the evidence can be interpreted in different ways. For instance, even critics who deny Pauline authorship generally recognize traces of Paul’s thinking throughout these letters, and this leaves open the possibility of a closer relationship to the apostle than that envisioned by pseudoepigraphical advocates. Stylistic differences between the Pastorals and Paul’s undisputed writings, while undeniable, probably have more to do with differences in purpose and subject matter than anything else. After all, the Pastoral Epistles are written to pastors (Timothy and Titus) who are already well-seasoned and educated leaders in the Church, while Paul’s other letters are written to instruct young congregations in the basics of Christian faith. Allegations that the ecclesiastical hierarchy outlined in the Pastorals was unknown to the Church of Paul’s day are likewise overdrawn, since several passages in the undisputed letters of Paul point to a structured system of leadership already in place during the earliest days of the Church (1 Corinthians 12:28; Phil 1; 1 Thessalonians 5:12; cf. Acts 14:23; 20:17). As for Paul’s travel itinerary, one must admit that these letters claim to give us information about Paul’s career that is otherwise uncorroborated in the New Testament. Nevertheless, this can be taken as an earmark of Pauline authorship, since it is more likely that a literary forgery would stay within the outline of Paul’s life set forth in the Book of Acts and his genuine letters rather than depart from it. Otherwise, the attempt to pass off these letters as authentic Pauline writings would surely fail to convince the original recipients that they were reading the words of the apostle. In the end, the case against Pauline authorship is neither airtight nor immune to criticism, and the tradition that Paul himself composed the Pastoral Epistles can still be critically and convincingly defended.

Date. Proponents of Pauline authorship generally date 1 Timothy in the mid 60s between Paul’s first Roman imprisonment (A.D. 60 to 62) and his martyrdom at the hands of Emperor Nero (ca. A.D. 67). It is likely that during this intervening time Paul resumed his missionary activities in the eastern parts of the Roman world and then turned his attention west toward a new mission in the province of Spain (Romans 15:24). Timothy’s placement in “Ephesus” and Paul’s movements in “Macedonia” put the letter somewhere in the eastern phase of this period (1 Timothy 1:3). Scholars who deny the Pauline authorship of 1 Timothy date it much later between A.D. 80 and 110.

Destination and Themes. The letter was written to Paul’s associate Timothy, who was stationed in Ephesus on special assignment (1:3). The Ephesian Church was at this time threatened by a serious pastoral crisis, with teachers and shepherds leading the flock away from certainties of divine revelation into the mists of conjecture and speculation (1:3-7; 6:3-5). Timothy was charged with the difficult task of repairing the damage done by these troublemakers, two of whom Paul was forced to excommunicate (1:20) when he passed through on his way to Macedonia (1:3). Unable to return immediately, Paul wrote to admonish Timothy and authorize his mission to help this struggling congregation to safety.

The bulk of the letter, which is personal in tone and informal in arrangement, covers the gamut of Timothy’s pastoral responsibilities. Paul was counting on him to stabilize the Church with sound doctrine (4:6-7; 6:20) and the appointment of reliable pastors to shepherd the flock (3:1-13; 5:22)/ Among the congregation, he was to encourage prayer (2:1-8), set limits on the dress and conduct of women (2:9-15), attend to his liturgical duties (4:13), show respect for parishoners of all ages (5:1-2), manage the support of widows (5:3-16), take a public stand against wrongdoers (5:20), and, above all, keep himself unstained by sin (4:12; 5:22; 6:11-14). As a loyal friend and traveling assistant, Timothy was well suited for this task, as he had been sent on previous assignments to other young Churches in Corinth (1 Corinthians 4;17), Philippi (Philippians 2:19), and Thessalonica (1 Thessalonians 3:2).

Outline

1. Opening Address (1:1-2)

2. False Teaching in Ephesus (1:3-11)

2.1 Speculation and God’s Law (1:3-7)

2.2 The True Purpose of the Law (1:8-11)

3. Paul’s Conversion and Charge (1:12-20)

4. Paul’s Pastoral Instruction (2:1-6:2)

4.1 Prayer and Intercession in Christ (2:1-7)

4.2 Men and Women in the Liturgy (2:8-15)

4.3 Ordaining Bishops and Deacons (3:1-13)

4.4 Timothy as Teacher and Shepherd (3:14-4:16)

4.5 Ministering to Widows, Elders, and Slaves (5:1-6:2)

5. Final Admonitions (6:3-19)

5.1 The Dangers of Error and Wealth (6:3-10)

5.2 Faithfulness and Generosity (6:11-19)

6. Closing Appeal (6:20-21)

the SECOND Letter to TIMOTHY

Author. This letter claims to be authored by the Apostle Paul (1:1), as do the other Pastoral Epistles, 1 Timothy and Titus (1 Tim 1:1; Tit 1:1). Orthodox Christianity accepted this claim from earliest times, and it was not until the nineteenth century that the apostolic authorship of these letters was seriously questioned. This modern surge of skepticism has gained ground ever since and continues to dominate the thinking of many biblical scholars today. Nevertheless, there are still those who insist that Paul himself is the author of all three Pastoral Epistles. Consideration of the internal evidence of these letters, balanced with the external testimony of tradition, supports their Pauline origin with a reasonable degree of certainty.

Date. Fixing a date for 2 Timothy must account for the historical circumstances described in the letter, namely, Paul’s imprisonment (1:8) in the metropolis of Rome (1:17), along with his realization that death is imminent (4:6). The New Testament mentions one Roman imprisonment from A.D. 60 to 62, but is says nothing about what happened to Paul after this two-year detainment (Acts 28:16). Early tradition extends the story by claiming that Paul was released after this first imprisonment but was incarcerated again in Rome a few years later and martyred under the Emperor Nero around A.D. 67 (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 2, 22). Scholars who accept the historicity of this second incarceration often view it as the context in which 2 Timothy was written, and this is most likely correct. Other defends of Pauline authorship date 2 Timothy to the time of his first Roman imprisonment as recorded in the Book of Acts, presuming it ended with his execution rather than his release. Scholarship that attributes the letter to an unknown author writing in Paul’s name usually dates the letter soon after the apostle’s death (the late 60s) or near the end of the first century (in the 80s or 90s).

Purpose. Paul writes this letter to encourage his younger colleague Timothy and to summon him to Rome. At this point, Timothy is still in Ephesus, where Paul has stationed him to help reform the local Church (1 Timothy 1:3). Since problems once facing this congregation have steadily worsened, the apostle urges Timothy to fulfill his teaching mission with all the zeal and endurance he can muster (2 Timothy 2:1-3; 4:2-5). Youthful and reserved by nature, Timothy must now be manly and strong in the grace of God (1:7; 2:1). Paul himself is learning that loyalty is a rare commodity in times of distress. In fact, the earliest persecution of Christians in Rome (beginning in ca. A.D. 64) is so fierce that many of his companions have deserted him outright (1:15; 4:10-11). Abandoned and on trial for his life, the aged apostle wants a trusted companion like Timothy at his side (4:9, 21).

Themes and Characteristics. In many ways, 2 Timothy reads like a last will and testament. It is a moving account of how Paul, like a runner crossing the finish line, has reached the end of his apostolic career, with only the crown of martyrdom awaiting him (4:6-8). Young Timothy, instructed by the apostle for more than 15 years, is now asked to take up the mantle of his mentor and continue his ministry of preaching. With death at his doorstep, Paul hurriedly sends a letter filled with fatherly wisdom and warnings to prepare Timothy for the struggles ahead.

Of particular concern for Paul is the transmission of sound doctrine (1:13-14; 4:2-3). The apostle assures Timothy that he will have to contend with new and novel teachings that spread confusion and erode the faith of otherwise strong believers. Timothy’s mission is to guard the gospel (1:14) and to continue in earnest the responsible work of an evangelist (2:2; 4:2-3). The Ephesian congregation under Timothy’s care has already faced controversies and quarrels (1 Timothy 1:3-7), and the spread of falsehood has taken its toll on certain housewives (2 Timothy 3:6-7) and others whom Paul mentions by name (2:17-18). So, too, as Christian persecutions begin to intensify and spread more widely in the Empire, Timothy is assured that suffering is inevitable for an outspoken defender of the truth (2:3; 3:12). Nevertheless, Paul urges Timothy to find courage in the apostle’s own endurance (3:10-14) and in the inspired Scriptures he has known since childhood (3:15-17). The time will come when Timothy, too, must pass the torch to others who will teach and defend the gospel for future generations.

In all of this, Paul gives a sense of what is most important in Christian ministry. The truth of the gospel was for him a sacred gift entrusted to the apostles and their successors by the Holy Spirit (1:14). It is therefore not to be tempered with or falsified by those whose ears cannot endure what is contrary to their personal liking (4:3). Paul himself had defended the Lord for years in the face of persecution (3:11) and is now ready to give his life for him who has empowered him to preach the Christian message (4:6, 17).

Outline

1. Opening Address (1:1-2)

2. Perseverance in Suffering (1:3-2:13)

2.1 Thanksgiving (1:3-5)

2.2 Admonitions for Timothy (1:6-14)

2.3 Update on Paul (1:15-18)

2.4 Personal Endurance (2:1-13)

3. Perseverance in Sound Doctrine (2:14-4:8)

3.1 Responsible Preaching (2:14-26)

3.2 Times of Distress (3:1-9)

3.3 Following Paul and Scripture (3:10-17)

3.4 The Mission of an Evangelist (4:1-8)

4. Conclusion (4:9-22)

4.1 Final Instructions and Warnings (4:9-18)

4.2 Greetings and Benediction (4:19-22)

the Letter to TITUS

Author. Titus claims to be a letter from the Apostle Paul (1:1), as do the other Pastoral Epistles (1 Timothy 1:1; 2 Timothy 1:1). Christian writers accepted this claim from earliest times, and it was not until the nineteenth century that biblical scholars began to dispute and then deny the Pauline authorship of Titus. Many exegetes today continue to attribute this epistle to a devoted follower of Paul who wrote a decade or more after the apostle’s death. Nevertheless, reasons for upholding its authenticity remain strong, and there is much in the letter that lends credence to the tradition that Paul himself composed the epistle. Indeed, Titus gives us valuable insights into Paul’s ministry and movements during the final years of his life that we would not otherwise know.

Date. It is difficult to establish an exact date for Titus. Information within the letter about Paul’s situation is spare, and the little there is does not fit into the travel itinerary of his three missionary journeys described in the Book of Acts. This has led many to posit that Paul must have embarked on a fourth missionary tour in the eastern Mediterranean sometime after his Roman imprisonment recorded in Acts 28:16 (from A.D. 60 to 62) yet before his martyrdom a few years later (ca. A.D. 67). The possibility of a fourth missionary campaign in the mid 60s is accepted by many scholars and is supported by the testimony of early Christian tradition. This would mean that Paul wrote Titus sometime between A.D. 63 and 66, around the same time he wrote 1 Timothy. Scholars who deny the Pauline authorship of the letter tend to date it much later, between A.D. 80 and 110.

Destination and Purpose. The letter was sent to Titus on the Mediterranean island of Crete. Although Crete had an established Jewish community (1:10; Acts 2:11), its inhabitants were mostly Gentiles and pagans infamous for their moral decadence (Titus 1:12). Paul and Titus had previously evangelized parts of the island together, but Titus was left behind while Paul continued to travel. Titus was charged with organizing the converts into communities and ensuring that elders or presbyters (i.e., priests) were appointed to lead the flock (1:5). Paul now writes to encourage Titus and to authorize his spiritual and organizational efforts (2:15). He places full confidence in Titus, who has already proven himself a capable delegate in even the most sensitive situations in Corinth (2 Corinthians 7:6, 13-15; 8:16-23). Once Titus fulfills his mission and is relieved of his duty by a replacement, he is to rejoin Paul in Nicopolis for the winter.

Themes and Characteristics. The letter to Titus shares much in common with 1 Timothy, although its instructions are less detailed and its tone is less personal. Still, both letters are addressed to young bishops on temporary assignment: Titus on the island of Crete (1:5) and Timothy in the city of Ephesus (1 Timothy 1:3). Both of these men have been handed the challenging task of supervising communities that are threatened by false teaching (Titus 1:10-16; 1 Timothy 1:3-7), in need of sound doctrine (Titus 2:1; 1 Timothy 4:11-16), and lacking in qualified leadership (Titus 1:5-9; 1 Timothy 3:1-13). These are men Paul can trust. These are the men he is grooming to continue his ministry after his death.

The themes of the letter follow the instructions that Paul is giving to Titus, whose mission is to organize both the pastoral leadership and the personal lives of the believers on Crete.

[1] Pastoral Leadership. The first assignment given to Titus is to ordain qualified elders (priests) in every town, lest Christians on the island be like wandering sheep without shepherds to lead them (1:5). This is not to be done arbitrarily but with discernment. In Paul’s mind, the only fitting candidates for spiritual leadership are men of proven character and deep convictions (1:7-8). A practical element is also involved in this, and so Titus must take account of how well a prospective clergyman manages his own family and household when considering his selection (1:6). As a final note, Paul stresses that candidates must be competent instructors and defenders of the truth, able to lead the faithful as teachers and apologists (1:9). This is all the more necessary in Crete, where dangerous teachings are already taking hold in the Christian communities spread across the island (1:10-16).

[2] Personal Living. Paul reasons that because Christianity is advertised to the world through our actions, it is important that our behavior be consistent with our beliefs, lest the Church of God be discredited in the eyes of nonbelievers. There is thus a strong emphasis in Titus that believers should be zealous for every good work (2:7, 14; 3:1, 8, 14). This includes not only acts of charity toward fellow Christians (2:2-10), but also a respectful posture toward government authorities and fellow Cretans more generally (3:1-2). The immediate aim of such works is to assist the needy (3:14), while their ultimate purpose is to honor the Lord Jesus in anticipation of his glorious return (2:11-13).

Outline

1. Opening Address (1:1-4)

2. Christian Leadership (1:5-16)

2.1 Appointing Shepherds in Crete (1:5)

2.2 Qualifications for Pastors (1:6-9)

2.3 The Problem of False Teachers (1:10-16)

3. Christian Living (2:1-3:11)

3.1 Instructions for All Ages (2:1-10)

3.2 Foundation of the Christian Commitment (2:11-15)

3.3 Life with and without Christ (3:1-7)

2.4 Avoiding Trouble and Troublemakers (3:8-11)

4. Conclusion (3:12-15)

4.1 Final Instructions (3:12-14)

4.2 Benediction (3:15)

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