Training concept project

Study Guide

Training Concepts By

Adam C. Gifford

About the Author

Adam C. Gifford is a business and economics instructor at Lake- Sumter Community College in Florida. He earned his bachelor of science in management science from Lock Haven University, his master of human resources management from the Keller Graduate School of Management, and his master of business administration from Rollins College. In addition to his teaching, he has had a successful career in both the retail and manufacturing sector, where he worked in operations management and human resources man- agement. Adam has developed company-wide employee training programs for four different organizations. He has also consulted for many small companies on issues ranging from employee training to quality assurance management. Adam is an active member in the American Society of Training and Development, the Society for Human Resources Management, and the American Society for Quality.

All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.

Copyright © 2016 by Penn Foster, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton, Pennsylvania 18515.

Printed in the United States of America

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INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS 1

LESSON ASSIGNMENTS 7

LESSON 1: ELEMENTS OF TRAINING 9

LESSON 2: TRAINING DESIGN AND METHODS 27

LESSON 3: THE FINAL STAGES OF TRAINING AND WHAT COMES NEXT 43

RESEARCH PROJECT 59

SELF-CHECK ANSWERS 63

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INTRODUCTION Employee training takes place in every business. In some organizations, employee training is a formalized process that continues throughout an employee’s entire career. In other organizations, employee training is an informal event used to introduce new employees to the basic skills they’ll need to complete their tasks. Your current or future employer will approach training by some combination of the two methods. This course will help you make employee training a more efficient and effective process. After completing this course, you should be a valuable asset to any employer.

Your textbook and this study guide are organized around the training process model, which organizes employee training into a process that can be implemented in any organization, regardless of the resources available. The first three chapters of the text cover all the basic information that you’ll need to know to understand the training process. Your book then gives a detailed description of the training process model. Chapter 4 deals with training needs analysis. Chapters 5–9 focus on training design, training methods, training develop- ment and implementation, and evaluation of training. The text concludes with an in-depth look at some of the specific areas of employee training and development that impact organizations.

This course will be of great help to you even if you never specifically work in the training field. There’s a good chance that you’ll be responsible for some kind of employee train- ing during your career. What you learn in this course will increase your effectiveness when that time comes.

Instructions to Students2

OBJECTIVES When you complete this course, you’ll be able to

n List and describe the interrelationships among the five phases of the training process model

n Describe the strategic planning process, its components, and their relationships

n Explain the theoretical approaches to learning

n Summarize the importance of a training needs analysis

n Describe the purpose of learning objectives

n Write effective learning objectives

n Describe the strengths and weaknesses of different train- ing delivery methods

n Discuss the methods, strengths, and weaknesses of elec- tronic training

n Identify the elements of the development and implemen- tation of training

n Describe the pros and cons of training evaluation

n Explain some best practices in various training areas, including orientation training, diversity training, sexual harassment training, and team training

n Describe the different types of management development

YOUR TEXTBOOK The purpose of this study guide is to supplement your text- book, Effective Training: Systems, Strategies, and Practices. The study guide reinforces and highlights the key issues of this course and isn’t meant to be a substitute for the read- ing assignments in the textbook. You must read the textbook carefully to gain an understanding of the subject matter. Use this study guide to clarify the information presented in the

Instructions to Students 3

reading assignment. Throughout this guide, specific refer- ences will be made to the textbook to assist you in relating the textbook to the study guide.

The course is divided into three lessons. Each lesson is bro- ken down into assignments. The assignments are based on a varying number of learning objectives, outlined at the begin- ning of each chapter in the textbook. Upon completion of an assignment you should completely understand the informa- tion outlined in the corresponding learning objectives.

A self-check will be provided at the end of each assignment for you to check what you’ve learned.

COURSE MATERIALS This course includes the following materials:

1. This study guide, which includes

n A lesson assignments page that lists the schedule of assigned readings in your textbook

n Assignment introductions that emphasize the main points in the textbook

n Self-checks and answers that allow you to measure your understanding of the course material

n Self-checks and answers that allow you to measure your understanding of the course material

2. Your course textbook, Effective Training: Systems, Strategies, and Practices, Fifth Edition, by P. Nick Blanchard and James W. Thacker, which contains your assigned readings

Instructions to Students4

A STUDY PLAN This study guide is intended to help you achieve the maxi- mum benefit from the time you spend on this course. It doesn’t replace the textbook in any way. It serves as an introduction to the material that you’ll read in the book and as an aid to assist you in understanding this material.

This study guide provides your assignments in three les- sons. Each lesson contains three to four assignments, and a self-check for each assignment. Be sure to complete all work related to a lesson before moving on to the next lesson. You’ll also complete a research project, which is located at the end of Lesson 3.

For each lesson, do the following:

n Read the assignment for each lesson in this study guide.

n Read the assigned pages for each assignment in your textbook.

n When you’ve finished an assignment, complete its cor- responding self-check and the end-of-chapter case questions and review exercises. The self-checks and online quizzes aren’t graded—they’re designed to show how well you understand the material, so test yourself honestly. Do not send your answers to the school.

n Check your answers for the self-checks, case questions, and review exercises. The self-check answers are pro- vided at the back of this study guide, and the answers to the case questions and review exercises appear as a supplement on your student portal. Make every effort to complete the questions before checking the answers. If you find any weak areas, return to the textbook and study guide and review the relevant material until you understand it.

Instructions to Students 5

n Assignments 1, 7, 8, and 9 also include end-of-chapter Web Research activities. Complete these activities but do not send any written work to the school; these exercises are to only further your understanding and will not be graded.

n When you’ve finished the Lesson 1 assigned readings and review exercises and feel you have a good grasp of the material covered, complete the online multiple-choice examination for Lesson 1 on your student portal. Follow the same procedure for Lessons 2 and 3.

Now you’re ready to begin Lesson 1.

Good luck!

Remember to regularly check your student portal on your student homepage. Your instructor may post additional resources that you can access to enhance your learning experience.

Instructions to Students6

NOTES

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Lesson 1: Elements of Training Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook:

Assignment 1 Pages 7–10 Pages 1–23

Assignment 2 Pages 12–13 Pages 24–55

Assignment 3 Pages 15–18 Pages 56–88

Assignment 4 Pages 19–23 Pages 89–143

Examination 412770 Material in Lesson 1

Lesson 2: Training Design and Methods Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook:

Assignment 5 Pages 25–29 Pages 144–198

Assignment 6 Pages 31–35 Pages 199–250

Assignment 7 Pages 36–40 Pages 251–274

Examination 412771 Material in Lesson 2

Lesson 3: The Final Stages of Training and What Comes Next Read in the Read in study guide: the textbook:

Assignment 8 Pages 43–45 Pages 275–313

Assignment 9 Pages 46–49 Pages 314–355

Assignment 10 Pages 50–53 Pages 356–398

Assignment 11 Pages 54–58 Pages 399–434

Examination 412772 Material in Lesson 3

Research Project 41276900

Note: To access and complete any of the examinations for this study guide, click on the appropriate Take Exam icon on your student portal page. You should not have to enter the examination numbers. These numbers are for reference only if you have reason to contact Student Services.

Training Concepts8

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Elements of Training

ASSIGNMENT 1: TRAINING IN ORGANIZATIONS Read this assignment. Then, read pages 1–23 in your textbook.

Overview of Training Whether it’s an informal conversation on the job or a struc- tured online course, all organizations have some kind of training for their employees. The concept of employee training entails an entire process that takes all the elements of a com- pany’s vision into account. These factors include employees, processes, budgets, the internal environment, the external environment, and the organization itself.

Your text regularly refers to training as an open system. In open training systems, employee training is heavily influenced by the organization’s external environment. An organization that fails to first analyze its external environment will usually wind up training for the sake of training. In other words, an organization will expend resources to conduct training but for no quantifiable reason. This is no different than an organiza- tion throwing money out the window.

Your book uses a basic model to explain the training process. Each of the phases in this model correlates with a different section or chapter of the text. The phases of this process are as follows:

1. A triggering event occurs when a manager (or other mem- ber within the organization) realizes that an employee or group of employees aren’t performing to the level at which they’re expected to perform.

2. The analysis phase is one of the most important phases in the training process. At this point, the determination is made as to why the employees aren’t performing at an acceptable performance level and how the lack of perfor- mance is negatively impacting the entire organization.

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3. During the design phase, the outcomes of the training are determined. These outcomes (also referred to as learning objectives) will act as a skeleton on which the entire training will be formed.

4. During the development phase, the training is actually designed around the learning objectives that were previ- ously determined.

5. The implementation phase occurs when the training pro- gram is launched either as a dry run or throughout the entire organization.

6. During the evaluation phase, the effectiveness of the training is measured. If the training isn’t effective, then it must be determined why resources were spent with no positive outcomes.

Opportunities and Challenges for Training Employee training can pose numerous problems for organiza- tions and managers even though it’s a tool used to eliminate problems in the workplace. As a training professional, you must be aware of and understand these challenges so you’ll be ready to face them when they occur.

We already discussed the concept of training as an open sys- tem. An open system is heavily influenced by the strategy of the organization. It’s a challenge for training managers to ensure that the training developed and implemented in their organizations fits into their organizational strategies. An orga- nization that doesn’t have a clearly defined strategy may find itself with training programs that are either marginally effec- tive or completely ineffective.

Changing Demographics

Changing demographics and diversity in the workplace have created dramatic changes in organizations. For the first

time in history, organizations are commonly mixing races, genders, generations, and religions together in a single work setting. Although people have come a long way in tolerance

Lesson 1 11

for these changes, challenges will still occur in the workplace as a result of these changing demographics. Knowing and understanding these challenges will help you, as a training manager, to face these issues head on.

Knowledge Workers

The type of work that’s being performed in industrialized countries has changed dramatically over the past 40 years. Employees are now hired and trained based on what they know instead of what they can do. There are still some very hands-on jobs left in industrialized countries, but employ- ers are moving towards hiring knowledge workers who work mostly with their minds and away from hiring industrial workers who work mostly with their hands.

Keeping up with the competition. The competitive nature of industry has also drastically changed over the past 50 years. Business competition is fierce, and organizations must continually improve their processes, products, and employees if they want to succeed. A well-trained workforce is a must for a company that wishes to stay competitive.

Quality. The concept of quality has also changed drastically over the past 50 years and has become an industry of its own. This industry has spawned the need for training throughout all levels of an organization.

Legal Issues

The legal environment of the business world has created the need for training in many different areas, including equal- ity, workplace safety, environmental compliance, intellectual property, and sexual harassment.

Important Concepts and Meanings Training, like any other field, has a language all its own. There are terms you’ll have to become accustomed to because they’ll be used throughout your entire text. You must become familiar with these terms because they’re often used in the workplace. The terms are listed on the next page for easy ref- erence as you read through your text.

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learning

A relatively permanent change in understanding and thinking that results from experience and directly influences behavior. You can apply this definition to the class you’re taking right now. The knowledge you obtain from reading the text and this study guide will be used to make you a better training professional.

KSA

An abbreviation for knowledge, skills, and attitudes. These are individually defined below.

knowledge

An organized body of facts, principles, procedures, and information acquired over time. As you read through these definitions you’re increasing your knowledge.

skill

Proficiency at doing something. Once you’ve obtained the knowledge of these definitions, you’ll have greater skill at speaking like a professional trainer.

attitude

Beliefs and opinions that support or inhibit behavior. Once you’ve completed this course, you’ll have a different attitude towards employee training.

competency

A set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enables a person to be successful at a number of similar tasks.

training

A systematic process of providing an opportunity to learn KSAs for current or future jobs.

development

The learning of KSAs. Training allows employees to develop themselves into more effective employees.

education

Similar to training, but education is more focused on general, rather than job-specific, KSAs.

Lesson 1 13

Self-Check 1

At the end of each section of Training Concepts, you’ll be asked to pause and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-Check” exercise. Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far. Please complete Self-Check 1 now.

1. When does a triggering event occur?

2. What are the five phases of the training process model?

3. Why is quality improvement a major part of many training programs?

4. What types of training are mandated by law?

5. What does KSA stand for?

Check your answers with those on page 63.

Now complete Self-Check 1, as well as the case questions, review exercises, and Web Research activity at the end of Chapter 1. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal.

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ASSIGNMENT 2: ALIGNING TRAINING WITH STRATEGY Read this assignment. Then, read pages 24–55 in your textbook.

Strategic Planning Every organization engages in some form of strategic plan- ning. Some organizations engage in a formal strategic planning process in which goals are set and performance is monitored. This type of strategic planning process is known as a pro-active strategy. Many smaller organizations don’t engage in a formal process of strategic planning. They may plan only to meet short-term goals and deal with problems as they occur; this type of informal strategic planning process is known as a reactive strategy. A proactive strategy is always preferred to a reactive strategy because proactive compa- nies are better prepared to deal with problems as they arise. Unfortunately, many managers don’t have the skill or fore- sight to engage in strategic planning. A manager who lacks skill in these areas can be a contributing factor to why organi- zations either flourish or fail in different situations.

Strategic planning involves an analysis of the organization’s internal and external environment. A SWOT analysis is a good tool for this analysis. SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The SWOT analysis is a tool used throughout business and industry to help managers and employees effectively understand and analyze the operating environment of an organization.

Once a strategic plan is developed, the organization must

be aligned to carry out the plan. That is, the right people must be in the right place to carry out the plan. The organization should also ensure that the right people have the right tools to carry out the plan. Employee training ensures that all employees have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to com- plete their required tasks.

Lesson 1 15

OD, Strategy, and Training Once a strategic plan is designed, many changes must take place within the organization. The external environment of an organization constantly changes, so it’s only logical that an organization would constantly need to change to survive in its environment. The creation and implementation of the change is referred to as organizational development (OD).

Putting It All Together Implementing change is a very difficult task. Even when the changes are supported by management and employees, implementing change can still be difficult. A portion of both managers and employees will often resist change. When resis- tance occurs, you must be prepared. The first thing to do is determine who is resistant to the change and why they’re resistant. The people who are against the change may have a very legitimate issue, so it’s best not to just dismiss them as not being team players. After you’ve made this determination, you should address people’s concerns and communicate the reasons for and benefits of the changes. You should be able to illustrate the organizational as well as the individual benefits for the employees.

To implement your plan, you can use two methods—either alone or in combination with each other. Some larger orga- nizations have an organizational development department whose job is to implement strategic plans throughout the organization. In this case, you’ll communicate your plan to the development department and they’ll help facilitate its execution. Your other option, which is common for smaller organizations, is to outsource the organizational development plan. There are countless companies that focus on employee training and organizational development. These companies offer training and development products that can be imple- mented in almost any organization. The downside to this strategy is that the programs aren’t customized to your orga- nization’s specific goals and environment. Most organizations combine these two methods to get the most effective strategic plan implementation possible.

Training Concepts16

Now complete Self-Check 2 and the case questions and review exercises at the end of Chapter 2. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal.

Self-Check 2

1. What is the difference between a market leader strategy and a cost leader strategy?

2. Why would you want to include more training for nonroutine technology than you would for routine technology?

3. What are some of the aspects of the external environment that influence strategy development at different levels of the organization?

4. What are the six stages of performing a force-field analysis?

5. What are some of the reasons small business owners fail to plan strategically?

Check your answers with those on page 62.

Lesson 1 17

ASSIGNMENT 3: LEARNING, MOTIVATION, AND PERFORMANCE Read this assignment. Then, read pages 56–88 in your textbook.

Understanding Motivation and Performance As a training manager, one of the main things you’ll have to focus on is the performance of the employees within your organization. You’ll have to understand why employees are functioning at a specific performance level as well as what performance level the employees need to achieve. To do all this, you must be fully aware of all the factors that influence performance. The three main factors that influence perfor- mance are motivation, KSAs, and environment. This section will take a look at motivation in greater detail since KSAs and environment have already been discussed.

Motivation is the direction, persistence, and amount of effort expended by an individual to achieve a specified outcome. Many theories focus on motivation. For example, the needs theory of motivation says that people are motivated by their needs in life. If you’re able to ascertain a person’s needs, then you’ll be able to effectively motivate him or her. The process theory of motivation examines how a person’s needs translate into actions. Process theory and needs theory overlap some- what in their basic ideas. Keep in mind that there are many different theories within these two major categories. One the- ory isn’t necessarily more effective or more valid than another,

so it will benefit you to become familiar with all of them.

Also remember that you’re dealing with theories, and theories don’t always tell the full story. Any time you’re dealing with human interactions, there’s always the chance a theory won’t hold true for an individual. Because there’s no hard-and-fast rule when it comes to motivating individuals, you must famil- iarize yourself with all of the theories.

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UNDERSTANDING LEARNING As a training manager you’ll want your trainees to learn. After all, learning is the main reason organizations require training in the first place. Just because a person receives information, it doesn’t mean that learning automatically happens. You’ll need to be able to assess whether or not learning actually occurs as a result of the training you provided.

Two different types of learning can occur depending on which theory you choose. First, the cognitive theory of learning states that learning occurs when there’s a change in the knowl- edge stored in a person’s mind. Cognitive theorists look at what has occurred in a person’s brain rather than how that person’s behavior has changed. Second, the behavioral the- ory states that learning occurs when a person’s actions are altered based on a change in knowledge. Both theories are valuable to understand since both theories can be effectively applied to the workplace.

Motivation to Learn You already know that employees must be motivated for them to be successful. The same concept can be applied to training. Employees must be motivated to learn for training to be effective. If employees aren’t motivated to learn, then all the work you’ll have done to develop and design a training program will be wasted. Employees who aren’t motivated to learn are said to have a resistance to learning. This resistance can manifest itself for any number of reasons. Unfortunately those reasons aren’t always easy to pinpoint. In fact, employees might not even realize they’re resistant to learning. Because employees are often unaware of their resistance to learning, the respon- sibility of dealing with this issue falls on the shoulders of the training manager. As a training manager, you’ll need to be able to identify this resistance and deal with it swiftly and effectively.

Lesson 1 19

Environmental Factors and Resistance

There are a number of ways to effectively deal with a resis- tance to learning without putting the trainee in a difficult or uncomfortable position that might hinder the learning process even more. For example, you can create positive peer support among employees in the company. If employees hear positive things about training from one of their coworkers, they’re more likely to be open to the training experience.

You should also solicit positive support from supervisors. If a supervisor supports a training initiative, then subordinates are more likely to support it as well. The opposite is also true and unfortunately common in organizations. A negative atti- tude about training from a supervisor can almost guarantee the same attitude from the employees. Employees must also be able to execute the learning they acquired through the training. An organization must create a climate that’s safe for employees to demonstrate the learning they acquired.

Individual Factors and Resistance

Some individual traits can lead a person to resist learning. Many employees, especially older ones, probably haven’t had much formal training in the past few years. Learning is a pro- cess that can quickly be forgotten if not practiced, so someone who hasn’t been formally taught anything in a long time may be quite apprehensive about receiving training. Also, some people just fear training and learning in general. They may have had a bad experience with training in the past, or they may just have had a bad experience in school. If this is the case, you’ll need to address these anxieties before you can expect any learning to occur.

Training That Motivates Adults to Learn Adults learn differently than children. Therefore, you must find motivators that are specifically for adults if you want to create an environment of motivated learners in your organiza- tion. You can do a few things to ensure that the workers are motivated to learn. First, offer training relevant to the work

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being done. Keep in mind that just because you can see the relevance of the training, doesn’t mean the employees will be able to as well. You must show why and how your training

is relevant to their careers. You must also help to create an environment that’s supportive to learning. The fact that you offer training doesn’t mean your organization’s environment supports your training. You may lack support from your organization if it has never employed any kind of formal train- ing. Next, give the trainees some control over their training. You can let them choose the topics they feel will benefit their careers the most, or you can let them determine the time, place, or method of the training. Finally, involve the trainees by soliciting their input throughout the entire training pro- cess. The trainees are your internal customers; their input is both important and useful.

Now complete Self-Check 3 and the case questions and review exercises at the end of Chapter 3. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal.

Self-Check 3

1. What three factors determine human performance?

2. According to Clayton Alderfer, what three needs motivate humans?

3. According to Skinner, what four consequences can result from a behavior?

4. What factors provide an employee with the concept of self-efficacy?

5. What are some of the causes of resistance to learning?

Check your answers with those on page 64.

Lesson 1 21

ASSIGNMENT 4: NEEDS ANALYSIS Read this assignment. Then, read pages 89–143 in your textbook.

Why Conduct a Training Needs Analysis? A training needs analysis is used to determine if training will be a viable solution to increase actual organizational perfor- mance within a company. The analysis is an important step in the training process model because it helps to ensure that the resources allocated to training are effectively used. It also helps to ensure that the training is designed to address a par- ticular deficiency in actual organizational performance.

When to Conduct a Training Needs Analysis A training needs analysis should be performed before any type of training design is attempted. There are, however, some exceptions to this rule. In some instances in the busi- ness world, performing a training needs analysis wouldn’t be an efficient use of resources. For example, if an organization must provide training to comply with government regulations, a training needs analysis wouldn’t be necessary because training is the only effective solution. There are some regula- tions, such as safety and environmental compliance, which require an employer to provide training to certain employees on certain topics. Sexual harassment training is another

area where a training needs analysis isn’t always necessary. Although sexual harassment training isn’t required by law, it’s a worthwhile investment of resources because not only can it minimize the chance of a lawsuit, but it can also help your organization if a sexual harassment lawsuit does occur.

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The TNA Model As stated earlier, a training needs analysis helps to determine if training will help employees overcome a performance gap. Unfortunately, too many managers insist that training is the solution to every problem. These managers quickly discover that using training to solve every problem is like using a ham- mer to do all repairs on a car. You should always use the right tool for the job, and training isn’t always the right tool.

The first step of the training needs analysis model is to deter- mine if a performance gap exists. If there’s a performance gap, then you move to the next step, where you determine if the performance gap is worth fixing. Keep in mind that not all performance gaps are worth fixing. You have to weigh the cost of fixing the gap against the benefits of fixing it. If the costs outweigh the benefits, then it’s not worth fixing. If it’s worth fixing, then you need to determine what’s causing the perfor- mance gap. There are four possible conditions that can cause a performance gap. Each of these has a specific remedy. The causes and remedies of performance gaps are as follows:

n A KSA deficiency is the only performance gap that can be effectively solved by training.

n An incongruence in rewards and punishments is caused by a problem in employee motivation and can’t be solved through training. When training is used as a tool to motivate employees, the opposite effect often occurs. Be careful not to mistake a lack of motivation for a lack of training.

n Inadequate feedback occurs when employees don’t receive enough feedback about the quality of their work. Although managers can be trained to give better feed- back, there’s usually a deeper problem than just a lack of training.

n Sometimes, employees face physical or organizational obstacles that prevent them from performing their tasks. This situation is a process or people issue. Don’t attempt to resolved it through training.

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The Framework for Conducting a TNA There are three sources of input that contribute to the anal- ysis phase of a training needs analysis. Examining these sources should give you a good overall picture of the exis- tence and causes of performance gaps. Your first step will be to analyze the internal environment of the company through an organizational analysis. You’ll have to determine if policies and procedures and structures are aligned with the organi- zation’s mission and goals. You should go through the entire training needs analysis model and eliminate all performance gaps that aren’t caused by KSA deficiencies. It’s a good idea to address the other causes, but as a trainer you should focus on the performance gaps caused by the KSA deficiencies. An organizational analysis will tell you a lot about the organi- zation as a whole and will give you a unique insight on why certain performance gaps exist. You’ll find that training man- agers often have a better view of an organization than many of its senior managers.

After performing the organizational analysis, you’ll conduct an operational analysis. An operational analysis requires you to examine specific jobs to determine the KSAs required for each. This analysis will give you a very detailed look into the organization’s operation. An operational analysis will also give you a unique insight into the details of how tasks and jobs are actually performed. The analysis will also help you determine where gaps exist between how the work is performed and how the work should be performed.

Finally, you’ll conduct a person analysis. In this analysis you’ll examine the people who perform the work and attempt to determine if they have the KSAs necessary to effectively do the work they’re doing. A person analysis and an operational analysis are used in close conjunction with each other. You’ll spend most of your effort on these two analyses.

Approaches to TNA You can approach your training needs analysis in two dif- ferent ways. You can use either a proactive training needs analysis or a reactive training needs analysis. A proac- tive training needs analysis prepares the individuals and

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the organization for changes that will occur in the future. Such changes may include the promotion or transfer of an employee, an organizational change in technology, or a change in industry. Proactive training needs analysis can be challenging since no one knows what the future holds for an employee or an organization. Using a proactive training needs analysis can, however, give an organization a huge compet- itive advantage, since they’ll be able to adapt better to the changes they’re constantly faced with in the business world.

A reactive training needs analysis occurs when an existing performance gap is discovered in the employees or organi- zation. A reactive training needs analysis is much easier to perform than a proactive needs analysis because the performance gaps are much easier to find and measure. A forward-thinking training manager realizes that proactive training needs analyses can eventually lead to a decrease in reactive training needs analyses by solving problems before they ever happen.

TNA and Design Once the training needs analysis is complete, you can move on to the next step in the design process, where you’ll deter- mine what KSAs need to be focused on.

Congratulations! You’ve completed Lesson 1. Now complete Self-Check 4 and the case questions and review exercises at the end of Chapter 4. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal. When you’re sure that you completely understand the information presented in these assignments, complete your examination for Lesson 1.

Lesson 1 25

Self-Check 4

1. Describe some instances when a training needs analysis wouldn’t be necessary.

2. What are some of the appropriate remedies for fixing a performance gap that’s caused by a KSA deficiency?

3. List the sources for obtaining data for a job analysis.

4. What is the difference between a worker-oriented job analysis and a task-oriented job analysis?

5. What are some of the reasons that performance appraisals might not be a reliable or valid source of data?

Check your answers with those on page 63.

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Training Design and Methods

ASSIGNMENT 5: TRAINING DESIGN Read this assignment. Then, read pages 144–198 in your textbook.

Organizational Constraints Now that you’ve completed the training needs analysis, it’s time to actually design the training that will help to close the performance gaps caused by KSA deficiencies. In theory, training design is a fairly simple task. In reality, you’ll have to overcome numerous constraints throughout the training design process. The most challenging restraint you’ll face is a limited budget. Even if your organization has allocated you a generous training budget, it will still seem as if there isn’t enough money. You’ll always feel underfunded because there’s a constant push in business to do more with less. The next big constraint you’ll face will be deciding who gets the training and how much training each person gets. This constraint also ties to your limited budget. In a perfect world, you would give everyone all of the training they need and want, but because of your limited resources, you’ll have to make decisions. Having a budget will force you to decide how training can be used most effectively and most efficiently throughout the organization. You’ll also have to prioritize the types of training you’ll deliver. For example, you may have legally mandated training that must supersede any produc- tivity-based training or management training you would like to offer. Another obstacle you’ll face is the varying KSA level of your trainees. You’ll have to design the training to be effec- tive for all these different trainees and still work within your budget.

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Developing Objectives The first thing you should do in the training design process is write learning objectives. These objectives should address the specific KSAs the training is designed for. Training objectives are an integral part of the training design process because they essentially create an outline for the entire training program.

A learning objective has three basic parts. You must include all three of these parts in each objective so your training is specific enough to deal with the trainees’ KSA deficiencies. The first part of the learning objective is the desired outcome. The desired outcome describes what trainees must do to demonstrate they’ve actually learned the KSA. The second part of the learning objective is the conditions. Conditions outline the specific parameters under which the trainees must perform the desired outcome. The third part of the learning objective is the standards. Standards describe the parame- ters for success used to determine whether or not the trainees have performed the desired outcome under the specified conditions.

Why Use Training Objectives? Training objectives are a tool that will be used by many differ- ent parties throughout the training process. Trainees will use the objectives to focus their attention on what they should be learning. The training designer will use the objectives to communicate the specific outcomes of the training. It’s espe- cially important to have clearly defined training objectives if the training designer and the trainer aren’t in communication with each other. The trainer will use the learning objectives to focus the facilitation on the KSA deficiencies. Using training objectives ensures that the training time is used efficiently and effectively. Finally, the evaluator will use the objectives to determine whether or not the training accomplished the objectives it was designed to accomplish.

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Facilitation of Learning: Focus on the Trainee After the learning objectives are established, you must design your training activities around those objectives. Consider these factors when designing your training:

1. Differences in KSAs among the trainees. Although most trainees will have the same basic KSAs, there will be some differences that will pose a challenge during the training design stage. You’ll need to consider all of these possible differences when designing your training so the final product will be useful for all trainees.

2. Differences in motivation levels among the trainees. As a training designer, you’ll need to develop a training pro- gram that keeps the trainees motivated to learn. One of the biggest aspects you should focus on is job relevance. Motivated trainees can lose motivation quickly if they think the training isn’t relevant to their jobs.

3. Goal setting among the trainees. Individual goal set- ting can help a trainee get more out of training, which will lead to better results for the organization. Learning objectives help trainees set goals because they prompt the trainees as to what they should be getting out of the program.

Facilitation of Learning: Focus on Training Design To effectively design a training course, you must understand how people actually learn. The most common theory on learning is known as social learning theory. The first part of social learning theory deals with the learner’s attention. You should design your training in a way that will keep the learner engaged in the material that’s being taught. You’ve probably sat through a class in school or a presentation at work you found absolutely boring. As a training designer, you should keep those instances in mind and design your training course in a way that will help the learners focus on their task. The next part of social learning is retention.

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You should develop a training program that focuses on the retention of material. Presenting material to a trainee doesn’t necessarily mean the trainee will be able to retain the infor- mation. The next part of social learning theory is behavioral reproduction, which occurs when the trainee transforms the learned material into actions. Behavioral reproduction should be used throughout the training to ensure that trainees are learning the desired material. The final part of social learning theory is reinforcement. Reinforcement actually occurs out- side the training arena, but training managers should be fully aware of reinforcement, or lack of reinforcement, in the work- place. A lack of reinforcement in the workplace could negate all of the work you put into the training program.

Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Training As a training designer, you’ll need to focus on ensuring the information trainees learn gets transferred to the workplace. Learning without transfer is the same thing as not learn- ing at all. Learning transfer is the entire point of committing resources to training in the first place. Your goal is to have the outcome of positive transfer, which means that trainees have a higher level of job performance due to the training that they received.

Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Organizational Intervention For your training to be effective, it has to be promoted and accepted throughout the entire organization. Getting approval for your training program can be a challenging effort, espe- cially in organizations that don’t have a substantial history of effective training programs. As a training manager, you’ll need to keep your eye on the general attitude towards train- ing within your organization. You should ensure that all supervisors of the trainees support and encourage training. A negative word about training from a supervisor can quickly render any training that you provide completely worth- less. You must also solicit support from the trainees’ peers. Trainees don’t want to be singled out as being different from

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their peers because of the training they receive. Ultimately, you want all employees to view training as beneficial. As a trainer, you should make yourself available to employees long after the training has been completed. Many employees will seek you out later if they have questions or if they need a refresher on certain lessons. Finally, you should create an organizational culture that’s supportive of training. This type of environment can be created effectively through senior management. If senior management is supportive of the train- ing function, then that support will eventually trickle down through the ranks of the organization.

Now complete Self-Check 5 and the case questions and review exercises at the end of Chapter 5. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal.

Self-Check 5

1. What decisions need to be made after the training needs analysis has been conducted?

2. What are the four types of training objectives?

3. Describe the three components of a learning objective.

4. According to social learning theory, what are the four stages through which learners progress before they retain information?

5. Why is positive transfer of learning desired over zero transfer or negative transfer?

Check your answers with those on page 65.

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ASSIGNMENT 6: TRADITIONAL TRAINING METHODS Read this assignment. Then, read pages 199–250 in your textbook.

Matching Methods with Outcomes There are generally two types of training methods:

n Cognitive methods illustrate how concepts are related, or provide rules on how to do something. These methods focus on knowledge and attitude development.

n Behavioral methods use real or simulated situations to develop the trainees’ skills and change their attitudes.

In this section, you’ll explore both of these methods by exam- ining the strengths and weakenesses of each, and considering the situations in which using one method is preferred over the other.

Lectures and Demonstrations

Lectures

The use of a lecture is one of the most common forms of training. Many trainers and trainees feel comfortable with the lecture because the format is familiar to them from their school days. Training through the use of lectures has its strengths as well as limitations.

The following list outlines the strengths of lecture-based training:

n Trainees are able to ask for clarification and receive immediate feedback if they don’t understand something.

n The resources needed (room, table, chairs, flipcharts, overheads) are relatively inexpensive and easy to obtain.

n Lectures provide a more intimate and human feel that’s not always present when technology is used for training.

n The human interaction can keep trainees interested and focused on learning.

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The following list outlines the limitations of lecture-based training:

n The training might lack consistency if more than one trainer is used for delivery.

n Employees might fear classroom learning if they had a bad experience while learning in a classroom in school.

n The training isn’t cost effective if employees are in numerous geographic locations.

n The training might not be effective if employees, instead of professional trainers, are delivering the training.

n A poor delivery from an unskilled trainer can inhibit the learning process.

Demonstrations

Demonstrations are effective training tools when used in con- junction with lectures. Demonstrations allow the trainees to get hands-on experience while remaining in a controlled environment. It’s much easier to fix a trainee’s mistakes during a demonstration than it is to fix his or her mistake in the workplace. If trainees are allowed to try a process or piece of equipment during a demonstration, they’ll feel much more confident about their work when it comes time for them to perform in the workplace. Demonstrations can be used for such tasks as truck loading. It’s always a good idea to demonstrate tasks and skills in a training environment before allowing an employee to try something new.

Games and Simulations Numerous types of games and simulations can be used to train employees. Each game and simulation can be an effec- tive training tool if used in appropriate situations.

An equipment simulation is used to train an operator to use a particular mechanical device. This can be for something as basic as a cash register or as complex as a fighter jet. An equipment simulator is an excellent training tool because it allows trainees to get hands-on experience without having to

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worry about making expensive or fatal errors. For example, employees can practice ringing up orders on a cash register without worrying about a hurried customer. Trainees can also practice landing a fighter jet on an aircraft carrier with- out worrying about missing their target. The one major factor that holds companies back from using equipment simulators is the cost. An extra cash register might cost only a few hun- dred dollars, but something like an aircraft simulator can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars! If your organization can’t find the funds to purchase an equipment simulator, then you may want to consider allowing employees to train on equip- ment that’s not being used or is down for maintenance.

A business game is a training tool used to train business- people in the art and skill of decision making in a particular industry or department. Business games are also heavily used in undergraduate and graduate business programs. A busi- ness game consists of a simulation of an industry, a company, or a department based on real-world situations. Trainees must interact with their mock environments and make deci- sions very similar to the decisions they’ll be making in their jobs. Business games can be relatively inexpensive, and the trainees can usually work on the training at their own pace.

A case study is similar to a business game but not nearly as interactive. Case studies focus on a single interaction rather than on an evolving environment. Just like business games, case studies are also heavily used in undergraduate and graduate programs. Case studies are extremely inexpensive (there are many free ones that you can legally download from the Internet) and can be completed in a short period of time. They’re an excellent tool for ongoing management training because of their low cost and relatively short completion time.

A role-play is an interactive simulation of a particular situa- tion that might be encountered in the workplace. A role-play is generally limited to an interactive situation since it allows trainees to act out their parts in predetermined situations. Role-plays are much more interactive than are case studies but can be effectively used to train employees in the same situations. Role-plays are excellent for training employees in selling skills, negotiations, conflict resolution, interviewing, and performance evaluations.

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On-the-Job Training On-the-job training (OJT) is the most widely used form of train- ing in existence. OJT can consist of anything from an informal network of senior employees who train new employees to a complex process of certified trainers and certifications. Many smaller organizations that don’t have the funding for a com- plex training program use the informal method of having skilled employees teach new employees the skills they’ll need to be productive. Although informal OJT is an inexpensive way to train employees in the workplace, it can be inefficient at times. An informal OJT program won’t be consistent for every employee, so you could wind up with gaps in your train- ing. Seasoned employees may also train employees in the shortcuts they’ve developed over the years rather than train- ing them the correct way to do something. Senior employees may be highly skilled at their jobs but not skilled at training. A senior employee’s ineffective training could lead to frustra- tion for both the trainer and the trainee. Even if you’re in a smaller organization, it’s still possible to develop a formal OJT program without incurring too much cost. The money you invest in a program like this will return itself numerous times over in the form of higher-quality products, happier employ- ees, and more satisfied customers.

Audiovisual Enhancements to Training Audiovisual enhancements to training are imperative because not all people can learn something by just hearing a trainer or watching a demonstration. There are many different types of audiovisual materials you can use, and each has its own set of unique strengths and limitations. Handouts are the most effective visuals you can use. Handouts allow trainees to take their learning with them. Instead of trying to memorize everything they’ve learned, handouts allow trainees to review the training information at a later time. Many trainers use flipcharts to present the material. They can write the train- ing information on the chart as it’s covered in class and then hang the pages on the wall for later reference. Handouts and flipcharts are great because they’re effective and very inex- pensive. Videos are also a common training tool. Videos can

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easily be purchased to cover nearly any training need. Keep in mind that industrial training videos can get very expensive (up to $200 each), and they can quickly become outdated in the ever-changing business world. You can also consider pro- ducing your own training videos in-house. Producing your own training videos may seem expensive, but it really isn’t. All you need is a digital video camera, a computer, video editing software, and a little creativity. If you choose to produce your own videos, you can custom tailor them to your organization, and you can easily update them when needed.

Now complete Self-Check 6 and the case questions and review exercises at the end of Chapter 6. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal.

Self-Check 6

1. How is a lecture/demonstration different from a lecture/discussion?

2. What type of question is used to solicit a simple “yes” or “no” answer?

3. What types of games and simulations can be used to facilitate training?

4. What are the four stages of the learning sequence in a job instruction technique?

5. What are some of the benefits of apprenticeship training?

Check your answers with those on page 65.

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ASSIGNMENT 7: ELECTRONIC TRAINING METHODS Read this assignment. Then, read pages 251–274 in your textbook.

Electronic Training (ET) and Its Components Technology has permeated nearly every area of the workplace, including employee training. Computers are used in every aspect of training, including needs analysis, development, delivery, and evaluation. Electronic training is growing in pop- ularity for many organizations, and it’s quickly becoming that electronic training is nothing more than a delivery method for training. To create an effective electronic training program, you should still go through the training process model.

Electronic training can be an effective tool, but not for every organization. The last thing you want to do is implement an electronic training system because it’s the latest fad or because one of your superiors thought it sounded like a good idea. In the business world, implementing a technology because it’s the fashionable thing to do is referred to as “tech- nology for the sake of technology.” Implementing technology without good reason tends to waste resources and should be avoided. You should know the strengths of electronic train- ing before making the decision to implement the technology. An electronic training program is effective when the following statements are true for the organization:

n The trainees are comfortable with the use of technology.

n The information isn’t too complicated or in-depth.

n The trainees are in various geographical locations.

n Training documentation is required to meet a certain legal standard.

n Training must be delivered to a large number of people.

n The trainees work on different days or during different shifts.

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An electronic training program isn’t effective when the follow- ing statements are true for an organization:

n The organization doesn’t already use a great deal of technology.

n The organization can’t afford the technology.

n The training requires hands-on work to be performed.

n The material is complicated or in-depth.

n The material involves the training of soft skills (leader- ship skills, negotiating skills, employee motivation, or conflict resolution), which require a great deal of per- sonal interaction.

n The training material will differ greatly from person to person.

The one type of training that electronic training should never be used for is new-hire orientation training. New employees should interact with other employees so they’ll begin to feel more comfortable in the workplace. Electronic training can be used to deliver some of the orientation information like rules and regulations or company history, but in general should be avoided as much as possible.

Electronic Training Methods There are four different methods of electronic training. Each method has its own unique strengths and limitations. As a training manager, you should know the strengths and limita- tions of each before deciding on which method you’re going to use in your training program.

Programmed Instruction

Programmed instruction (PI), in its most basic form, presents information to the trainee and then has the trainee answer questions about the information. If the trainee learned the information well enough to answer the questions correctly, then the assumption can be made that learning did actually occur. Programmed instruction is an excellent tool for pre- senting basic information and for use in refresher courses.

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It’s a common practice for companies to use programmed instruction for legally required refresher courses on topics like workplace safety and sexual harassment. Programmed instruction wouldn’t be an effective training method for hands-on training or for any training that requires a great deal of human interaction. Programmed instruction is rela- tively inexpensive and can usually be custom developed for your organization by your own training or IT department.

Interactive Multimedia Training

Interactive multimedia (IM) training is a much more interactive method than programmed instruction and intelligent tutor- ing systems. Interactive multimedia training involves the use of videos, graphics, sounds, text, and animations to engage more senses in the learning process. The interactive material tends to help the trainees better focus on the training being presented. These enhancements to the learning process usu- ally make the training more effective for the organization. Many different packaged interactive multimedia training pro- grams can be purchased to meet your organization’s specific needs. You can also have programs custom designed for your organization. These custom-designed programs, however, can be very expensive because of the time it takes to design and develop a single interactive multimedia training program.

Intelligent Tutoring Systems

Intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) are more sophisticated forms of programmed instruction. The two share the same system of presenting information followed by the asking of ques- tions. The similarities, however, end there. Intelligent tutoring systems can make determinations as to the level of skill or intelligence the learners already possess based on the way in which they answer the questions. The system makes this determination by analyzing the types of mistakes the trainees make in answering the questions. It then focuses the learning on those areas that need the most improvement. Intelligent tutoring systems are effective when training must be given to people who have varying degrees of knowledge, skill, and ability. They’re also effective in analyzing where there are knowledge gaps among workers. The main deterrent to using

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intelligent tutoring systems is that they can be very expensive and difficult to alter or customize. Most of these programs can’t be developed in-house because of the complex program- ming involved in their production.

Virtual Reality

Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated model of real events used to train employees. Virtual reality is generally used to train people in situations that either require a great deal of skill or would be too dangerous to practice in real life. Virtual reality is generally used to teach people skills like flying an airplane or shooting a gun at a moving target. Although virtual real- ity can be an extremely effective training method, it’s usually prohibitively expensive. Flight simulators the military and air- lines use can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to develop and maintain. Although virtual reality is the least common of all the computer-based training methods, it’s the one that employees usually adapt to most quickly because it’s designed using the same technology found in video games.

ET Design and Development The following are the main considerations you should keep in mind so that you can design and develop effective ET programs:

n Apply learning design principles.

n Provide individualized attention.

n Match delivery method to purpose of training.

n Keep focus on the learning, not the process.

n Convert traditional programs to ET.

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Strengths and Limitations of ET ET has both strengths and weakenesses. Your textbook thor- oughly discusses the key considerations you should keep in mind when determining whether ET is the best method for a particular situation. Study these considerations on pages 266–272.

Congratulations! You’ve completed Lesson 2. Now complete Self-Check 7, as well as the case questions, review exercises, and Web Research activity at the end of Chapter 7. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal. When you’re sure that you completely understand the information presented in these assignments, complete your examination for Lesson 2.

Self-Check 7

1. What are the four computer-based training methods?

2. What is the difference between programmed instruction and intelligent tutoring systems?

3. What is the difference between interactive multimedia training and virtual reality?

4. What are the five components of the intelligent tutoring system?

5. Define self-paced learning.

Check your answers with those on page 66.

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The Final Stages of Training and What Comes Next

ASSIGNMENT 8: DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING Read this assignment. Then, read pages 275–313 in your textbook.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING Now that you’ve designed your training program, it’s time to work on actually developing it. To do this, you’ll need to com- pile a program development plan. Your program development plan will be a detailed design of everything that will occur during the actual training. It’s important to be detailed and thorough in your program development plan because it may be used by trainers you don’t have direct contact with. You should have no question as to what will be done throughout the entire training program.

Your development plan should contain four pieces of infor- mation. As the training designer, you’ll need to list all of the materials and equipment that will be used for the duration of the training. This information will help the trainer ensure he or she has everything needed before the training begins. By having this list, a proactive trainer can eliminate many logisti- cal problems before the training ever begins.

You’ll also need to include the trainees’ manual and the trainer’s manual. The trainees’ manual is imperative to the learning process because it allows trainees to take the infor- mation with them for use at a later date. It also helps trainees understand how the training relates to the organization as a whole. The trainer’s manual helps the trainer stay focused and organized during the training.

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Your program development plan should also include a description of the facility setup and design. This description is especially important if the training will be done off-site by a trainer who wasn’t a part of the training design stage. Although it may not seem too important, the setup of a train- ing facility can heavily influence the learning process in either a negative or a positive way.

The final part of a development plan is the determination of who will facilitate the training. Many organizations have spe- cific people who do all of the training. Other organizations may hire an independent trainer only when training needs to be facilitated. Many organizations use people within specific departments to perform the training. These are called on-the- job trainers. Regardless of who performs the training, that person needs to be included in the development plan.

Implementation There are two basic stages of training implementation. The first stage is the dry run, and the second stage is the pilot program.

A dry run isn’t actually a training session. During the dry run, you’ll present the information to key individuals and get their feedback on the information, the training materials, and the training methods you’ve decided to use. These individuals can consist of supervisors, future trainees, past trainees, and other training professionals. If your organization will allow it, you can even use people from outside the organization. Always make sure you collect ample feedback from partic- ipants in the dry run and use that feedback to make any modifications before moving on to the next stage.

After you’ve fine-tuned your training program with the dry run, you’re ready to launch your pilot program. The pilot program is an actual execution of the training program with a sample population within your organization. Through the pilot program, you’ll determine the effectiveness of the train- ing development process in your organization. Keep in mind that you’ll most likely continue to make incremental changes to your training program throughout its existence, but you’ll

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make the most changes during the pilot program. Once you’re satisfied with the program as a whole, you can begin implementing the program throughout the entire organization.

Transfer of Training Once you’ve developed and implemented the training, you may think your job is over. This couldn’t be further from the truth. You must next follow up with your trainees to ensure the training you worked so hard on actually transferred into the workplace. Many aspects of the workplace may not be within your control, but they’ll still hinder the transfer of training. Therefore, you must constantly monitor the training to determine if one of these obstacles is causing a block of transfer. There are many methods you can use to determine how effective the transfer of training was. The next chapter in your text examines the methods of evaluating your training program.

Now complete Self-Check 8, as well as the case questions, review exercises, and Web Research activity at the end of Chapter 8. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal.

Self-Check 8

1. How is a learning point related to learning objectives?

2. What are some of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of an effective trainer?

3. What is the purpose of an icebreaker?

4. What are the five parts of the experiential learning model?

5. What are some ways you can deal with an angry trainee?

Check your answers with those on page 66.

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ASSIGNMENT 9: EVALUATION OF TRAINING Read this assignment. Then, read pages 314–355 in your textbook.

Rationale for Evaluation You’ve implemented your training program throughout your organization. It appears your work is done, but the most important part of the training process model is now in your hands. It’s time to ensure your program is effective. You’ll determine the program’s effectiveness through a training program evaluation. You must continually evaluate the effec- tiveness of training programs to ensure the resources being allocated to training are being used effectively. Your eval- uation results will direct you on how to proceed with the continual improvement of your training programs.

Resistance to Training Evaluation It isn’t uncommon to face resistance to the evaluation of train- ing programs. Resistance to evaluation is common in most aspects of an organization, and training isn’t immune to this attitude. Not only should you avoid resistance to evaluation from people in your organization, but you should also learn to recognize resistance in your own behavior.

You must be able to identify three main arguments people use to resist evaluation. The first argument is that there’s nothing to evaluate. Keep in mind that if the training program was designed correctly, there will always be something to evalu- ate. You designed the program to change specific KSAs, which will, in turn, lead to a change in behavior that will improve the company’s organizational results. Your training evaluation will analyze the changes in those results. The next argument is that no one cares about evaluating training. This couldn’t be further from the truth. Company management analyzes the effectiveness of most investments made, including real estate purchases and capital investments. Training programs are investments in people. They should be analyzed just like

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all other investments. Finally, training managers could view training evaluations as a threat to their job. This can be true if they aren’t performing well in the first place. However, you need to remind the people you’re getting this resistance from that training evaluations aren’t conducted in order to assign blame. Training is evaluated to provide feedback as to its effectiveness and worth.

Types of Evaluation Data Collected There are two major types of data you can collect during the evaluation phase: process data and outcome data. Process data analyzes the actual process of the training. This data examines the effectiveness of the training needs analysis phase, the training design phase, and the training implemen- tation phase. Basically, process data is used to measure the effectiveness of the training process model. Outcome data measures the organizational effectiveness of the training. It’s used to determine if the training made the changes it was designed to make. You started the training process because it was determined that actual organizational performance was less than expected organizational performance. Outcome data is used to determine if actual organizational performance is now equal to expected organizational performance.

After you’ve collected the evaluation data, you should deter- mine if the resources invested in the training program were well spent. Many people think that just because improvements were made from the training that the training was worth the investment. You must ask yourself two basic questions: “What did the improvement cost?” and “Could the resources have been spent more effectively?” To make this determination, you must perform a cost/benefit evaluation. A cost/benefit evaluation will tell you how much the improvements cost the organization. To conduct a cost/benefit evaluation, you must be able to quantify all of the benefits of the training and compare them to all the costs of the training. If the ben- efits outweigh the costs, then the training was a worthwhile investment and should be continued. If the costs outweigh the benefits, then you should analyze how you can either spend less on training or make the training more effective.

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A cost/benefit evaluation is actually a bit more complicated than it sounds. To determine the benefits of your training program, you must determine how the trainees’ behavior after the training translates into benefits for the organiza- tion. You must then quantify these benefits into a dollar amount. Sometimes these dollar amounts are easy to quan- tify, as when training helps to reduce the number of defects in a manufacturing process or when it helps to reduce the number of accidents in the workplace. It will be more difficult to quantify the results when you’re looking at training that helps to improve skills like teamwork, employee motivation, and leadership. Determining the costs of training can be less of a challenge than determining the benefits, since the costs are easier to quantify in dollar amounts. When conducting a cost/benefit evaluation, make sure to incorporate all of the costs that have been incurred, including all costs incurred throughout the training process model, the costs of having the employees attend the training, and the costs of continually improving the training program.

Now complete Self-Check 9, as well as the case questions, review exercises, and Web Research activity at the end of Chapter 9. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal.

Self-Check 9

1. What are some of the reasons training managers fail to evaluate training?

2. What is the difference between process data and outcome data?

3. What types of information should be collected in the reaction questionnaire?

4. List and define the three types of knowledge.

5. Why would you want to perform a cost/benefit evaluation on a training program that you know improves employee performance?

Check your answers with those on page 67.

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ASSIGNMENT 10: KEY AREAS OF ORGANIZATIONAL TRAINING Read this assignment. Then, read pages 356–398 in your textbook.

Orientation Training (Onboarding) Of all the types of training provided to employees, orientation training is the most important. Unfortunately, many orga- nizations don’t see things this way, and they either rush employees through orientation or they skip it all together. You can think of an orientation as a first impression. An employee who has a good first impression of an organization is more likely to stay with and be a productive member of that orga- nization. An employee who has a negative first impression will most likely continue to have a negative attitude about the organization no matter how good the organization actually is. Orientation training can include many topics. Some of the more beneficial topics to cover are work rules and regulations, employee benefits, individual and organizational expectations, organizational mission and strategy, introduction to cowork- ers and supervisors, company history, company products and services, and key company or industry lingo. Notice that noth- ing was mentioned about specific job skills. Job skills usually aren’t included in an employee orientation. Most successful organizations put all of their employees, whether they’re a vice president or a part-time security guard, through the same orientation program. Including everyone in the orientation process creates continuity throughout the organization. It also gives new employees an informal social network because they’ll get to meet other employees, who are also new, on their very first day. Meeting other employees can help in creat- ing a positive first impression for a new employee. Although it seems that orientation might be a waste of time because employees aren’t actually being productive, keep in mind how much money it costs to hire employees and how much more it will cost to replace them if they have a bad first impression of the organization.

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Diversity Training Diversity training is a relatively new type of training. As the makeup of the workforce continues to change, the need for diversity training continues to increase. The workforce now contains a mix of races, religions, genders, generations, and classes. It’s foolish to believe all of the different types of people will be able to work efficiently with each other just because they’re all part of the same organization. From the time we’re born, we’re told not to judge people based on their age, race, religion, or social class. Unfortunately, because that teaching doesn’t neatly transfer over into the workplace, there’s a need for diversity training.

Diversity training can be useful in a number of situations. For example, legal issues dealing with discrimination may arise in a company. Providing diversity training to employees can help organizations reduce or even avoid these issues. Productivity issues can arise within a diverse workplace. Some employees have difficulties dealing with other employees who are a differ- ent age or come from a different upbringing than themselves. The difficulty here is that employees might not realize this on their own. Employees might have a difficult time working together and not even realize it. Diversity training can help employees and managers identify and resolve these issues before they become a drain on the organization.

Sexual Harassment Training Sexual harassment training is a form of diversity training. Because of its importance, sexual harassment training should be completed by all employees even if diversity training isn’t required of them. Sexual harassment training can be con- ducted by an in-house trainer or by a consultant. There are also numerous prepared sexual harassment training courses that can be purchased for your organization’s use. You can also purchase videos and online components that can be used as learning aids to supplement your sexual harassment training.

Any sexual harassment training offered must be documented for all employees regardless of gender or position within the organization. If your company ever faces a sexual harassment

Lesson 3 51

lawsuit, it will be very helpful to be able to prove that all employees have gone through the training. Many organiza- tions include sexual harassment training as a part of their employee orientation to ensure all new employees have received the training. If your organization is designing its own sexual harassment training, a legal professional should be hired to review the material to ensure all pertinent topics are being covered, and all the material is current. Sexual harass- ment lawsuits can cost a company thousands, even millions, of dollars. It’s a wise decision to invest the money in training to avoid these devastating lawsuits.

Team Training The use of teams is a common tool within organizations. However, too many organizations make the mistake of putting people in teams without ever giving them training on how to effectively operate within those teams. Most people don’t natu- rally have the skills to effectively work in teams. This is where team training comes in. Working in a team is a skill that can be learned. It’s no different than operating a car or selling a house. The main problem is that many managers just assume that if people are efficient individuals in the workplace, they’ll automatically be efficient workers as a part of a team. These same managers often find out too late that this notion can be far from the truth. Managers must be made aware of the need for team training. This is especially true of organizations that don’t have a history of using teams and organizations that have a history of focusing on individual accomplishments.

Team training can be performed in-house or it can be taught off-premises by a consultant. Numerous videos and countless books that cover topics dealing with team training are avail- able. There’s so much information on team training that your biggest issue will be sorting through everything and finding the training most useful to your particular organization.

Basic Skills Training Some organizations are starting to engage in basic skills training. Basic skills training is actually considered edu- cation more than it is training because it involves learning

Training Concepts52

basic knowledge and skills rather than work-specific skills. These programs can include literacy programs and courses in English as a second language. Basic skills training can be conducted in-house, but much of this training has been historically provided by temporary agencies and government agencies. Basic skills training programs allow employees to develop the basic skills they’ll need to simply exist in the workforce. The programs give the employees the basic foun- dations so they can actually gain some knowledge from the training they’ll receive at their workplace. Basic skills training programs are common in low-skill industries such as farming, assembly, janitorial services, and food service. They’re also common in areas of high unemployment and areas with poor schools. Although they may seem pricey and wasteful, they can help to produce long-lasting and skillful employees.

Now complete Self-Check 10 and the case questions and review exercises at the end of Chapter 10. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student portal.

Self-Check 10

1. What are some of the reasons orientation training is so important?

2. What are some of the methods used to evaluate an orientation program?

3. List some of the reasons diversity training is so important.

4. What are the two types of sexual harassment in the workplace?

5. What are the components of the learning organization?

Check your answers with those on page 68.

Lesson 3 53

ASSIGNMENT 11: EMPLOYEE AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT Read this assignment. Then, read pages 399–434 in your textbook.

Why Focus on Management Development? It should come as no surprise to learn that managers have a complex and difficult job. Managers must be able to complete their own tasks while motivating other employees to complete their tasks as well. In addition to this challenge, managers are often held responsible for the performance of all the employ- ees within their departments. It’s no wonder organizations spend so much time and money ensuring their managers get the training they need to succeed.

General Overview of the Managerial Job A manager’s job is complex. The skills required of a manager are even more complex. These challenges are enhanced by the fact that the roles and responsibilities of managers dif- fer between organizations. It’s difficult to create a definition of what a manager does in terms of tasks because that list would be almost endless. Instead, the role of managers is defined by the amount of authority they’re given to complete their tasks. This authority disseminates into three major roles. Each of these roles helps to define what a manager does:

n Interpersonal role. Managers motivate employees, inter- act with other managers, and interact with customers.

n Informational role. Managers communicate directives to employees, communicate departmental needs to the organization, and analyze performance data on people and processes.

n Decisional role. Managers map employees’ futures, solve problems, and allocate resources.

Training Concepts54

General Characteristics of Managers Managers’ jobs vary a great deal from organization to organi- zation. It’s difficult to come up with a comprehensive list of specific characteristics that make up an effective manager. As a training professional, you must understand how managers’ cognitive makeup influences their success. Understanding these cognitive abilities will also help you develop training programs beneficial to the managers in your organization. A manager’s cognitive makeup is broken up into three different categories which can influence training programs:

Conceptual Knowledge and Skills

Conceptual knowledge and skills are required to analyze sit- uations and make effective decisions. Conceptual skills are generally referred to as the “soft skills” of management. They aren’t specific to an industry or department. Conceptual skills are the skills entry-level mangers need the most work developing.

Technical Knowledge and Skills

Technical knowledge and skills are required to complete the tasks particular to a manager’s industry or department. Technical skills are often referred to as “hard skills” and generally have little use outside a manager’s industry or department. Entry-level managers usually have a firm grasp of the technical skills needed to be a successful manager. Having a good handle on hard skills is especially common in people who have been promoted to a manager from a line position.

Interpersonal Knowledge and Skills

Interpersonal knowledge and skills are required to success- fully work with people. Interpersonal skills are also referred to as “soft skills.” Many of these skills are innate to a particu- lar person. Someone who has inherent interpersonal skills is often referred to as a “people person.” These skills, although they can be innate, can also be learned. Organizations spend a lot of time and money on training their managers in inter- personal skills.

Lesson 3 55

Sources of Knowledge/Skill Acquisition There are many sources of management training. Most orga- nizations have a basic management training program in which new managers learn policies and procedures as well as the technical skills required to effectively perform their jobs. Many businesses also look outside their organizations to train their managers on the general knowledge and skills they’ll need to succeed. The two major sources of this external training are management education programs and corporate universities. Management education programs are commonly run by established universities and generally coincide with their undergraduate and graduate business and management degree programs. These programs are effective for businesses because they can train both new as well as seasoned man- agers in a number of different skills. A company can send as many or as few managers as it feels fit and not have to worry about staffing a training department.

The managers also gain the benefit of learning their trade from university faculty who are almost always industry experts. If a company has enough resources, it can develop its own corporate university. A corporate university is similar to a management education program in the skills covered. The only real difference between a management education program and a corporate university is that in a corporate uni- versity, the entire training process from needs assessment to evaluation is done in-house. Conducting the entire training process in-house can be a very costly undertaking, but if the organization is large enough, it can be cheaper than paying tuition for all managers to attend a management education program.

Training for Executive-Level Management Many people feel that executives no longer need training because of the high level they’ve reached within the organiza- tion. This couldn’t be further from the truth. Executive level managers still need to develop their skills because they’re constantly faced with having to make decisions that will impact the entire organization. Although it takes a highly

Training Concepts56

skilled manager to reach the executive level, constant develop- ment is still needed to ensure the manager retains his or her skills. Numerous methods can be used to continually develop your executives.

Coaches are often employed for new executives who are still learning what it’s like to make decisions that impact the entire organization. A coach can help new executives overcome some of the challenges they may not have experienced in any of their other positions. A coach can be either another, more seasoned executive or someone from outside the organization.

Mentoring is another method of executive development. Mentoring is far more common than coaching, although the relationships are very similar. The mentoring relationship is usually more informal, although formal mentoring programs are continuing to grow in popularity. Informal mentoring rela- tionships usually last for quite some time and can even bridge organizations as people change jobs and businesses.

You can also use executive development programs to help develop your senior managers. Executive development pro- grams are very similar to management development programs, as they’re usually developed and facilitated by established universities. The only real difference is that executive devel- opment programs place all senior managers together in a class so they can learn from each other as well as from the instructor. Executives often engage in job rotation as a form of development. Job rotation allows them to see how other departments and managers in their organization operate. Rotating between departments also allows executives to inter- act with and learn from other executives.

Congratulations! You’ve completed Lesson 3. Now complete Self-Check 11 and the case questions and review exercises at the end of Chapter 11. Compare your answers with those at the back of this study guide and on your student por- tal. When you’re sure that you completely understand the information presented in these assignments, complete your examination for Lesson 3.

Lesson 3 57

Self-Check 11

1. According to Mintzberg, what are the three roles of a manager?

2. What conceptual knowledge and skills are essential and common to nearly all management positions?

3. Why would executive and management education programs be ineffective for helping managers develop the technical skills required for their jobs?

4. What are the reasons a corporate university can be more effective than a university-based for- mal education?

5. How does job rotation help develop a manager?

Check your answers with those on page 68.

Graded Project58

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Research Project: 41276900

Background People spend much of their childhood in a classroom. This experience shapes the way they do things throughout their adult lives. The time people spend in the classroom impacts the way adults view the learning process. Many people think the classroom style of learning is the most effective way to learn. This line of thought is exemplified by the methods used in many employee training programs. Training profession- als need to understand how adults learn in order for them to design and deliver effective training programs.

Procedure Write a paper with a minimum of five paragraphs, 80 to 150 words per paragraph. Gather information from Internet sources and library sources. Address the assignment explained below. Your paper must have an introductory para- graph that tells what the paper is about and a concluding paragraph restating your purpose and bringing the report to a close. You must have at least one major paragraph outlining your main points.

Describe the concept of adult learning theory and discuss how it influences employee training. Identify what you would change in the following case to make the training more effec- tive by applying adult learning theory:

The Human Resources Director began the training session by announcing the objective of the course. He said, “I will explain how the new payroll system works and how I usually trouble- shoot problems during a payroll week.” The Human Resources

Director then darkened the room and proceeded to show a series of computer-generated slides that outlined the lecture. The participants were given handouts that showed six slides per page where they could make their own notes. The partici-

pants were told to hold their questions and comments until the end of the session.

Graded Project60

Goal The goal of this assignment is to help you apply what you’ve learned about adult learning theory from your lessons. This assignment will provide you an opportunity to explain the concept of adult learning theory and how it influences employee training.

Writing Guidelines 1. Type your submission, double-spaced, in a standard

print font, size 12. Use a standard document format with 1-inch margins. (Do not use any fancy or cursive fonts.)

2. Include the following information at the top of your paper:

a. Name and complete mailing address

b. Student number

c. Training Concepts, HRM 355

d. 41276900

3. Read the assignment carefully and address the topic or issue suggested.

4. Be specific. Limit your submission to the topic or issue suggested.

5. Include a reference page that lists websites, jour- nals, and any other references used in preparing the submission.

6. Proofread your work carefully. Check for correct spelling, grammar, punctuation, and capitalization.

Grading Criteria Your project will be based on the following criteria:

Content 60%

Written communication 15%

Format 25%

61Graded Project 61

Here’s a brief explanation of each of these points.

Content

The student

n Provides a clear discussion of the assigned topic or issue

n Addresses the subject in complete sentences, not just simple yes-or-no statements

n Supports his or her opinion by citing specific information from the websites and any other references used

n Stays focused on the assigned issues

n Writes in his or her own words and uses quotation marks to indicate direct quotations

Written Communication

The student

n Includes an introductory paragraph, body, and concluding paragraph

n Uses correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, and sentence structure

n Provides clear organization by using words like first, however, on the other hand, and so on, consequently, since, next, and when

n Makes sure the paper contains no typographical errors

Format

The paper is double-spaced, typed in font size 12, no less than five paragraphs, and contains Internet and library research sources. It includes the student’s

n Name and address

n Student number

n Course title and number (Training Concepts, HRM 355)

n Research project number (41276900)

Graded Project62

Submitting Your Assignment You can submit your research assignment online:

1. On your computer, save a revised and corrected version of your project.

2. Go to http://www.pennfoster.edu and log in.

3. Go to Student Portal.

4. Click on Take Exam next to the lesson you’re working on.

5. Enter your e-mail address in the box provided. (Note: This information is required for online submission.)

6. Attach your file as follows:

a. Click on the Browse box.

b. Locate the file you wish to attach.

c. Double-click on the file.

d. Click on Upload File.

7. Click on Submit Files.

Be sure to keep a backup copy of your completed assignment!

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Self-Check 1

1. When a person of authority recognizes that actual organi- zational performance is less than expected organizational performance

2. Needs analysis phase, design phase, development phase, implementation phase, evaluation phase

3. High-quality products and services are necessary for a company to flourish. Competition has become fierce, and continuous quality improvement is a must for any busi- ness that wants to remain successful.

4. Safety training, harassment and discrimination training, and industry-specific training

5. Knowledge, skills, and attitudes

Self-Check 2

1. A market leader strives to find new products, innovations, and opportunities. A cost leader strives to provide goods or services at the lowest cost on the market.

2. Nonroutine technology results are difficult to predict, so operators must be able to determine and fix the causes of problems. There also aren’t fixed solutions for the problems, so the operators must often develop their own solutions.

3. The labor market, the legal environment, economic condi- tions, and competition

4. (1) Identify the current state of the situation, (2) envision the desired state, (3) identify the forces resisting change, (4) identify the forces that support or encourage change, (5) assess the strength of the forces, and (6) develop your strategies.

5. Not enough time, unfamiliarity with strategic planning, lack of strategic planning skills, and lack of trust in stra- tegic planning

Self-Check Answers64

Self-Check 3

1. Motivation; knowledge, skills, and attitudes; and environment

2. Existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs

3. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punish- ment, and extinction

4. Prior experience, behavioral models, others’ feedback, and physical and emotional state

5. Lack of peer support, lack of supervisor support, poor or negative learning environment, low cognitive ability of the learner, poor KSA base of the learner, and anxiety towards learning

Self-Check 4

1. A training needs analysis wouldn’t be necessary when an organization is trying to communicate a new vision or address legal concerns. Another instance would be team training for a newly formed work team.

2. Job aids, training, practice, change in job, transfer, and termination

3. Job descriptions, job specifications, performance stan- dards, interviews of job holders, and interviews of supervisors

4. A worker-oriented job analysis focuses on the KSAs required for the job. A task-oriented job analysis focuses on the actual activities required to perform the job.

5. Supervisors aren’t always effectively trained on the use of performance appraisals and don’t always have ample opportunity to see employees in action. There’s also the possibility of rater error or bias in the evaluation and poorly developed rater systems and appraisal processes.

Self-Check Answers 65

Self-Check 5

1. What method of training to use, how much time to allot to training, how many trainees to train at once, when to conduct the training, whether or not to mandate the training, and where to conduct the training

2. Trainee reaction objectives, learning objectives, trans- fer of training objectives, and organizational outcome objectives

3. The desired outcome describes what should be expected to occur. The conditions describe the specific operating conditions under which the outcome is expected to occur. The standards describe the criteria that determine if the outcome is acceptable.

4. Activation of memory, symbolic coding, cognitive organi- zation, and symbolic rehearsal

5. Positive transfer of learning is desired because it means that the trainees now have a higher level of job perfor- mance due to training they received. Obtaining a higher level of job performance from trainees is the goal of training. Zero transfer means that no change occurred in performance, and negative transfer means that a decrease in job performance occurred.

Self-Check 6

1. A lecture/demonstration shows trainees how something is done, while a lecture/discussion involves trainees in the learning process by soliciting their feedback.

2. A closed-ended question

3. Equipment simulators, business games, in-basket tech- nique, case studies, role-plays, and behavior modeling

4. Prepare, present, try out, and followup

5. The trainee gets a combination of classroom learning and on-the-job learning, the trainee learns a large set of skills over an extended period of time from other highly trained professionals, and the industry benefits from a consistent form of training for all its members.

Self-Check Answers66

Self-Check 7

1. Programmed instruction, intelligent tutoring systems, interactive multimedia systems, and virtual reality

2. Programmed instruction presents information and then tests the learners on their comprehension of that infor- mation. Intelligent tutoring systems present information and test the learners as well, but the tests can vary among trainees. The tests are based on the learners’ cur- rent knowledge, skills, and abilities as assessed by the system’s program.

3. Interactive multimedia systems present information using graphics, animation, sound, movies, and text. The main purpose is to present information to the trainees. Virtual reality places the trainees in a situation where they must interact with their environment. Virtual reality is used more for situational training rather than presenting information.

4. Expert knowledge base, trainee model, training session manager, scenario generator, and user interface

5. Self-paced learning means that trainees move through the training as fast as they’re able to learn the material.

Self-Check 8

1. A learning point is an important piece of information a trainee must acquire to accomplish the learning objec- tives. A learning point can be used to determine the effectiveness of the training during the training evalua- tion stage.

2. Knowledge—subject matter, adult learning process, and instructional methods. Skills—interpersonal communi- cation, active listening, questioning, providing feedback, platform skills, and organizational skills. Attitudes— commitment to the organization, commitment to helping others, and a high level of self-efficacy.

3. An icebreaker is designed to introduce the trainees, stim- ulate involvement, alleviate anxiety, create comfort, and establish a positive environment.

Self-Check Answers 67

4. Experience, lecture, processing, generalizability, and practice

5. First, address the reason he or she is angry. Have the trainee do the talking and see if others feel the same way. Then, discuss why the training is important to the indi- vidual and how it can help him or her succeed.

Self-Check 9

1. Training managers feel there’s nothing to evaluate. They feel that no one really cares about training evaluation. They feel that a negative evaluation might threaten their jobs.

2. Process data is information that’s collected about the training process as a whole. This data can be used to determine the overall quality of the training itself. Outcome data is information collected about the trainees’ change in performance. This data is used to determine if a change in behavior resulted from the training.

3. Training relevance, training material and exercises, reac- tions to the trainer, and facilities and procedures

4. Declarative knowledge is a person’s store of factual knowledge. Procedural knowledge is a person’s under- standing about how and when to apply the facts that have been learned. Strategic knowledge is a person’s awareness of what he or she knows and the internal rules that have been learned for accessing the relevant facts and procedures to be applied toward achieving some good.

5. You’ll want to ensure the change in employee behavior is worth the cost of the training. A cost/benefit evaluation determines if resources were used efficiently or not.

Self-Check Answers68

Self-Check 10

1. Orientation training can create a positive first impression for an employee, which can lead to higher performance and better morale. It can also help to instill organiza- tional values and goals in new employees. Finally, it can give new employees a basic social network early in their careers, which can help reduce the anxiety and stress of starting a new career.

2. Interviews with new employees, observation of the train- ing by the designers, and logs maintained by the trainer

3. The workplace is more diverse than ever. It’s filled with people of different genders, races, religions, and ages. Just because these people all work together doesn’t mean they’ll all get along. Diversity training can help create a cohesive workplace and more productive employees. It can also help to reduce the tension created by people who may feel uncomfortable working in a diverse workplace.

4. Quid pro quo and hostile environment

5. Personal mastery, building a shared vision, team learn- ing, systems learning, systematic problem solving, experimentation, learning from experience, learning from others, and transference of knowledge

Self-Check 11

1. Interpersonal, informational, and decisional

2. Planning and decision making, organizing, and controlling

3. Technical skills are specific to particular industries and departments. Executive and management education programs usually focus on the general skills, not the technical skills, required to be an effective manager.

4. The organization can convey its preferred approach to management better than a one-size-fits-all educational program. Managers can gain job-specific and technical

Self-Check Answers 69

skills they normally wouldn’t get at a university. The company can ensure quality instruction. The courses can be cost-effective in larger organizations.

5. Job rotation helps to develop managers because it allows them to get a better view of the “big picture” of the orga- nization by experiencing the challenges of working in different areas within the organization. It also allows managers to see how managers in other departments effectively complete their jobs.