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LING 1030: The Diversity of Languages

Morphology

Andrea Calabrese

Outline

1 Morphemes and the internal structure of words

2 Morpheme types

3 Structure & meaning: compounds and derivation

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Inflection

SIMPLE AND COMPLEX WORDS

Perestroika, Monangahela, dog, boy, bind = Simple words

Complex words: (2) a. high school, easy chair, black board, gentleman

[A + N]N b. un-wise, un-happy, un-natur-al, un-woman-ly

[un + A]A c. woman-ly, other-word-ly, heaven-ly, weather-ly

[N + ly]A d. black-ness, un-poison-ous-ness, gentlemanli-ness

[A+ness]N

The distinction between simple and complex words: Simple words =one morphological piece: Complex words=more morphological pieces

(3) [[ un [ [ [gentle]A [man]N]N li]A ]A ness]N [ anti [ [ [ dis [ establish]V ]V ment]N arian ]A ]A ism ]N

Morphemes

Morphology

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Morphological pieces=morphemes

Morphology=The study of how words are built up out of morphemes.

Morphemes

Words and morphemes

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fighters

fight + er + s

Each of these pieces introduces some information – it is meaningful

Morphemes

Words and morphemes

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The smallest meaningful or grammatical unit in word is called a morpheme.

The morpheme is the base structural unit of morphology. .

Words are made up of morphemes, both in terms of form and meaning.

Morphemes

Words and morphemes

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“fighters” fight-er-s /fajt-ər-z/

The word “fighters” consists of three morphemes: fight, -er, and -s.

Morphemes

Smallest meaningful unit

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We so far have only been talking about form.

But grammar is about more than form: it is the mechanism by which we relate form to meaning.

Meaning is now, in addition to form, starting to become relevant.

Morphemes

Smallest meaningful unit

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Part of knowing a language is knowing its morphemes.

The dictionary-like knowledge of the morphemes of a given language is its lexicon.

Each lexical entry is a morpheme, each of which individually relates a form to a meaning:

DOG = (/dOg/; a four-legged mammal . . .)

Morphemes

Features

A lexical entry (aka a lexical item) additionally contains other

information, for example about its category (part of speech).

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DOG: /dɔg/

"a four-legged mammal ..."

PHON:

SEM:

CAT: Noun

PHON – phonological properties of the lexical item (pronuncialtion)

SEM – semantic properties of the lexical item (meaning) CAT – its grammatical category (part of speech)

Morphemes

Grammatical categories (parts of speech)

What parts of speech are there? Nouns (cat, information, honesty) Verbs (come, tell, refuse) Adjectives (smart, lazy, dangerous) Adverbs (quickly, fortunately, always) Prepositions (on, under, about)

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Morpheme types

Free vs. bound morphemes

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Free morphemes can form a word on their own; their use does not depend on the presence of another morpheme.

Bound morphemes cannot occur on their own; their use does depend on the presence of another morpheme.

Morpheme types

Free vs. bound morphemes

dog -s dogs de- toxify detoxify create -ion cran- berry

creation cranberry

*I saw three s dog. *John ate two apples and a cran. *Alice had to de the water toxify.

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Morpheme types

Free vs. bound morphemes

What’s free in one language may be bound in another.

In Slave (Athabaskan), body parts must be possessed (Hare dialect):

without a possessor with a possessor */fí ‘head’ /sefí/ ‘my head’ */bé/ ‘belly’ /nebé/ ‘your belly’ */dzé/ ‘heart’ /ʔedzé/ ‘someone’s heart/a heart’

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Morpheme types

Morphological analysis

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In analyzing words into morphemes in a language we know, we often easily discover the separate parts because we can recall similar words with which to compare the words under analysis. In working with an unfamiliar language, it is necessary to have a group of similar forms to compare and from which to extract the recurring parts. To decide on a division of this form into smaller units, or even to know if such a division is possible, we have to consider other forms of the language.

MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS: 1. Collect a group of words with similar meaning. 2. Compare them. 3. Extract/segment the recurring parts.

Morpheme types

Morphological analysis: Farsi (a Western Iranian language)

xar means ‘buy’ and -id indicates past tense.

xar-id-am xar-id-i na-xar-id-am mi-xar-id-i

‘I bought’ ‘you bought’ ‘I did not buy’ ‘you (sg.) were buying’

I you not be + ing

am i na mi-

How do you say...

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(1) ‘I was buying’ – mi-xar-id-am

(2) ‘You did not buy’ – na-xar-id-i

1.ninakusikia 'I hear you' 2.ninamsikia 'I hear him' 3.ninakisikia 'I hear it' 4.ninawasikia'I hear them� 5.anakusikia 'he hears you' 6.anamsikia 'he hears him' 7.anawasikia 'he hears them' 8.anatusikia 'he hears us 9.unanisikia 'you hear me' 10.unawasikia'you hear them' 11tunakisikia 'we hear it 12.wanakusikia 'they hear you’ 13.ninakujibu 'I answer you' 14.nitakujibu 'I will answer you' 15.nimekujibu ‘I have answered you' 16.nilikujibu'I answered you' 17.unamjibu 'you answer him' 18.utamjibu 'you will answer him' 19.umemjibu 'you have answered him’ 20.ulimjibu 'you answered him’

21.mnanisikia 'you (pl.) hear me '22.mmewasikia 'you (pl.) have heard them’ 23.mtatusikia 'you (pl.) will hear us’ 24.mlikisikia 'you (pl.) heard it’ 25.ninamjua ‘I know him 26.niliwajua 'I knew them’ 27.atanisaidia ’he will help me’ 28.wamekusaidia ‘they have helped you'

Swahili (East Africa)

Morpheme types

Morphological analysis

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But we can never be absolutely certain that a given form is correct unless we learn the language as well as a native speaker knows it. There may always be irregularities for which we have not yet seen evidence.

(3) a. house – house-s b. lion – lion-s c. country – countrie-s d. etc

Morpheme types

Roots and affixes

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Roots are morphemes which determine the basic meaning of the larger word.

Affixes are morphemes bound morphemes which concatenate with a root to alter its meaning or function in a predictable way.

English ROOT AFFIX dogs dog -s chewed chew -ed

Morpheme types

Roots and affixes

A missing/wrong affix doesn’t always obscure the meaning. You can understand the following sentence:

(5) I saw three dog.

But if the root is wrong, you can’t figure out what it was supposed to mean.

(6) I saw three noks.

NOTE: The understanding-test is not a reliable test for root vs affixes. It simply shows the tendency of roots to make a heavy semantic contribution.

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Morpheme types

Roots and affixes

Roots are often free in English, but this is not always the case . . .

Spanish madera

ROOT AFFIXES mader- -a ‘wood’

comeríamos com- -e, -ría, -mos ‘we’d eat’

All words contain exactly one root, with the exception of compounds.

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Morpheme types

Affixes

Affixes may precede or follow the root.

Affixes that precede the root are prefixes.

Affixes that follow the root are suffixes.

prefixes sub-standard re-play il-legal in-accurate

suffixes faith-ful govern-ment hunt-er kind-ness

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Morpheme types

Reduplication

The phonological form of affixes need not be pre-specified

(7) The past tense suffix in English: prespecified form

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walk play ponder

walk-ed play-ed ponder-ed

(8) The future tense prefix in Tagalog: reduplicated form

bili ‘buy’ kuha ‘get’ punta ‘go’ sulat ‘write’ tawa ‘laugh’

bi-bili ‘will buy’ ku-kuha ‘will get’ pu-punta ‘will go’ su-sulat ‘will write’ ta-tawa ‘will laugh’

Morpheme types

Reduplication

Dakota (Siouan) uses reduplication as a marker of plural number hãska ‘tall (singular)’ hãska-ska ‘tall (plural)’ waʃte ‘good (singular)’ waʃte-ʃte‘good (plural)’

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blah-blah bling-bling boo-boo bye-bye choo-choo chop-chop gaga goody-goody knock-knock night-night no-no

pee-pee poo-poo rah-rah so-so ta-ta tom-tom tum-tum yada-yada yum-yum

Reduplication in English

He's just a baby! ” Baby-shmaby". He's already 5 years old!

What a sale! "Sale, schmale". I'm waiting for a larger discount.

"Whenever we go to a fancy-schmancy restaurant, we feel like James Bond."

Shm-Reduplication in English

Language shmanguage Apple, shmapple Bagel, shmagel

Breakfast, shmreakfast or Breakfast, shmeakfast

Broom, shmoom or Broom, shmroom

Floss, shmoss Or Floss, shmloss

Obscene, shmobscene" or Obscene, obshmene

Confusion, shmonfusion or

Confusion, conshmusion

Nevins, A. and B.Vaux. "Metalinguistic, Shmetalinguistic: The phonology of shm-reduplication". Proceedings of the Chicago Linguistics Society,l 2003

Shm-Reduplication in English

Morpheme types

Other types of affixes

prefixes: prefix-root suffixes: root-suffix circumfixes: circum+root+fix infixes: ro-infix-ot

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Morpheme types

Circumfixes

Circumfixes are attached on both ends of a root.

German spielen, ‘to play’, with root spiel. The past participle is gespielt, ‘played’.

Thus we say that there is a circumfix ge- -t.

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ROOT CIRCUMFIX PAST PARTICIPLE

spiel ge- -t ge-spiel-t

Morpheme types

Infixes

Affixes may also occur within another morpheme. This is known as infixation, and such affixes are called infixes.

base bili

Infixation in Tagalog (Austronesian):

infix ‘buy’ b-in-ili ‘bought’

basa sulat

‘read’ b-in-asa ‘read’ ‘write’ s-in-ulat ‘wrote’

The infix can’t appear just anywhere inside the root: *sul-in-at What’s the rule? → -in- is added after the first consonant

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Morpheme types

Expletive infixation

Is there infixation in English?

English expletive infixation:

together enough Kalamazoo absolutely fantastic unbelievable unbelievable

to-bloody-gether e-bloody-nough Kalama-goddam-zoo abso-goddam-lutely fan-fuckn’-tastic un-fuckn’-believable unbe-fuckn’-lievable

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Morpheme types

Another English infix

Homeric infixation! PLAY

violin tuba oboe saxophone

vio-ma-lin tuba-ma-ba oba-ma-boe saxo-ma-phone

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Chamorro nalang �hungry�nalalang �very hungry� dankolo �big� dankololo �very big� metgot �strong� metgogot�very strong� bunita �pretty� bunitata �very pretty�

REDUPLICATIVE INFIXES

II. RESYLLABIFICATION: The Semitic binyans.

Arabic root /ktb/ katab �write� perfective active kutib 'was written� perfective passive aktub 'is writing� imperfective active uktab 'was being written� imperfective passive

Consonantal roots: /ktb/ represents the verb �write� , /kb/�lie’, /drb/ �beat� etc.

http://lingclub.mycpanel.princeton.edu/challenge/puzzles.php

Non-concatenative morphology

http://lingclub.mycpanel.princeton.edu/challenge/puzzles.php

Singular Plural jundab janaadib �locust� sultaan salaatiin ‘sultan� duktar dakaatir �doktor� safarjal safaarij �quince� maktab makaatib �office� miftaah mafaatiih �key� nuwar nawaawir �white flower� ¿andaliib ¿anaadil �nightingale�

Broken plurals in Arabic

Morpheme types

The meanings of morphemes

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The forms of morphemes combine to form wods by concatenation (prefixes, suffixes), infixation (and others: reduplication, . . .).

But how do we combine their meanings?

We’ll look at this question by examining compounds.

Structure & meaning

Compounds

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Compounds are words containing at least two root morphemes, e.g. firetruck.

This is a case of a noun-noun compound; two nouns are combined to form a single word.

Sometimes noun compounds are spelled as two words, like ice cream or senate committee, but this doesn’t have any linguistic significance.

Structure & meaning

Compounds

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Every compound has a head, the morpheme which determines the basic

meaning compound.

a firetruck is a truck (not a fire)

bus lane is a lane (not a bus)

In English we have the Right Hand Head Rule—the element on the right of a

compound is the head: firetruck, bus lane, senate committee.

Structure & meaning

Productivity in compounds

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Compounds are very productive in Germanic languages: a compound is itself a word, which can be part of a larger compound.

labor union finance committee labor union committee labor union finance committee labor union finance committee president labor union finance committee president election labor union finance committee president election fraud

Structure & meaning

The longest Dutch word . . .

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. . . according to the 1996 Guinnes Book of WorldRecords:

kindercarnavalsoptochtvoorbereidingswerkzaamhedenplan

kinder ‘children’ carnaval ‘carnival’ optocht ‘procession’

voorbereiding ‘preparation’ werkzaamheden ‘activities’ plan ‘plan’

‘plan for activities of preparation for a procession of a children’s carnival’

Structure & meaning

Compounds

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das Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz Rind ’beef, cattle’ Fleisch ’meat, flesh’ Etikett ’label’ Etikettierung ’labelling’ über ’over’ wach ’awake’

überwachung ’control, monitoring’ Aufgaben ’responsibilities’ tragen ’to carry’ übertragung ’transfer’ Gesetz ’law’

the meaning of the whole word is composed of the meanigns of its parts

Structure & meaning

Compound ambiguity

The Times: “appalling waste of a perfectly decent title” 33/74

Structure & meaning

Interim summary

Words can have an internal structure fighters = fight+er+s Components of a words are called morphemes A morphemes is the smallest meaningful unit of language Morphemes can be bound or free Morpheme types: affixes (suffixes, prefixes, circumfixes, infixes) and roots Compounds are special in that they can contain more than one root. How exactly is the meaning of words derived from its pieces?

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Structure & meaning

Compound ambiguity

Lesbian Vampire Killers

The compound lesbian vampire killer is ambiguous:

person who is a killer, and a vampire, and a lesbian a killer of lesbian vampires a killer of vampires who is also a lesbian *a killer of lesbians who is also a vampire

Structural ambiguity: differences in meaning explainable as differences in internal structure.

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Structure & meaning

killer/lesbian/vampire

This interpretation can be analyzed as having a flat structure.

To indicate this kind of structure we use tree diagrams:

N N N lesbian vampire killer

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Structure & meaning

killer of lesbian vampires

The second interpretation is not flat, it’s hierarchical:

N killer

N N lesbian vampire

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Structure & meaning

vampire killer who is a lesbian

The third interpretation is also hierarchical:

N N vampire killer

N lesbian

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Structure & meaning

The impossible interpretation

The structural account is supported by the fact that it predicts that one combination of meanings should be impossible.

N N N lesbian vampire killer

N N vampire killer

N lesbian

N killer

N N lesbian vampire

An impossible meaning: a lesbian killer who is a vampire

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Structure & meaning

Back to the movie

By the way, the movie is about killers of lesbian vampires.

N killer

N N lesbian vampire

Don’t watch it. It looks very, very bad.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IEY4dYfRBqM

Structure & meaning

More compound ambiguity

N committee

N N senate election

senate election committee

N N election committee

N senate

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Structure & meaning

Back to affixes

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Affixation is also structural.

In order to understand how, we have to consider a particular kind of affixation: derivational affixation.

Derivational affixes alter the meaning and/or grammatical category of whatever they combine with.

Structure & meaning

Back to affixes

happy adjective happiness noun unhappy adjective

So -ness is a deadjectival nominalizer—i.e. it turns adjectives into nouns.

un- combines with adjectives to form new adjectives with the opposite meaning.

By adding derivational affixes, we derive a new meaning and/or category.

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Structure & meaning

Trees strike again

Affixation is also represented with trees:

A Af happy -ness

Af A un- happy

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Structure & meaning

Trees strike again

Can un-happi-ness have a flat structure?

Af A Af un- happy -ness

Problem: both affixes determine the category of the new complex word un- attaches to Adj and creates a new Adj ness- attaches to Adj and creates a Noun

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Structure & meaning

A Af happy -ness

Af un-

In order to correctly assign category to the new complex word, each affix has to attach separately This will give rise to a hierarchical structure

But two hierarchical structures are possible

Structure 1 Structure 2

Af -ness

Af A un- happy

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Structure & meaning

Structure 1

NAf un-

A Af happy -ness

incorrect

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Structure & meaning

Structure 2

Af -ness

Af A un- happy

correct

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Structure & meaning

Help-less-ness

Af -ness

A N Af Af help -less -ness

N Af help -less

The flat structure cannot correctly predict the category of the whole word

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Structure & meaning

Morphological selection

Affixes are not freely combinable:

(9) a. seren-ity, *shop-ity, *proverb-ity, *machin-ity b. regular-ize, scandal-ize, *usurp-ize, *develop-ize

REASON:

-ity is added to adjectives, but not to nouns or verbs -ize is added to adjectives and nouns, but not to verbs

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Structure & meaning

Other derivational morphology

Affixes that attach to adjectives ity: creative; creativ-ity ness: happy; happy-ness ify: humid; humid-ify ty: certain; certain-ty ist: special; special-ist ship: hard; hard-ship ism: social; social-ism un: happy; un-happy in: competent; in-competent im: precise; im-precise

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Structure & meaning

Other derivational morphology

Affixes that attach to nouns ize: scandal; scandal-ize less: help; help-less hood: brother; brother-hood ing: will; will-ing

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Structure & meaning

Other derivational morphology

Affixes that attach to verbs (a)tion: expect; expect-ation ment: abandon; abandon-ment er: write; write-er ee: employ; employ-ee un: ; pack; un-pack re: read; re-read dis: assemble; dis-assemble de: code; de-code

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Structure & meaning

Morphological selection and internal structure of words

What’s the structure of re-adjust-ment?

V Af adjust -ment

Af re-

Af -ment

Af V re- adjust

The structure on the right is correct: re- attaches to verbs, but not nouns

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Structure & meaning

Morphological selection and internal structure of words What’s the structure of de-humid-ify?

A Af humid -ify

Af de-

Af -ify

Af A de- humid

The structure on the left is correct: de- attaches to verbs, but not adjectives

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Structure & meaning

Morphological selection and internal structure of words What’s the structure of un-will-ing?

N Af will -ing

Af un-

Af -ing

Af N un- will

The structure on the left is correct: un- attaches to adjectives, but not nouns

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Inflection

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Affixes can be derivational or inflectional.

Inflectional morphemes don’t change the basic category or meaning of the element they combine with.

Inflection

Inflection & context

Inflection is often triggered by an outside element:

John is watching a movie. John is watch-ing a movie

John has watched a movie. John has watch-ed a movie

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Inflection

Inflection & syntax

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Understanding inflection requires an understanding of the surrounding words.

How words relate to one another in a sentence is the domain of syntax.

Morphology and syntax are highly intertwined.

Inflection

Agreement

The tight relation between inflection and syntax is clear in subject-verb agreement:

I run 5 miles every day. She runs 5 miles every day. They run 5 miles every day.

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Inflection

Back to the feature

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We need a way to represent the differences between I, she and they that are relevant for agreement: inflectional features.

I: 1st person sg number she: 3rd person

sg number they: 3rd person pl number

Inflection

A (partial) list of inflectional features

Tense (present, past, future) Person, number and gender/noun class (φ-features) Case (nominative, accusative, dative etc) Aspect (perfective, imperfective, progressive) Voice (active, passtive) others...

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Inflection

Person and number in English

singular plural 1st I we 2nd you you 3rd he/she/it they

Some languages make more distinctions than English

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Inflection

Number in Yupik (Central Alaskan)

Singular

YupikNouns

Dual Plural tafsi-t ‘belts’

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tafsi ‘belt’ tafsi-k ‘belts’ tuma ‘trail’ tum-k ‘trails’ yuk ‘person’ yug-k ‘people’

tum-t ‘trails’ yug-t ‘people’

Inflection

1st person inclusive and exclusive

The pronoun "I" in English always refers to the speaker

The pronoun "we" in English is ambiguous: we= me + you we= me + you + some other people we= me + some other people (but not you)

Some languages have different pronouns for the "we" that includes the hearer (you) and the "we" that doesn’t.

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Inflection

Clusivity distinctions in Palaung (Burma, Austroasiatic)

First person plural can be

inclusive (includes the hearer) exclusive (does not include the hearer)

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(10) a. b.

ar ’you and I’ yar ’me and some other person (not including hearer)

(11) a. b.

E ’we (three or more, including hearer)? yE ’we (three or more, not including hearer)?

Inflection

Gender and noun class

While many Indo-European language make grammatical gender

distinctions such as feminine, masculine, neuter Many languages have a much richer gender-like system – a noun-class

system

Example of noun classes in Ndebele (Zimbabwe, Bantu)

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(12) Class 1 (13) Class 9 (14) Class 7

a. u-muntu a. i-nyama a. isi-hlahla

‘person’ ‘meat’ ’tree’

b. u-bhudi b. i-nja ‘dog’ b. isi-lwane

‘brother’ c. i-ncwadi ‘lion’

c. u-mfazi ‘book’ c. isi-kolo

‘woman’ ‘school’