Preliminary Area of Focus. [WLO: 3][CLO: 1, 5]
3 Deciding on an Area of Focus
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
1. 3.1 Select an appropriate area of focus.
2. 3.2 Do reconnaissance.
3. 3.3 Write an action plan to guide your work.
This chapter provides guidelines for clarifying a general idea and an area of focus for action research efforts. This chapter also describeshow to create an action research plan.
Interactive Teen Theater
Cathy Mitchell
Cathy Mitchell is a substitute teacher who also works with teen theater companies. Her story helps us to see how serendipity canplay a role in developing an area of focus. At the beginning of the action research process, Cathy was unsure of her area of focus. Asthe result of an unexpected “intervention” to her teen theater production, however, when an actor did not turn up for aperformance, Cathy decided to systematically investigate the effects of improvisation on audience participation.
For the past 10 years, I have directed peer education teen theaters. These companies create and perform original plays based on companymembers’ experiences and ideas. The plays are collections of dramatic scenes, comic sketches, and songs; the topics are current issues ofconcern to young people, including self-esteem, substance abuse, teen pregnancy, love versus lust, violence, family relationships, andsexually transmitted diseases. We tour extensively, performing for high schools and middle schools as well as at juvenile detention facilities.
Although the company is generally very well received, I have felt that there is something stale in the actor/audience relationship. Theaudience sits attentively, laughs in recognition, and enjoys the variety in their class day but remains essentially passive. Question sessionsafter the show, initially planned to generate discussion about important topics, frequently degenerated into boring adulation questions,such as “How long have you been rehearsing this?” or “Do you want to be an actor when you grow up?”
Two years ago, a few actors had to miss a performance. When we arrived at the high school at which we were scheduled to perform, werealized the opening scene had two small roles that we could not eliminate but didn’t have enough actors to fill. I asked two children fromthe audience to volunteer and taught them their lines backstage while the rest of the scene was going on, and they walked on stage andfinished the scene. The audience was instantly galvanized. Even with this very small change, we had broken the division between actor andaudience.
Thus began my experience with interactive theater. For me, this has meant bringing some of the improvisation techniques that we use todevelop material during rehearsals onto the stage and inviting the audience to participate in limited ways. I found that involving theaudience changed the dynamics from those of a passive spectator sport to those of a more participatory dialogue.
Through my research, I have arrived at a working description for interactive theater: A short scene is played by workshop actors. Theaudience is asked to look for opportunities to improve the resolution. The scene is played again, and any time anyone wants to interveneand take any character’s place to show a better way of handling the situation, they just shout “Stop!” and take over the role. One scene maybe played many times. Often no closure is evident, and the scene ends in unresolved issues and heightened emotions. The actors andaudience then discuss the issues generated by the scene.
The purpose of my study was to determine how audience interaction with the actors in teen theater productions affected their ability toidentify issues and transfer learnings into similar problems in their lives. For example, in the current production of Duct Tape Theater, acompany I direct, there is a well-written scene called “Sticks and Stones,” which is a collage containing poetry, a song, short monologues, andscenes. It lasts about 20 minutes and confronts issues of prejudice, discrimination, and violence. I decided, as my intervention, to replacethis scene with an interactive theater piece developed with the audience. For three performances, we included “Sticks and Stones” (mycontrol groups), and for three other performances, we included what became known as the “Violence Improv” audience interaction scene.This gave us six audiences: three control groups and three interactive groups.
Some of my methods of data collection for this project—my personal journal and the actors’ journals, which are required for actorsreceiving credit for the class—were already in place. I also asked each teacher to write me a letter commenting on what they observedduring the performance. None of these gave me the data I really wanted but which was most difficult to collect—data from the audience. Idecided to have my acting company develop this data collection source with me. The actors and I developed a questionnaire to be filled outdirectly after the performance and a group interview technique that involved three company members meeting with a small group ofaudience members for about 15 minutes. The goal was to generate as many responses as possible to the scenes about teen violence andharassment. One actor served as the interviewer, one served as the scribe, and one kept a running tally of comments and responses.
The data showed four clear themes:
1. The audience clearly judged the performance containing the “Violence Improv” as more relevant to their lives than the controlperformance of “Sticks and Stones.”
2. More individuals participated in discussing the issues of violence and harassment, with more overall comments and more commentsthat were considered “right on.” This data showed that more audience members were able to both identify issues in the performanceand relate these issues to their own lives.
3. The clearest negative response was that the interactive piece made the performance feel “rushed.” These data told me that theinteractive material threw off the timing of the show. I often wrote in my own journal that I felt exhausted at the end of performances,and teachers wrote to me that we were running into break time and past the end of the period “trying to squeeze everything in.”
4. The biggest letdown to me was that there wasn’t any significant increase in the number of different issues identified or solutionssuggested between the two audiences. Even though the interactive improvisation generated more answers and much moreparticipation, the issues and solutions were pretty much the same.
My action research project confirmed to me that my methods for making teen theater work more meaningful are on the right track. It alsobecame clear, however, that the format I am using is not the best one. I plan to continue working with the teen theater groups, to modify theformat I have used in the past, and to monitor the effects of the changes on participants’ transfer of learning to their real lives. For me, thisis critical work, and the most important result of this project is that I feel renewed energy for my work. Last year at this time, I was busilyseeking a replacement for myself and announcing to everyone that I wasn’t going to direct teens anymore. I didn’t even consider that Icould examine the problem, address it, and remedy it. It feels really good to expect something to happen in my working life as a result of myown research and reflection.
Not everyone comes to an action research setting with an area of focus in mind. In fact, many teachers initially resist participating in theprocess. It is not uncommon for teachers and administrators to skeptically claim, “I’m only here because I have to be: No action research—no teaching/administrator license!” In this teen theater example, the “intervention” and “area of focus” emerged quite unexpectedly andled to some important understandings about how to increase audience understanding and participation.
We’ll assume, then, that you haven’t identified an area of focus. However, you probably do have several interests and concerns: perhapsyour content area, a self-contained special education classroom, an at-risk program, an alternative education program, a multigradeclassroom, a single fourth-grade classroom, a reading specialist program, a block-scheduled team teaching program, or even a one-roomschoolhouse, to name a few!
Every teacher and administrator who undertakes an action research project starts at the same place: making explicit a question or problemto investigate or defining an area of focus. Finding an area of focus can be hard work if your action research inquiry is going to be engagingand meaningful for you. Taking time in the beginning to ensure that your topic is important—for you—is a critical step in the actionresearch process. No one should tell you what your area of focus is or ought to be. The following guidelines can help you focus yourresearch question.
3.1 Clarifying a General Idea and an Area of Focus
In the beginning of the action research process, you need to clarify the general idea that will be the area of focus. The general idea is astatement that links an idea to an action and refers to a situation one wishes to change or improve on (Elliott, 1991). Here are someexamples, phrased in the form of a statement based on an observation and followed by a question about how the situation could beimproved:
· Statement/Observation: Students do not seem to be engaged during teen theater productions.
· Question: How can I improve their engagement?
· Statement/Observation: Students take a lot of time to learn problem solving in mathematics, but this process doesn’t appear to transferto their acquisition of other mathematics skills and knowledge.
· Question: How can I improve the integration and transfer of problem-solving skills in mathematics?
· Statement/Observation: Parents are unhappy with regular parent-teacher conferences.
· Question: How can I improve the conferencing process using student-led conferences?
Taking time in the beginning of the action research process to identify what you feel passionate about is critical. For some, this will be arelatively short activity—you may have come to an action research setting with a clear sense of a student-centered, teacher-centered, orparent-driven area of focus. For others, gaining a sense of the general idea will be more problematic. Don’t rush it. Take time to talk tocolleagues, reflect on your daily classroom life, and carefully consider what nags at you when you prepare for work every day.
Voices from the Field Clarifying a General Idea and an Area of Focus: Video 1
This teacher researcher based his area of focus on observations of his classroom. Specifically, the teacher noticed a general lack ofstudent engagement and motivation. These observations led the teacher researcher to a working hypothesis about the relationshipbetween students’ perceived lack of control over their education and corresponding levels of engagement and motivation. The next stepfor the teacher researcher would be to develop a research question related to this general idea about student engagement andmotivation. For example, how can I improve student engagement and motivation? This area of focus in clearly within the teacher’s locusof control and is something he is passionate about.
Voices from the Field Clarifying a General Idea and an Area of Focus: Video 2
Based on this teacher researcher’s observations of her classroom, a general idea for an area of focus emerged related to the generalclassroom “atmosphere.” Further, this teacher researcher focused on the role of formative assessments in classroom morale, summativeassessment scores, and the general classroom climate. A next step for this teacher researcher would be to develop research questions,such as “How do formative assessments affect classroom climate?” This area of focus is in the teacher’s locus of control and is somethingshe is willing to improve on.
Criteria for Selecting a General Idea/Area of Focus
There are some important criteria you should keep in mind while identifying your general idea and subsequent area of focus (Creswell,2014; Elliott, 1991; Sagor, 2000):
· The area of focus should involve teaching and learning and should focus on your own practice.
· The area of focus is something within your locus of control.
· The area of focus is something you feel passionate about.
· The area of focus is something you would like to change or improve.
Applying these criteria early in the process will keep you on track during the early stages of the action research process. They will alsoremind you of the vital and dynamic dimensions of action research—that it is important work done by teacher researchers for themselvesand their students, the results of which will ultimately improve student outcomes. (See Research in Action Checklist 3–1.)
Research in Action Checklist 3–1
Identifying Your Area of Focus
Is your area of focus an issue that
· _________Involves teaching and learning?
· _________Is within your locus of control?
· _________You feel passionate about?
· _________You would like to change or improve?
Voices from the Field Criteria for Selecting a General Idea and an Area of Focus
This teacher researcher is interested in the integration of technology into teaching and learning but based on classroom observations issurprised to find that the 10 computers in the classroom are not being used by the teacher or the students. As a result, this teacherresearcher is searching for research-based computer practices that she can implement with her students and to better understand theeffect of computer use on student achievement.
3.2 Reconnaissance
The next important step in the action research process is reconnaissance, or preliminary information gathering. More specifically,reconnaissance is taking time to reflect on your own beliefs and to understand the nature and context of your general idea. Doingreconnaissance takes three forms: self-reflection, description, and explanation.
Gaining Insight into Your Area of Focus Through Self-Reflection
First, try to explore your own understanding of the following:
· The theories that impact your practice
· The educational values you hold
· How your work in schools fits into the larger context of schooling and society
· The historical contexts of your school and schooling and how things got to be the way they are
· The historical contexts of how you arrived at your beliefs about teaching and learning (Kemmis, 1988)
If your general idea for your action research inquiry is the question “How can I improve the integration and transfer of problem-solvingskills in mathematics?,” you might think about the following:
· Based on my experience teaching mathematics and my reading of the subject, I have been influenced by Van de Walle’s (2003) theoryabout teaching and learning mathematics developmentally. In particular, the goal of mathematics is relational understanding, which is theconnection between conceptual and procedural knowledge in mathematics. This theory of mathematics directly affects the ways in whichI think about teaching mathematics to my students.
· I hold the educational value that children ought to be able to transfer problem-solving skills to other areas of mathematics as well as tolife outside of school. That is, I am committed to relevancy of curriculum.
· I believe that mathematical problem solving—and problem solving in general—fits the larger context of schooling and society byproviding children with critical lifelong learning skills that can be transferred to all aspects of their life.
· The historical context of mathematics teaching suggests a rote method of memorizing facts and algorithms. Although this approach toteaching mathematics worked for me (as a child and young teacher), it no longer suffices as a teaching method today.
· The historical context of how I came to believe in the importance of changing how I teach mathematics to children has grown out of myown frustration with knowing what to do to solve a problem but not knowing why I need to use a particular approach or algorithm.
· Given this self-reflection on an area of focus related to the integration and transfer of problem-solving skills in mathematics, I can nowbetter understand the problem before I implement an intervention that addresses my concern for how to best teach a relevant problem-solving curriculum.
This is part of the “mind work” or “mental gymnastics” of action research. It is not an activity that will immediately produce new and excitingcurricula and/or teaching materials—things that may follow later in the process when you become clearer about an intervention.
Gaining Insight into Your Area of Focus Through Descriptive Activities
Next, try to describe as fully as possible the situation you want to change or improve by focusing on who, what, when, where, and how.Grappling with these questions not only will clarify the focus area for your action research efforts but also will prevent you from movingahead with an investigation that was too murky to begin with. For example, at this stage, you might answer these questions:
· What evidence do you have that this issue (the problem-solving skills of math students) is a problem?
· Which students are not able to transfer problem-solving skills to other mathematics tasks?
· How is problem solving presently taught?
· How often is problem solving taught?
· What is the ratio of time spent teaching problem solving to time spent teaching other mathematics skills?
Gaining Insight into Your Area of Focus Through Explanatory Activities
Once you’ve adequately described the situation you intend to investigate, try to explain it. Focus on the why. Can you account for the criticalfactors that have an impact on the general idea? In essence, this is the step in which you develop a hypothesis stating the expectedrelationships between variables in your study (Elliott, 1991).
In this case, you might hypothesize that students are struggling with the transfer of problem-solving skills to other mathematics tasksbecause they are not getting enough practice, they lack fundamental basic math skills, or they have not had sufficient opportunity to usemath manipulatives. Given these possible explanations for why children have not been successfully transferring problem-solving skills toother areas of mathematics, you might develop the following hypotheses:
· A relationship exists between a mathematics curriculum that emphasizes the children’s ability to know what to do and why to do it andchildren’s abilities to transfer problem-solving skills.
· A relationship exists between a mathematics curriculum that emphasizes the use of manipulatives (to help children create meaning) andchildren’s abilities to transfer problem-solving skills.
These reconnaissance activities (self-reflection, description, and explanation) help teacher researchers clarify what they already knowabout the proposed focus of the study; what they believe to be true about the relationships of the factors, variables, and contexts that makeup their work environment; and what they believe can improve the situation. Research in Action Checklist 3–2 summarizes the criticalactivities for reconnaissance that you should perform at this point in the action research process.
Research in Action Checklist 3–2
Critical Activities for Doing Reconnaissance
Self-Reflection:
· _________Reflect on your area of focus in light of your values and beliefs; your understandings about the relationships among theory,practice, school, and society; how things got to be the way they are; and what you believe about teaching and learning.
Description:
· _________Describe the situation you wish to change or improve.
· _________Describe the evidence you have that the area of focus is a problem.
· _________Identify the critical factors that affect your area of focus.
Explanation:
· _________Explain the situation you intend to investigate by hypothesizing how and why the critical factors you’ve identified affect thatsituation.
3.3 The Action Research Plan
Ideally, your investment of time and energy in the reconnaissance and literature review stages will allow you to synthesize the relatedliterature so that you can see your project more clearly. In addition, it may have helped you identify promising practices that can become anintegral part of your ongoing action research efforts.
At this stage of the action research process, you should create an action plan. An action plan summarizes your action research thoughts in aplan that will guide you through your action research work and includes the following nine steps (Elliott, 1991; Kemmis, 1988):
1. Write an area-of-focus statement.
2. Define the variables.
3. Develop research questions.
4. Describe the intervention or innovations.
5. Describe the membership of the action research group.
6. Describe negotiations that need to be undertaken.
7. Develop a time line.
8. Develop a statement of resources.
9. Develop data collection ideas.
Write an Area-of-Focus Statement
An area of focus identifies the purpose of your study. To start, write a statement that completes the following sentence: “The purpose of thisstudy is to . . .” For example:
· The purpose of this study is to describe the effects of an integrated problem-solving mathematics curriculum on student transfer ofproblem-solving skills and the retention of basic math facts and functions.
· The purpose of this study is to describe the impact of bringing audience members into an interactive relationship with teen theaterproductions on participants’ abilities to identify issues and incorporate solutions to similar problems in their own lives.
· The purpose of this study is to describe the effects of student-led conferences on parent and student satisfaction with the conferencingprocess.
Define the Variables
As part of the area-of-focus statement construction process, write definitions of what you will focus on in the study. These definitionsshould accurately represent what the factors, contexts, and variables mean to you. A variable is a characteristic of your study that is subjectto change. That is, it might be the way you are going to change how you teach, the curriculum you use, and student outcomes. Definitionsmay also emerge from the literature, but it is important that you own whatever you are defining and communicate that ownership withothers. In the preceding examples, the researchers would define what they mean by transfer of solutions to life’s situations, an integratedproblem-solving curriculum, transfer of problem-solving skills, the retention of math facts and functions, interactive participation in teentheater, student-led conferences, and parent and student satisfaction with the conferencing processes. If you are clear about what you areexamining, it will be easy to determine how you will know it when you see it! That is, your data collection ideas will flow more freely, andthere will be no confusion when you communicate with your action research collaborators about your purpose.
Voices from the Field Defining the Variables
In a collaborative action research project, this teacher researcher worked with colleagues to assist in the data collection process. In sodoing, Jureen needed to operationally define the variables in her study: terms such as “off-task behavior” and “engagement” needed tobe defined in order to ensure validity and reliability in the data collection process. All participants needed to agree on the definitions inorder for consistent and trustworthy observations to be conducted by multiple participants in the study.
Develop Research Questions
Develop questions that breathe life into the area-of-focus statement and help provide a focus for your data collection plan. These questionswill also help you validate that you have a workable way to proceed with your investigation. For example:
· What is the effect of teen theater audience participation strategies on audience comprehension of issues?
· How does the “Violence Improv” affect the audience’s understanding of the issues of violence and harassment?
· What is the effect of incorporating math manipulatives into problem-solving activities on student performance on open-ended problem-solving tests?
· In what ways do students transfer problem-solving skills to other areas of mathematics?
· How do students incorporate problem-solving skills into other curriculum areas?
· How do students transfer problem-solving skills to their life outside of school?
Describe the Intervention or Innovation
Describe what you are going to do to improve the situation you have described; for example, “I will implement a standards-based,integrated problem-solving mathematics curriculum,” “I will include audience improvisation as part of the teen theater performances Idirect,” and “I will incorporate student participation in student-parent-teacher conferences.” Remember, this is simply a statement aboutwhat you will do in your classroom or school to address the teaching/learning issue you have identified.
Voices from the Field Develop Research Questions (Video 1)
In this vignette, the teacher researcher describes her desire to evaluate the basal readers being used in the district and to determine ifthey constitute a “gender-biased” reading program. This raises the question of whether this study meets the tenets of action research:involves teaching and learning, in the teacher’s locus of control, displays passion for, and is willing to change or improve. It could beargued that a district-mandated curriculum in not in the teacher’s locus of control; however, if the teacher is aware of gender-biasedmessages in the required curriculum, a targeted effort could be made to eliminate or counter the messages. Jeannette is clearlypassionate about this area of focus, and, depending on what her analysis of the basal readers reveals, she would be able to pose specificaction research questions related to the perceived gender-biased basal readers.
Voices from the Field Develop Research Questions (Video 2)
In this vignette, the teacher researcher outlines a number of possible research questions that evolved from his classroom observations.However, not all of these questions “breathe life” in the area of focus. For example, “What does an unmotivated student look like?” couldbe answered by defining the term “unmotivated” through a review of related literature. Similarly, Doug could easily identify “currentoptions for freshmen” by looking at the school’s master schedule. The other questions described by Doug form the basis for his actionresearch project and suggest data collection strategies that can be developed.
Describe the Membership of the Action Research Group
Describe the membership of your action research group and discuss why its members are important. Will you be working with a sitecouncil team? A parent group? If so, what will be the roles and responsibilities of the group’s participants? For example:
I will be working with seven other high school math teachers who are all members of the math department. Although we all havedifferent teaching responsibilities within the department, as a group we have decided on problem solving as an area of focus for thedepartment. Each of us will be responsible for implementing curriculum and teaching strategies that reflect the new emphasis onproblem solving and for collecting the kinds of data that we decide will help us monitor the effects of our teaching. The departmentchair will be responsible for keeping the principal informed about our work and securing any necessary resources we need tocomplete the research. The chair will also write a description of our work to be included in the school newsletter (sent home to allparents), thus informing children and parents of our focus for the year.
Voices from the Field Describe the Membership of the Action Research Group
This teacher researcher describes her action research group as a group that was “already chosen for me.” In a sense, this is true for allaction researchers: members of our action research group are the children we teach. However, the group can be expanded to includecolleagues with whom we work and to involve them in the action research process. In Jureen’s example, she included her cooperatingteacher, educational assistant, and computer lab assistant in the action research group.
Describe Negotiations That Need to Be Undertaken
Describe any negotiations that you will have to undertake with others before implementing your plan. Do you need permission from anadministrator? Parents? Students? Colleagues? All this assumes that you control the focus of the study and that you undertake the processof negotiation to head off any potential obstacles to implementation of the action plan. It is very frustrating to get immersed in the actionresearch process only to have the project quashed by uncooperative colleagues or administrators.
Develop a Time Line
In developing a time line, you will need to decide who will be doing what and when. Although not part of a time line in the strictest sense,you can also use this stage to anticipate where and how your inquiry will take place. For example:
· Phase 1 (August–October). Identify area of focus, review related literature, develop research questions, reconnaissance.
· Phase 2 (November–December). Collect initial data. Analyze video recordings of lessons, do first interviews with children, administerfirst problem-solving probe.
· Phase 3 (January–May). Modify curriculum and instruction as necessary. Continue ongoing data collection. Schedule two team meetingsto discuss early analysis of data.
· Phase 4 (May–June). Review statewide assessment test data and complete analysis of all data. Develop presentation for faculty. Scheduleteam meeting to discuss and plan action based on the findings of the study. Assign tasks to be completed prior to year 2 of the study.
Voices from the Field Describe Negotiations That Need to Be Undertaken
In this vignette, Rachelle (a student teacher at the school) was teaching multiple sections of Spanish 1 and Spanish 2 and was workingwith multiple cooperating teachers. Given this context, it would be critical that Rachelle negotiate informed consent with all of theparticipants in the study (teachers, students, and parents) prior to starting her research. This is easily done using cover letters to eachgroup to clearly explain the purpose of the study and how the data will be used to positively impact student outcomes.
Develop a Statement of Resources
Briefly describe what resources you will need to enact your plan. This is akin to listing materials in a lesson plan. There is nothing worsethan starting to teach and finding that you don’t have all the manipulatives you need to achieve your objectives. For example, to participatein the study of math problem-solving skills, the team determines that it will need teacher release time for planning the project, reviewingrelated literature, and completing other tasks; funds to purchase classroom sets of manipulatives; and a small budget for copying andprinting curriculum materials. After all, there is no sense in developing a study that investigates the impact of a new math problem-solvingcurriculum if you don’t have the financial resources to purchase the curriculum.
Develop Data Collection Ideas
Give a preliminary statement of the kinds of data that you think will provide evidence for your reflections on the general idea you areinvestigating. For example, brainstorm about the kind of intuitive, naturally occurring data that you find in your classroom or school, suchas test scores, attendance records, portfolios, and anecdotal records. As you learn more about other types of data that can be collected, thislist will grow. In the early stages, however, you should think about what you already have easy access to and then be prepared tosupplement it with interviews, surveys, questionnaires, video and audio recordings, maps, photos, and observations as the area of focusdictates.
These activities can be undertaken whether you are working individually, in a small group, or as part of a schoolwide action research effort.The resolution of these issues early in the action research process will ensure that you do not waste valuable time backtracking (or evenapologizing) once you are well down the action research path. The process of developing an action plan is summarized in the Research inAction Checklist 3–3.
Research in Action Checklist 3–3
Developing an Action Plan
· _________Write an area-of-focus statement.
· _________Define the variables.
· _________Develop research questions.
· _________Describe the intervention or innovation.
· _________Describe the membership of the action research group.
· _________Describe negotiations that need to be undertaken.
· _________Develop a time line.
· _________Develop a statement of resources.
· _________Develop data collection ideas.
Put the Action Plan into Action
Kemmis (1988) provides the following conclusion to the process of developing a plan:
Your plan orients you for action, of course; but it is also a reference point for reflection later on, and it is something which you canmodify and develop in later plans. Since you have done so much hard thinking to put your plan together, don’t skimp when it comes todrafting and redrafting it before you go into action. It represents the fruits of one round of reconnaissance and thinking ahead—itprovides you with a benchmark for later reflection and replanning. (p. 77)
With the plan complete, it’s time to determine what information (data) you can collect that will increase your understanding about yourown practice and its impact on your students. You are now ready to decide how you will monitor the effects of the innovation orintervention you are going to implement and to develop your data collection techniques.