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Criminal Behavior: A Psychological Approach

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 3

Origins of Criminal Behavior: Biological/ Neurological Factors

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Neuropsychology and Behavior

Neuropsychological deficits, in combination with a variety of risk factors, are often found in antisocial or criminal offenders, especially persistent, serious, violent ones

Table 3.1 Definitions and Features of Neuropsychological Factors (1 of 2)

Blank	Definition	Features	Example
Self-regulation	Capacity to control and alter one’s behavior and emotions	Develops early, first emerging around age 2 Some genetic and neurological influences Chiefly learned through socialization	Child or adult avoids temper tantrums when things do not go his or her way Adolescent refuses illegal drug offered at a party
Executive function	Higher level of cognitive functioning that plans behavior and executes goals	Neurologically based Dependent on growth in prefrontal cortex Reaches full maturity around age 25 Deficits from malnutrition, toxins Involves working memory, attention, response inhibition	Middle-schooler completes homework assignments and studies for tests College student juggles studying, socializing, and working to fund her education

Table 3.1 Definitions and Features of Neuropsychological Factors (2 of 2)

Blank	Definition	Features	Example
Neuroplasticity	Brain’s ability to change throughout the life span	Especially a feature of young brains Still a feature of adults, including older adults Motivation to change is important as people age	Child learns several new languages Brain damaged accident victim learns to reuse limbs Juvenile and adult offenders benefit from cognitive-behavioral treatment

Genetics and Antisocial Behavior

Behavior genetics

The role genes play in the formation and development of human and animal behavior

Molecular genetics

The structure and function of genes at the molecular level

Behavior Genetics

Three sources of behavioral differences

Influences attributable to genetic effects

Influences of environment shared by siblings

Influences from unshared experiences

Studies of Twins

Some support for the heritability of antisocial behavior

Fraternal (dizygotic) and identical (monozygotic)

Fraternal are no more alike than any other pair of siblings

Identical have same DNA

Shared and nonshared environments

Shared – prenatal and life experiences affecting both twins

Promote high levels of similarity

15 – 20% of variation in antisocial bx

Nonshared – living experiences that are different

School, different homes

30% of variation in antisocial bx

Magnitude of genetic and nonshared environments increase as we get older

Identical twins are so alike they may elicit similar responses from their environment and develop similar personalities

Concordance – degree to which related pairs of subjects both show a particular bx or condition

Early twin studies found heredity to be a powerful determinant of intelligence, schizophrenia, depression, neurotic disorders, alcoholism and criminal bx

Used small samples

Better more recent studies continue to find higher criminal concordance for identical twins

The Twins’ Early Development Study (TEDS)

Longitudinal, UK, 1994, 1995 and 1996

N = 13,000 pairs

Explored bx problems and problematic development in language, cognitions and academic abilities from early childhood through adolescence

Heritability seems to play a modest role in antisocial behavior

Callous-unemotional trait

Jaffee et. al (2005) – looked at interaction of biological factors and environmental influences

Maltreatment influences genetic predispositions

Twin Study of Child and Adolescent Development

Uses data from the Swedish Twin Registry – all male subjects

Aggressions in children at ages 8 and 9 – reported by parents

Self report 8 years later

Genetic factors played an important role in the early onset of aggressive behavior in children, but appeared to play a less important role in the development of delinquent behavior as reported by male adolescents

Adoption Studies

Schulsinger (1972) – Denmark

3.9% of biological relatives of psychopathic adoptees could also be classified as psychopathic compared with 1.4% of control group

Not statistically significant

Crowe (1974) – 52 ppl relinquished for adoption by female offenders

The older the child upon adoptive placement and the longer the foster care placement, the more likely the child would be antisocial

Hutchings and Mednick (1975) – using adoption files from Copenhagen

16.2% of adoptees had criminal records compared with 8.9% of nonadoptees

Biological fathers of adoptees were nearly 3x more likely to be involved in criminal activity

Bio fa had a record and the adoptive fa had none – 22% became criminals

Biological fa no record and adoptive fa record – 11.5% became criminals

Mednick, Gabrielli, and Hutchings (1984, 1987) = court convictions of adoptees

Significant relationship bt conviction hx of adoptees and their biological parents

Esp for male chronic offenders

Molecular Genetics

The M A O A gene

Plays an instrumental role in preventing antisocial behavior in humans

M A O A-L gene

1/3 of population

Low activity form

Contributes to antisocial behavior for males who experienced ACEs

The warrior gene

At least 7 genes identified as playing a role in antisocial bx

Usually play a role in impairments in the bran structure and function

Psychophysiological Factors

The dynamic interactions between behavior and the autonomic nervous system

Measured by heart rate and electrical conductance in the skin

Low levels of arousal produces some degree of fearlessness

Little anxiety and fear

Not troubled about getting caught or punished

Find crime exciting and challenging

Amygdala – brain structure that plays a role in regulating fear and other emotional responses

Crucially related to psychopathy and the callous-unemotional traits

Antisocial boys and criminal psychopaths do appear to have lower levels of physiological arousal

Temperament

Temperament – natural mood disposition

Temperament is assumed to:

Have a constitutional or biological basis

Appear in infancy and continue throughout life

Be influenced by the environment

Table 3.2 Thomas-Chess Categories of Child Temperaments

Behavioral Characteristics	Easy Child	Difficult Child	Slow-to-Warm-Up Child
Rhythmicity	Regular	Irregular	Regular
Moods	Positive	Negative	Negative
Approach to others	High	Low	Low
Adaptability	Rapid	Slow	Slow
Intensity	Low	High	Low

Source: Adapted from Thomas & Chess (1977).

Environmental Risk Factors

Neurotoxins – trace elements, pesticides, chemicals and biological elements that have toxic effects on the human nervous system

May damage, destroy or impair neurons

Fetus through age 2 is particularly vulnerable

Potential to produce neurocognitive dysfunction which predisposes one to antisocial bx and violence

Lead – can lead to structural and functional impairments in the brain

Increased burden of special education, ADD, crime and homicide

Leaded paint, soil, air, water

Cadmium – violent offenders often have higher levels in their hair

LD and lower cognitive functioning

In almost every electronic device

Smoking is a major source

Manganese - nuts, teas, legumes, welding

Causes brain impairment, poor emotional regulation and impulsivity

In nervous system can lead to poorer brain functioning, lower intellectual functioning, aggression and violence

More impulsive, inattentive, aggressive, defiant, disobedient, destructive and hyperactive

Mercury – memory, cognition and learning problems

Fish and marine mammals, dental fillings

Direct link to antisocial or criminal bx has yet to be found

Table 3.3 A List of Neurotoxins That Present the Strongest Connections to Aggressive and Violent Behavior

Neurotoxin	Effects
Manganese	Depletes the neurotransmitters of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. Long-term negative effects on brain and nervous system development and functioning. Excessive exposure has been linked to poor attention, poor impulse control, and other neurological deficits.
Cadmium	Has a nonspecific effect on most neurotransmitters. Restricts calcium-mediated release of the transmitters. Long-term negative effects on brain development and intelligence. Excessive exposure may lead to aggression and violence.
Lead	Damages functioning of neurotransmitters and destroys neurons relevant to learning, memory, cognition, and self-regulation. Especially affects the prefrontal cortex. Exposure is associated with a variety of behavioral problems including ADHD, distractibility, poor organization skills, and violence.
Mercury	Damages functioning of neurotransmitters. Adversely affects functioning and development of central nervous system. Research suggests it contributes to problems in vision, learning, memory, attention, and behavioral control. At high doses, it appears to damage wide areas of brain functioning.

Prenatal and Postnatal Nutrition

Malnutrition may increase prevalence of conduct problems and aggressive behaviors

Barbados Nutrition Study

High levels of antisocial behavior in adulthood

Cumulative risk

Other have found deficits in cognitive functioning later in life

Malnutrition alone is unlikely to cause serious, aggressive, or violent bx

Nicotine, Alcohol, and Drug Exposure

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (F A S D)

Difficulties with neurological functioning

Nicotine

Slower brain development

Adult violent offending – 2x the rate

Strong relationship for boys, less so for girls

May be indirect effect – mothers who smoke are more likely to be poor, less education, lower SES and more stress during pregnancy

Smokers are more likely to have a history of antisocial bx

Effects of secondhand smoke - linked to SIDS

Link between maternal substance abuse and substance abuse by offspring

Shared genetic predisposition

Modeling bx

Prenatal cocaine use adversely effects emotional and attention regulation

Traumatic Brain Injury

Associated with neuropathological changes in cognition, emotion, and behavior

Often linked to violent bx

60% of incarcerated population (8.55 of general population)

Especially strong if located in frontal lobe

Organized though, planning and self regulation

Case of Phineas Gage

Vietnam Vets

Shiroma, Ferguson, & Pickelsimer, 2010

Brain Development Abnormalities

Important to have a high quality prenatal environment

Nutritional adequacy

Minimize exposure to HIV, rubella, drugs, pollutant, pesticides

The limbic system – diverse group of loosely connected brain structures and circuitry

Amygdala – small group of nerve cells that plays a major role in learning, memory, emotions

Impulsive aggression and violence are related to activity in this region

Brain Plasticity

Plasticity - both structure and function are affected by experience

Infants need nurturing, sensitive care

Need multisensory stimulation

1st 3 – 4 years are significant for preventing antisocial bx

By year 4, plasticity for language development begins to decrease

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters – chemicals manufactured in thebaine that are involved in biochemical activity and transmission of messages in the nervous system

Serotonin may play the most significant role in aggression and violence

Low levels linked to aggression

Dopamine, norepinephrine, gamma-aminobutyric

Neuropsychological Factors

Executive function – higher levels of cognitive processes that organize and plan bx, including logic and abstract reasoning

Prioritizes steps to solve problems

Closely involved n self control

Significant deficits can lead to acting without thinking, risk taking, impulsivity

Behavior Genetics

• Three sources of behavioral differences 1. Influences attributable to genetic effects 2. Influences of environment shared by siblings 3. Influences from unshared experiences

Behavior Genetics

•Three sources of behavioraldifferences

1.Influences attributable to genetic effects

2.Influences of environment shared by siblings

3.Influences from unshared experiences