Week 2 - Discussion Forum 1

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3.1 What Types of Information Are There?

Your Road Map to Success: Section 3.1

Learning Outcome 3.1: Compare and contrast different types of information and sources.

Why is this important?

Mastering this learning outcome will help you select the types of information and sources that best meet your needs. Consider Tiffany, for example. After familiarizing herself with the characteristics of information, Tiffany was able to identify which parts of a news article would likely provide reliable data for her school assignments and which parts would not.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

Mastering this learning outcome will help you understand the benefits and limitations of research based on a variety of types of information and sources. As a result, the work you complete in this course will address your research needs and assignment requirements.

The type of information you look for will vary according to the question you’re trying to answer. This section identifies a variety of characteristics of information and explains how to choose the type of information that will best meet your needs.

Scholarly and Popular Information

Scholarly information most often comes in the form of academic journal articles and books. These types of resources are written by scholars in a field of study and usually report on their original research, experiments, theories, or studies. Since the authors of this type of information are considered experts in their field, their credentials will usually be published within the article or book. The language the authors use when writing these resources is formal, technical, and specific to their field. It might even include jargon that a person outside that field might not understand. Scholarly articles and books usually include an abstract, which is a brief summary of what the article discusses, a bibliography with a list of resources, and sometimes charts or graphs to illustrate their research.

Some, but not all, scholarly information is peer reviewed. This means that the information within these resources was evaluated, or vetted, by other scholars within the same field to ensure that it is accurate and suitable for publication. Scholarly, and especially peer-reviewed, resources are considered of the highest quality. As a result, when gathering research for an assignment, your instructors will usually expect you to rely on scholarly sources.

In Chapter 1 you were introduced to the threshold concept of scholarship as conversation. This concept emphasizes the role of scholars, which is to contribute to the goals and debates within their field of study. The “conversation” occurs when information consumers, creators, and experts collaborate to determine meaning and explore new theories. For example, picture yourself at a party where several groups of people are engaging in

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Chaay_Tee/iStock/Getty Images Plus

Avoid gathering information from user- generated content, such as video blogs,

conversations on the same topic. As you move from one group to another, you hear bits and pieces of conversations from people with differing opinions and arguments. You use the diverse arguments people make about this topic to form your own opinion. A scholarly conversation is very similar: Scholars and experts share their ideas and research results with their communities through published journal articles and books. Other scholars and experts read this information, interpret it, and build on it to create new conversations or advance existing ones. This is also why reducing publication bias is so important. As discussed in Chapter 2, unpublished negative studies can skew the conversation and slow advancements in a field. For a transparent and well- informed conversation, all completed studies should be shared.

As a student conducting research, you’ll pick up bits and pieces of a scholarly conversation from a few scholarly sources. These sources do not represent all perspectives on the topic, but they will give you a sense of the conversation. As you relate this information to your research question, consider your own thoughts and feelings on the differing perspectives. You are a budding researcher and scholar, so think about what you might add to the conversation. Students who are developing their scholarship as conversation abilities will

identify the contribution that particular articles, books, and other scholarly pieces make to disciplinary knowledge; understand that a given scholarly work may not represent the only—or even the majority—perspective on an issue; recognize that they are often entering an ongoing, not a finished, scholarly conversation; suspend judgment on the value of a piece of knowledge until the larger context for the scholarly conversation is better understood; and see themselves as contributors to scholarship rather than only consumers of it (ACRL, 2015).

Popular information sources are considered non-scholarly. They are generally found in newspapers and magazines, along with their affiliated websites. Popular sources cover topics of wide-ranging interests, usually intended to inform, entertain, or persuade the public. The articles usually have photographs, illustrations, or advertisements in them. Journalists—who might or might not have expertise in the field—author the information, using vocabulary familiar to the general public. Before publication, an editorial staff reviews articles under consideration for style and content. Popular articles are usually brief and typically don’t include a bibliography or reference list. However, some magazines do publish researched articles with references, and some Internet news sources embed links to their sources of evidence. Popular resources are generally considered reliable and can be appropriate for certain research topics, as well as background or preliminary research. Examples include daily news sources such as the Los Angeles Times, weekly newsmagazines such as Time, and scientific magazines such as National Geographic.

An increasingly popular non-scholarly source you may encounter is known as user-generated content (UGC), which includes any information created by individuals using a specific application or platform to share their ideas. Some examples include blogs, social media articles and videos, and citizens reporting newsworthy events. While much UGC is created to entertain, it can sometimes shape the conversation on important issues. The #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo movements are both examples of how UGC on social media can raise awareness of current issues and increase social and political activism.

It’s important to bear in mind that with UGC, the person producing the information is not necessarily a trained journalist. This could mean the information is created without consideration

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when conducting research. These are typically non-scholarly sources that should not be included in your final research.

for accepted journalistic standards and ethics, which include truthfulness, accountability, and transparency (SPJ, 2014). From April to June 2020, for example, Facebook removed 7 million posts for spreading misinformation on COVID-19 and labeled another 98 million posts as misleading (Lerman, 2020). Because

no one checks UGC for accuracy or objectivity, information can range from mildly distorted to completely fabricated. As a result, you should generally avoid UGC when gathering information to help answer your research question or make an important decision.

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Information Sources

Depending on the nature of your research question, you might need to use a combination of primary, secondary, and tertiary information. Primary sources of information are generally firsthand or original accounts. Some of these sources are unedited and unevaluated. The types of materials that can be classified as primary sources depend on the field of study. For example, in the field of history, primary sources tend to be artifacts, such as diaries, letters, photographs, and artwork. In other fields, direct experiments, observations, and research studies are primary sources.

Secondary sources, on the other hand, interpret and analyze a primary source. Because of this, you can sometimes use a secondary source to locate a primary source. One way to do this is to check the bibliography or reference list of the secondary source.

Tertiary sources provide general overviews, summaries, or data and statistics related to a topic. Reference works such as encyclopedias and atlases are examples. They are great for background information but do not contain any original research or advance the scholarly conversation. Table 3.1 identifies different types of primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.

Table 3.1: Types of primary, secondary, and tertiary sources

Primary sources Secondary sources Tertiary sources

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Primary sources Secondary sources Tertiary sources

Original data, research studies, and lab reports Speeches, interviews News, film footage Manuscripts, letters Diaries, autobiographies, memoirs Surveys Official records Poetry, drama, novels, music, art Photographs, artwork, posters Pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings

Textbooks Journal, magazine, or newspaper articles that do not present original research findings Histories Criticisms Commentaries Pamphlets, technical reports, conference proceedings, dissertations, theses

Almanacs Dictionaries, encyclopedias Atlases Chronologies Directories Fact books Guidebooks, manuals Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources Textbooks (also can be secondary)

When preparing to use or cite a source, try tracking down the primary source that is referenced in your secondary or tertiary source and cite both. This can lead you to useful sources and further ensure the integrity of your research.

Publication Types

The format is the way information is created, presented, and shared. Because information is made for many reasons, it’s available in many formats. The threshold concept information creation as a process acknowledges that the purpose, message, and delivery of information are intentional acts of creation. Experts look at the process of creation and the final product to evaluate the usefulness of the information.

Let’s expand on this concept by considering the news industry. The goal of news reporting is to inform the public quickly about the facts of an incident. Because of this, it is usually disseminated each day for print, the web, radio, and television, as well as on journalists’ blogs, Twitter and Instagram feeds, and so forth. Each medium requires a different format for the presentation of information. In contrast, information that includes analysis in addition to the reporting of facts often takes longer to research, write, and publish. This type of expanded information is usually published in books, magazines, and scholarly journals. A visual representation of the information creation cycle is available in Section 4.2.

Your research question will determine the most suitable format of information. Additionally, if your research question is for an assignment, your instructor will likely specify what formats are required.

Students who are developing their abilities in the information creation as a process threshold concept

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understand that format and method of access are separate things; recognize that different creation processes result in distinct attributes; articulate the purposes of various formats, as well as their distinguishing characteristics; and identify which formats best meet particular information needs (ACRL, 2015).

Some of the resources described in this section can be accessed only through libraries, whereas others are freely available on the Internet. Although the theme of this course is to explore information literacy skills in the digital age, it’s also important to consider the role the print format has in the research process. Even with the amount of digital information currently available, some important information is still available only in print. Table 3.2 identifies both print and electronic resources for conducting research.

Table 3.2: Resource formats for research

Resource format Examples Characteristics

Books and ebooks

Fiction (e.g., novels, collections of plays, children’s stories) Nonfiction (e.g., biographies, historical accounts, essays)

Cover a wide variety of topics. Because it takes several months to produce a book, it can become outdated quickly. Especially true for books in fields that change quickly (e.g., technology, health, science). Digital versions can be downloaded onto various devices (e.g., basic e-readers, smartphones, tablets, laptops). Libraries may provide free access to ebooks. TIP! Check out the Quick Tip! feature box for when to use books in your research.

Reference works

Encyclopedias Dictionaries Almanacs Atlases

Give basic answers to specific questions (e.g., population of a city, birth date of a well-known person). Considered tertiary sources of information. Are meant to be consulted when a specific piece of information is needed. Can be especially helpful for providing background information to help you understand a topic. Can be found in both print and digital forms. TIP! Check out the Quick Tip! feature box for when you might need a reference work.

Periodicals Newspapers Magazines Journals Scholarly e- journals

Collections of articles published on a regular schedule, such as daily, weekly, monthly, or quarterly. Information expected to be current and up to date. Can be published in print, but many also have a digital copy that comes with a print subscription or can be purchased on its own. Currently, scholarly articles are rarely found for free on the Internet. Libraries purchase subscriptions to journals, and access is provided to students and faculty through the library website. A growing open access movement has the potential to change this.

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Resource format Examples Characteristics

Electronic images

Pie charts Line graphs Photographs

Computer-generated visual depictions often used to enhance the understanding of information. Share the same types of file formats (e.g., JPG, GIF, PNG). TIP! Citing visual sources is just as important as citing a journal article or book.

Videos Streaming services: YouTube Netflix Hulu Amazon Prime

Streaming services have expansive collections, including for academic research. Many libraries carry their own collection of educational videos from vendors like Films on Demand. These are often tertiary sources best suited for background research. Some streaming services, such as YouTube, also include UGC, which can be subjective, unverified, and ill suited for an academic paper. TIP! Videos can provide information (e.g., interviews, how- to guides) that is not available in written form.

Podcasts Ways to access: iTunes Google Play Music Spotify Stitcher iHeartRadio Pocket Casts

Can be located on almost any topic by searching the Internet or your favorite music streaming service. Some contain subjective and unverified information, which should be avoided in academic research. TIP! Many contain educational or informational content, which can make them valuable resources for research.

Blogs Popular platforms: Blogger WordPress Tumblr Wix Squarespace

A website where an individual can post information and receive comments from readers. Used to share ideas, information, and opinions. TIP! Bloggers often use a more relaxed voice and vocabulary than scholarly article writers do, sometimes making difficult topics easier to comprehend. When you are conducting background research or trying to understand a complex concept, reading a blog on the topic might help. TIP! When using blogs to conduct research, be careful, because the information is usually subjective and unverified, and it may not be suitable for an academic paper.

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Resource format Examples Characteristics

Wikis Wikipedia wikiHow Gamepedia Wiktionary

A type of website that encourages user contributions. Wikis have permissions in place that control access to the content and who can create information. The best known wiki is Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia. From experts in a field to members of the general public, anyone can contribute to the creation of articles. Wikis may be helpful for background research, but the quality of the content can be difficult to evaluate, and it can be unclear who is contributing to the information. TIP! High-quality wiki pages cite sources, which you can often access via an embedded link. TIP! Although you may begin your research from a wiki, be sure to use and cite the primary source, not the wiki.

Social media

Facebook Twitter Instagram Snapchat LinkedIn

Most commonly used for engaging with friends and family, keeping up with events, interacting with clients and customers, and professional networking and idea sharing. TIP! As with blogs and wikis, make sure you check primary sources before using information you find on social media sites.

Quick Tip!

Using Books and Reference Works

Books are a good choice if . . .

They provide detailed analysis of a topic. They provide a thorough background on a topic. Their bibliographies can guide you to other reference sources. They are academic; these types of nonfiction books can be considered a reliable source.

Books are not a good choice if . . .

Your research topic has a very narrow focus. Your topic is dependent on the most current and relevant information.

Reference works are a good choice when looking for specific information.

For information about → choose . . .

Words or definitions → Dictionaries

Synonyms or antonyms → Thesauruses

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General information or an overview → Encyclopedias

Names and addresses → Directories

Places and maps → Atlases

Facts and statistics → Almanacs

Formulas, tables, how-to information → Handbooks and manuals

A person’s work → Reviews or criticisms

Books and other sources → Bibliographies or guides to literature

Dates, outlines, historical timelines → Historical tables, chronologies, historical yearbooks

Let’s revisit Irwin from Chapter 1 and explore different information formats he can use to help him write his paper. Remember that Irwin is researching the impacts of social networks. After gaining a better understanding of the different formats of information available to him, Irwin considers which of these formats will not only help him meet his research requirement but will also contain the best information on his topic. Because his topic requires information that is current, given that technology and social networking change so quickly, Irwin recognizes that the format he chooses is important. He can see how information creation as a process applies to his topic. Now he just needs to think about how best to locate the sources he needs.

Section 3.1 Knowledge Check Quiz

1. A personal journal is an example of a __________ source. A. primary B. secondary C. tertiary

2. UGC stands for __________. A. under guaranteed contract B. user-generated content C. user-granted creation

3. News articles are usually peer reviewed. A. True B. False

Answers 1 (A), 2 (B), 3 (B)