Thought Paper Or Reflection Paper "OPINION"

Class topic: Racism, bias, and discrimination

Article topic: Toward a Social Psychology of Race and Race Relations for the Twenty-First Century.

Reflection

After reading the article on the social psychology of race and race relations, I have learned several things. The author starts by conceptualizing race. Understanding the relations between social psychology require a clear understanding of race itself. I believe that race is not based on biological characteristics of an individual but instead, it is socially constructed. The society tends to classify races based on historical contexts. Due to dynamics across the globe, the concept of the multiracial category of race has emerged. The multiracial groups emerge from the migration that results in intermarriages. For instance, a black woman married to a white man will produce a biracial child. If this child is married to an individual from a different race, a multiracial child will be produced. This has been a pressing issue when it comes to race categorization. This is a challenge because such individual does not fit into a particular race category. This calls for research to classify these individuals using other social aspects instead of biological characteristics. I believe the issue of multiracial race classification will result in a major overhaul to the entire process of race categorization. It is clear that the issue of race and ethnicity has a huge impact on categorization. This is because a single race may have many ethnic groups and therefore ethnicity must be used together with race classification.

The author identifies a number of theories related to race relations. One of the theories is the social identity theory. I believe this theory still applies to modern society. People continue to classify other easily. Despite the modernization, this theory continues to apply, and it is one of the reasons why racial discrimination persists across the globe. The theory is motivated by issues such as inadequate resources and increased population. This leads to favoritism among individuals of the same race. The author focusses on the United States and discusses how the rapid changes in the race continue to affect racial relations. It is important to note that the social dominance theory continues to encourage unfairness in terms of resource sharing. However, civilization across all races may address the issue of social dominance.

After reading the article, I learn that racial diversity has various effects on individuals. It is true to say that racial diversity affects the interaction between individuals. Each of the individual’s opinion about the other race forms the basis of the interaction. As time progresses, the interaction becomes freer and the individuals are able to share their opinions without fear. Moreover, individuals get to understand other races better. Also, racial diversity has an effect on groups. Interracial groups working together tend to solve problems easier. This is because of generation of various ideas that can be used to solve problems. Nevertheless, it is crucial to consider the fact that the effectiveness of group interaction among members of different races may not be achieved when the minorities are involved.

The issue on the social psychology of race relations continues to be an important research agenda. There are controversial issues that need more research. These issues include Immigration, Multiple identities, reactions to majority-minority nation status and racism in the modern world. The rapid modernization has led to more interactivity among different races and therefore the approach on race related matters should be based on contemporary issues.

Class topic: Ethnic diversity and social cohesion

Article topic: Ethnic Diversity and Its Effects on Social Cohesion

Reflection

This paper will look at the sway ethnic diversity affects social cohesion that happens on people and to what extent it can have adverse effects on the way people react. With the changing times that are there, immigration is one of the things that has been taking place from time to time. People are moving from their countries or places that they have called home for a long time as they get to new territories. As a result, there is an integration of people. Due to that, some fear that there is an erosion of culture because of getting to learn something that is new. It should, however, be noted that migration and immigration should not be a course for alarm when it comes to social cohesion. Migration and other factors like education should be able to make society more cohesive.

Social cohesion can be defined as a degree to how a person is connected to another. When it comes to getting connected to a person, there is no doubt that there are things that make a person close to the other. It should, however, be noted that a person may have some things that they consider as being essential and which should be able to hold them close for them to have tight cohesion when it comes to their belonging. As the article says, trust that is social is one thing that can be pivotal when it comes to having a cohesive society. The way people collaborate with the other is another mechanism by which a cohesive society can be built. Ethnic diversity encompasses a lot of things, and one may say that black and white are a part of ethnic diversity and at the same time there is a way in which the different races of people that are there can lead to a difference in the view of ethnic diversity and how it affects cohesion.

When it comes to ethnic heterogeneity, there is no doubt that there are things that make a society to hold together or even not to hold together. The geographic region of a place may be composed of different features within and which may bring some troubles within it. Some aspects are synonymous with the way society is composed of like the similarity that is there between people and also in the way in which people may believe in. The studies that have been conducted in the article says that when it comes to ethnic cohesiveness, there are various factors that are useful and which should play a role when it comes to the way in which a society is when are different things that may indicate the way in which an ethnic Heterogeneity may be composed of. Looking at the United States, for instance, one gets to realize that society is composed of a society that is heterogeneous due to the people that are there. No wonder that several people within the country believe that it is difficult to bond more.

Different geographical areas may have different people and the way they are organized. For that reason, there may instances where it may not be possible to have a people that are cohesive. Ethnic cohesion should be contributed more by a group of people that share in the same culture and even in the same values. Through that, it then becomes easy to bring about ethnic cohesiveness and which is not deterred by any factor. It should, however, be noted that in this era when there are many factors and which make people hold on to their things, it may be difficult to have a cohesive society.

Class topic: Gender diversity (I)

Article topic: Gender Similarities and Differences

Reflection

There has been a lot of discussions on whether men and women are similar. The debate has been a big one, and in many instances, there have been issues coming up trying to prove that there are similarities and on the other hand discussions that attempt to show that there are differences. This though paper will look at the way scholars say of the theories that attempt to define what gender difference is and the many theories that have come up trying to define and explain gender differences between the two sexes. In the many studies that have been conducted, conclusions are being made that males are similar to men, but that is not according to the psychological variables that exist. Despite some studies showing that there are similarities between the two genders, there also exist some differences.

When it comes to evolutionary theories, they try to describe the differences that are there between the different sexes. This goes to explain the differences that have been regarded to be there when it comes to finding who is superior to the other. It has been determined in several occasions that men are superior in the way they are made as compared to the women. Women cannot be able to carry with them heavy objects while the women, on the other hand, cannot be able to handle the heavy tasks that are done by the men. However, when it comes at looking at the sexual orientation, there is with no doubt that there are various ways in which men and women relate. There are differences in how women prefer less sexual partners, whereas the men would want to have many partners.

The evolution theory like the cognitive, social theory and sociocultural theory also tend to look at the way there are differences when it comes to women and men. When it comes to the tasks that are done by both of the genders, no doubt that men are taken as being strong. These are because the men will in many instances get involved in hard tasks while the women will be involved in tasks that are light. This then goes to show that the two sexes are not similar as they cannot do the same tasks. It has also been said that various things may bring about the differences or similarities that lay between female’s males. For instance, a male student may want to enroll in a school that teaches heavy subjects and on the other hand, there may be a female student that may want to enroll in a school that teacher’s heavy subjects like calculus. That goes to show that there may be a similarity in the way the brain functions, but at the same time, there may be a big difference.

There exists very few theories or none at all that try to communicate of gender differences. What is, however, significant is that there are differences in the way the two sexes are as they cannot be able to do the same tasks and at the same time there is a way in which the society views the differences that are there already. There are some characteristics in both men and women that can be used to show the differences that are there between males and females. For instant females tend to have emotions more than men. A good example is how ladies tend to react in relationships while the men tend to play it hard. Interests like in the way men consider football so important to them while the females consider soap operas as being relevant to them is the other way in which differences between these two genders can be put. In conclusion, there is no doubt that there are similarities and differences between these two genders as seen above.

Class topic: Gender diversity (II)

Article topic:

1) Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients

2) Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People

Reflection

Guideline denotes the information put in place to give advice to people on how to do certain things. In psychology, there are guidelines that act as a spotlight to psychologists on how to attend to bisexuals, gay, lesbians, and transgender and gender nonconforming clients. These categories of people face discrimination in the society and therefore should be protected.

Psychologists are encouraged to understand the plights of lesbians, homosexuals and gay. They face the challenge of living in a heterosexual society. This makes them feel stigmatized and this affects their lifestyles. It limits their access to high-quality healthcare since they fear disclosing their gender identity. In most countries, gay and lesbianism are illegal to practice and therefore those who practice it fear disclosing it whenever they visit psychologists. Besides bisexuals, gays, and lesbians, there are also transgender and gender nonconforming people who face the same challenges of stigma and prejudice Stigma manifests itself in various ways such as anti-gay jokes and this increases stress to the affected individuals. Some people even go farther to tease the bisexuals that they are two in one and they do not need to look for a sexual partner. Psychologists are therefore the only source of their help. They are advised to do research on the history of the patients who in this case are gays, bisexuals, transgender, gender nonconforming people and lesbians and strive to improve their level of safety in the society. Moreover, psychologists are should understand that gay and lesbianism are not mental disorders and as such, they should be handled as normal humans in society. they should extend their efforts to carrying out a public awareness campaign to reduce prejudice against the practices in the society.

Moreover, psychologists should understand that in a society, people, are not similar in characters. People have diverse characters depending on the environment they are exposed to. This implies that their likes and dislikes also differ. Hence, there are people who practice heterosexuality while others practice homosexuality. This practice of homosexuality also has to do with innovative minds that exist in society, whereby a section of people in society is passionate about trying new things. Some even go to an extent of changing the sex assigned to them at birth and they are named transgender. On the other hand, psychologists should convince the bisexuals that their condition is natural and there is no point of changing their sexual orientations. In addition, the psychologists should put it clear that being a bisexual implies the diversity of gender that God has brought among His people and should not be rejected. In addition, they should be cautious about their attitudes about the transgender and gender nonconforming people not to affect the quality of healthcare they give to them and their relatives.

Furthermore, psychologists should be aware in their practice that homosexuality and bisexuality have similar sexual intimacy as those of heterosexuals. They perform sexual intercourse but the difference is that the homosexuals never give birth. They also differ in terms of sexual patterns. However, the homosexuals and bisexuals do not enjoy the freedom of love affairs that the heterosexuals have.

Moreover, psychologists are expected to recognize the need to create an affirmative environment for the bisexuals, gay, lesbians, transgender and gender nonconforming people in the society. This is because it is their right to live free of discrimination in the society.

Class topic: Poverty

Article topic: Moving Beyond Correlations in Assessing the Consequences of Poverty

Reflection

For long, poverty has been linked to child development outcomes. It has been linked to childhood, adolescent and adulthood outcomes from kinds. States of economic deprivation have in particular been linked the low levels of achievement and even adulthood behaviors. However, most of these studies are correlational. This means that they posit that there is a host of factors that interact under some conditions to bring about some effects on the life of an individual. These correctional studies, however, are not warranted at times. This is because of the fact that individual outcomes at all stages of life are determined by a myriad of factors. The extent to which an individual would succeed in their adulthood or would portray a given behavior in their adolescent is linked to personal experiences which shape their character and how they interact with the world around them. Besides that, poverty in itself is also measured by a wider array of terms. As posted by the authors, measuring it in economic terms alone requires some clear definitions of the economic resources as well. Research has always proved that children from poor backgrounds fall much below the children from the affluent neighborhoods in terms of acquisition of skills and even schooling.

The several findings reveal the possible linkage between poverty and child development. However, it is important to dig deeper and find the possible effects that the life in deprivation might have on the childhood development and even in subsequent life. The authors argue that poverty might hinder a healthy development. While all the empirical effects of poverty are psychological, it is important to look at how the environment of poverty might hinder a healthy development of the brain of children. Among some of the factors that are related to poverty and might hinder individual development, include resources and investment as well as family environment and stress. It is quite agreeable that children from underprivileged backgrounds face more stressors as compared to affluent children. This is caused by the neighborhoods that these children grow as well as economic stress. Apart from that, the interaction between the parent and the child has some far-reaching effects on the development of the children. For the affluent communities, the interaction between children and their parents is quite productive and this shapes their behavior and production not only in childhood but also adulthood.

While the correlational studies have posited that poverty works intrinsically, the authors argue that it shapes the environment within which the child grows and thereby affecting their behavior. Much of the attention has been centered on the intrinsic effects of poverty on the child’s psychological states and the conclusion has been that poverty affects the child’s psychological development as well as other ingredients of productivity such as self-esteem. In order to holistically assess this issue, it is important to look at some factors inherent in poverty such as school achievement and attainment. Poverty greatly diminishes the ability to score higher. This could be caused by a myriad of factors which include but not limited to educational resources, investment and culture inherent in poverty-stricken areas. Even though the research done by the authors of the article reveals that poverty affects the developmental environment of children, the extent to which poverty leads to low levels of achievement and effects development is not yet certain. The results of the study cannot be used for generalizations yet and therefore further researches have to be done.

Class topic: Humanness

Article topic: Dehumanization and Infrahumanization

Reflection

Dehumanization has far reaching effects on individual welfare as well as the dehumanizer’s behavior with regard to how they handle the victims. In an attempt to uncover more about this topic, the authors focus on a number of ways such as looking at how people are dehumanized with the main focus being the psychology of the dehumanizers themselves. Apart from that, it is important to look at the dehumanizers themselves paying a close attention to the social targets as well as the common social trait among such individuals. This article also provides a profiling of the dehumanizers by digging deep into their social aspects in order to come to a conclusion of why they would see themselves as more human as compared to others. Besides that, it is important to take a look at the situations surrounding dehumanization in order to understand the context within which people would inevitably get dehumanized or the events leading up to individual dehumanization. It is undeniable that dehumanization comes with a number of consequences such as antisocial behavior and individual moral judgment. As explained by the authors, dehumanization comes with some socially detrimental effects on individuals and therefore, there have to be some strategies to reduce it.

The article resonates with the fact that there are different motives that make people dehumanize. Factors such as power, threat, cognitions, motives, and emotions are all summed up as primary motivates. Typically, dehumanizers are pushed towards dehumanizing other individuals when they are in pursuit of power, they perceive a threat from the third parties or when in an endeavor to reach out to a certain end. People that feel dehumanized on the other hand would normally have a low self-esteem and this is evident by their antisocial behavior that comes as a result of dehumanization. In order to humanize individuals who have been dehumanized, they need to get some social services that would enable them to overcome the post-traumatic stress that comes with dehumanization. One of the solutions proposed by the authors of the article was to promote a common identity. However, this solution is not quite effective especially due to the fact that even though there are different moves towards promoting a common identity through the use of shared values, there are still some social injustices that definitely dehumanize the victims.

From the article, it is blatant that dehumanization comes from a number of psychological processes which include Infrahumanization. These are the different psychological perception of the difference between one individual and another. Even though the authors of the article place this as a theory, more research ought to be done in order to determine how an individual’s perception of themselves and others could make them dehumanize others. The article puts emphasis on the theories of dehumanization with the aim of bringing to light the framework leading up to dehumanization as well as the social consequences. While it is important to take a look at the theoretical knowledge behind it, it is as well important to focus on the solutions which can be reduced dehumanization and clearly, the article does not focus on that. This is evident by the fact that the solutions only cover a small section of the article while all the other theoretical studies cover the most parts. Clearly, there is a need for further research in order to determine the extent to which dehumanization affects the victims socially and the extent to which the solutions to it are effective.

Class topic: Peace

Article topic: War

Reflection

War can be studied by looking into the aspects of the recent researches that have been done on the area. Most often than not, sociologists focus on the effects of war rather than its causes. Pretty much, war comes with negative sociological effects, it is often the work of the sociologist to study the effect and then come up with the solutions. The author of the article takes a rather different approach on the issue by divulging into how war is expedited by the institutional organizations as well as their effects on such institutions. For quite a long time, sociologists have contributed little or nothing when it comes to researching about war and their effects. For the past 200 years, nearly every country has experienced war. The ripple effects such events have affected not only the individuals but also the institutions in the country in general. Even if the results of war are quite blatant, little has been done when studying it. The author subtly suggests that this could be one of the reasons why war and other armed conflicts continue to happen almost inevitably.

The author states that the horrors of war are quite negative and traumatic and therefore even writes are banned from writing about them. This is also evident in the current times where people are discouraged from writing or speaking about the bleak nature of war and the effects they have on the military personnel. This is quite shocking bearing in the mind that the effects war has on participants such as the soldiers is the work of social workers to solve. However, there is a missing link in such an approach since they are not in the first place allowed to dig deep into the causes and effects on war. As cited by the author, war is often tied down to politics, power, and political arrangements. This is evident by the interstate wars which are often motivated by the fight for territories, resources, and even supremacy. Apart from the interstate wars, there are some other politically motivated wars which include civil wars. Almost every nation has been plagued by civil wars. The United States has experienced some of the worst civil wars globally. Some of the worst were witnessed right from the mid-1880 wars that were motivated by the abolition of the slave trade. As indicated by the author, such wars are fueled by legitimacy. Cultural frames as well as collective reasoning. In some continents such as Africa, civil wars are fueled by the scramble for resources such as oil, gold, and diamond. Sociologists deem that these wars are caused by poverty.

In the work of the author, war has a number of causes which include cultural, institutional and even domestic aspects of the societies. Typically, wars are caused by the struggle for rights among the different members of the community and states. The welfare states that came about as a result of war have gotten many citizens involved in the war. Due to the fact that sociologists focus on culture, legitimization, political and organizational effects of war, most of the studies that have been done in the area focus on the effects if war rather than their causes. However, for approaches that focus on theories and processes leading up to the war, they remain some of the most invaluable sources of knowledge in explaining the possible social effects of war. Rather than just focusing on the effects of war, it is important to focus on future researches on specific causes of war. Analyzing and documenting the causes of war in itself is invaluable since it enables social workers to implement strategies to prevent its occurrence in the future. As suggested by the writer, it is important to take a look at the country’s institutions so as to ensure that the bureaucracy in them do not cause war. Political sociologists have to focus more on trying to identify whether there is a causal relationship between war and other aspects such institutions, interstate supremacy, and even social injustices.

Class topic: Contact

Article topic: Intergroup Contact as a Tool for Reducing, Resolving, and Preventing Intergroup Conflict

Reflection

Intergroup conflict denotes the competition for authority between two or more groups in the society over resources, power or influence or values. Conflict is part and parcel of life in all human races.

First and foremost, it is important to look into the factors that contribute to intergroup conflict in the society. The first one is competition for resources. In a society where there are many people of different cultures and social status, they tend to share resources. The moment their population grows, the resources become scarce and people scramble for the resources. This leads to chaos and violence outbreak, sometimes extending to inter-tribal clashes. Land for settlement, farming, and grazing is the most common cause of intergroup conflict in a society.

Secondly, prejudice, orchestrated by the tribal lines is another factor. This is usually seen during political campaigns where politicians incite their community against other communities for political gain. People end up insulting each other via the social media and at times, communities are involved in a fight to an extent of massive killings and destruction of property. Intergroup conflict is, therefore, a serious phenomenon that threatens the unity of the people in a society.

However, intergroup conflict can be reduced by improving intergroup contact. There is an idea that people belonging to a certain clan and are from a common ancestor should always stay in a certain region. This idea is good, but it has a negative impact on social interactions. This is because people only socialize within the confines of their clans and beyond that, they view other clans as competitors for resources. Therefore, intergroup contact will help solve the hatred that exists among communities by organizing social events such as sports and intermarriages. This will not only promote peace, but also development in among the groups. Moreover, it will help to reduce intergroup anxiety that normally exists when people of different communities meet and the perception that a certain community is hostile or associated with bad traits would disappear once there is social contact.

Generally, conflict prevention begins with an individual. One should understand that he or is not right all the time. Once this attitude is accepted, people will start having open minds that appreciate other people`s ideas. This would extend to other clans and subsequently to the neighboring tribes. And the result is harmony and peaceful coexistence. Parents should be at the forefront in giving good upbringings to their children, sensitizing them that their conflict can never solve a problem, instead, it promotes chaos and negative ethnicity in the society. It is important to remember that, the genocide that occurred in Rwanda began as intergroup conflict.

From this, we can learn that conflict has never impacted positively. Instead, the end result is poverty and famine because businesses cannot thrive in chaos. In addition, countries such as Israel, Palestine have been involved in major conflicts that began as minor intergroup conflicts. These countries to date still experience wars and rumors of wars. Therefore, cessation from conflicts is the first step in bringing peace among the countries involved in conflicts. This can be conducted through dialogue between the conflicting parties. Dialogue has worked in other countries such as Kenya and Sudan.

In conclusion, intergroup conflict is a major issue affecting the current society we live in. politicians and terrorists are the major contributors to the intergroup conflict. Unless a serious campaign is conducted to preach the negative impacts of intergroup conflict, many serious wars are likely to be rampant in the near future. Civil wars like those witnessed in Israel-Gaza are just but a few examples of the impacts of intergroup conflicts.

Class topic: Origins of Diversity

Article topic: Darwin’s Influence on Modern Thought

Reflection

The human mind is the most powerful tool in the entire world. Our thoughts determine our actions which in return determine the kind of people that we are. Despite thoughts being this important, man is not an independent thinker. We pick on the minds of other great people before us. As a result, the great thinker in history like Darwin has far reaching impact on our modern thought process. These thoughts are expressed in books and other historical works. When we interact with these materials, we are shaped to think in a particular direction. Darwin is among the greatest thinkers in the world whose ideas have shaped the modern thought.

The mind helps the human being to interpret the world around him or her. The human thought is a reflection of the environment. Our view of the world is greatly influenced by other people’s view. For instance, reading books or watching videos determine how we interpret the stimuli that we interact with in our everyday life. The current perception of the world is as a result of the great piece of works done in the 21st Century by the people like Charles Darwin. He led an ideological revolution that has lived well beyond his time. Darwin, being the father of evolution, is the father of evolutionary biology, the modern zeitgeist and philosophy of science. Looking at the evolutionary biology, one would be right to say that Darwin has influenced our thought much more than we can imagine. This is because there is no way one can explain the variation in species, and the genetic characteristics of plants and animals without mentioning the work of this great scientist.

I think Darwin looked at the world differently from the people of his era. The ideas he expressed in his works seem to resonate more with someone of the modern era. His thinking pattern is relevant in the modern era because of the challenges we face and the nature of our environment. Unlike the men of his time, Darwin refused to understand everything in the religious context. His theory of evolution and natural selection was a shift from the emphasis on the supernatural phenomenon which was a familiar pattern for the scientists of his time. Darwin based his theory on materialistic principles. This is the foundation of the modern thought. In the modern world, man has resorted to seek for answers from science and technology. This is contrary to the time that Darwin lived where man sought answers from religion.

In my opinion, Darwin was a representation of a modern man who believes that the answers are present in the human mind. The modern man believes that the cosmos is the sources of infinite intelligence that man can tap on by using the power of his mind. For instance, people like Michael Faraday used this source of intelligence to discover powerful forces like electricity and electromagnetism. These are discoveries that have shaped our world. I think Darwin was an example of the power of imagination. He talked about abstract ideas which scientists would work on later to create medical procedures that are useful to the world population.

Lastly, Darwin was greatly impacted the modern thought. This is because he chose to think beyond the people of this time. Instead of accepting the world around him as it was, he decided to adopt a different thought pattern. The world population owes this man for his revolutionary thought that has guided many scientific innovations in the fields of biology, sociology and human health. It is as a result of Darwin that we appreciate the fact that we are all unique from each other. Our appreciation of individual uniqueness has resulted in how we relate with each other.