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F a i r D e a l i n g ( S h o r t E x c e r p t )

Reading: Ch. 1. The Changing Face of Canadian Families (excerpt) (Partnerships: Families and Communities in Early Childhood)

Author: Wilson, Lynn

Editor: N/A

Publisher: Nelson Publication Date: 2019 Pages: 8-24

Course: ECED 421 63A 2023W1 Supporting Young Children Through Home, School, and Community Relationships Course Code: 63A Term: 2023W1

Department: ECED

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In 2017 the life expectancy for the total Canadian population is projected to be 79 years for men and 83 years for women. Among the Aboriginal population the Inuit have the lowest projected life expectancy in 2017, of 64 years for men and 73 years for women. The Metis and First Nations populations have similar life expectancies, at 73—74 years for men and 78-80 years for women (Statistics Canada, 2015b)

Technology has had an enormous impact not only in the workplace but also in our homes. More and more of us are achieving higher education credentials— in fact, “no other developed nation in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has as many residents who have graduated from college or university” (Gate­ house, 2015); however, stimulating early learning environments for our youngest children are still not a national standard, placing enormous pres­ sures on young families. Crimes rates have fallen for decades. Religion in Canada now encompasses many groups, and the freedom of religious practice is an important part of Canadian culture. Increased immigration, especially for those who have suf­ fered in war-torn countries, has enriched the lives of all Canadians as we celebrate our multicultural society and the joy of helping others. Many fami­ lies move from place to place in search of employ­ ment, and experience the isolation of being far from extended family. Other families rely heavily on their extended family members. The femi­ nist movement has had an enormous impact on wom en’s roles in both their work and home environments. Many women in Canada today are financially independent, allowing them more control over their lives. Young adults are staying home longer, because of a variety of factors, but many are attending postsecondary institutions, the cost of which prohibits them from living indepen­ dently. Many couples are postponing marriage as they establish their work lives, and so cohabitation is much more common.

Smaller families are more the norm today; they allow for greater independence and financial sta­ bility, and many couples are also choosing to remain childless. This push for personal autonomy may also be a factor in both the rising divorce rate and the highest number of lone-parent families than ever before. Canada has also shown a greater than ever acceptance of same-sex partners. Canadians’ perception of the child within the family unit is changing: while it appears that our society embraces a child-centred approach, many children live in

Today’s families are smaller than ever before.

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situations that put them at risk. All of these fac­ tors have tremendous influences on the fabric of Canadian lives.

THE CHANGING ROLES OF WOMEN So much has changed! While women’s roles are less strictly defined than in previous years, many issues remain to be challenged. The cry for equal pay for equal work is sounding around the world. Changing public opinion has focused us on changing the laws regarding sexual harassment, domestic violence, and reproductive rights. The changes in the family unit are unprecedented, with more women being active in the workforce, opting out of marriage, delaying children, having fewer children, and some deciding not to have children at all. More women now graduate from higher education, and what they are taught has changed significantly. Women’s studies and gender studies courses are offered at 71 colleges and universities across the country (www .wgsrf.com/academic-womens-studies.html). Many women today now hold positions that in the past would have been held only by men. On so many issues, women have more choice than ever before— from the sports they play to becoming the next prime minister.

Unpaid work is perhaps the biggest contribution that women make to the economy. Women con­ tinue to be held disproportionately responsible for the well-being of all members of the family. The “superwoman” concept continues to drive women in all areas of their lives, as illustrated by Helen Schul­ man’s (2003) anecdote:

I was guiding my father back to his wheelchair when I looked up and saw my son hanging precipitously off a climbing apparatus. Where was King Solomon

8 CHAPTER 1 NEL

when I needed him? If I let go of my father, who wavered like a feather in the air, he would have no choice but to fall. If I didn’t run to my son, he would surely topple and hit the playground’s cement hardtop. What would you have done?

Helen held onto her father, and watched her toddler drop to the ground. The child escaped with nothing worse than scraped palms. But that out­ come doesn’t make the choice any less excruciating, the dilemma any less stark. Schulman’s vignette, from her essay in The Bitch in the House (2003), illustrates a tug-of-war being lived out by a rising number of women everywhere, every day; mothers simultaneously tending growing children and aging parents— tiptoeing through a minefield of teenage rebellion at one end and seniors grasping their inde­ pendence at the other, balancing the needs of kids on bicycles and elders on walkers. Statistics show that more than one in four Canadians is a caregiver and 70 percent of baby boomers expect to care for an older family member in the near future. Over­ whelmingly, the caregivers are women. Many work full-time.

Smaller family size has spread available family resources among fewer people, which is particularly relevant in the context of caregiving and population aging- Caring responsibilities are now carried by fewer family members, a situation complicated by the fact that extended families often live at a great

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“I don’t know if it’s burnout, but I set off the smoke alarm six times today!”

As the workforce ages, as we extend our working lives and as our longevity continues to increase, caring for an adult (adult child, sibling, spouse, parent, grandparent, senior and/or elder with a disability, recov­ ering from illness or injury, or coping with a chronic or episodic health condition) is one of the fastest growing work—life challenges.

Caregiving is, and always has been, at the heart of family life. It is estimated that family/friend care­ givers provide 70-80% of care to individuals with a chronic health condition or disability. Sixty-one percent of all adult/elder caregivers are in the paid workforce: 37% of employed women and 28% of employed men age 45+ provide care to another adult. Most work full-time. The majority provide care to parents, while 1 in 5 cares for a friend. As we marry later in life and start families later as we, employed caregivers are increasingly providing care for two or more generations at the same time. Caregivers with dual (or multiple) responsibilities are most vulnerable to the negative impacts of stress and work overload. Working long hours to make up for lost time— typically borne from either arriving late or leaving early or from sheer exhaustion and inattention—can tip an already precarious balance.... The lack of control over when care might be needed can make combining work and caregiving particularly difficult. Missing work, reducing hours and turning down assignments or career opportunities to meet caregiving responsibilities is common practice among employed caregivers. Providing care can mean forfeiting pay, job security or work advancement. The impact of juggling paid work with caregiving, however, goes well beyond lost wages and missed promotions— the physical, social and emotional costs can be high, too. For many care­ givers, offering support to family or friends means spending less time on social activities or with spouses/ partners and children. Opportunities for rest, relaxation and self-care often become few and far between.

Source: Spinks, N., and Lero, D. 2011. “Combining Caregiving and Work in Canada: Achievable or Not?” Transition, Winter, pp. 1-3. Reprinted by permission of The Vanier Institute of the Family. ft* tu *

NEL THE C HANG IN G FACE OF C A N A D IA N FAM ILIES 9

distance from each other. W ith more and more young adults staying at home longer, the family dynamic is further complicated.

IMMIGRANT MOTHERS Another factor to consider in the changing role of women is the number of women from immigrant and refugee families who have settled in Canada. Far from their families and support systems, many of these mothers are parenting in isolation in a country where their language and customs are not well understood. Their traditional values and ways of parenting may be very different from the values and parenting styles they see around them. Many who have come from war-torn countries and have experienced torture or the loss of family members may be especially vulnerable. It is important to many new Canadians that their children maintain a connection to their cultural heritage:

In a 2008 Canadian university study that looked at new immigrant mothers who were feeling down, many women attributed their depressive symptoms to social isolation, physical changes, feeling over­ whelmed and financial worries. They had poor knowledge of community services or were afraid of the stigma of accessing them. The study concluded that having social support from friends, partners and family, community support groups helped greatly. (Canadian Immigrant Magazine, 2011).*

Being a member of a minority group in Canadian society may also be an additional challenge for new­ comer families. Issues of systemic racism, sexism, and class issues may further complicate life in Canada for a newcomer family who are members of a minority group. Pregnant or new mothers who have only lim­ ited fluency in English or French face many barriers, hindering their ability to gain access to support sys­ tems that would ease their transition. Often isolated and missing their family, many immigrant women find that being a mother is a time of great loneliness.

THE CHANGING ROLES OF MEN The past two decades have seen a shift in fathers’ involvement in their children’s lives and in child­ care settings, and some fathers struggle to balance

’Credit: Canadian Immigrant Magazine, 2011. “Becoming a Supermom,” http://canadianimmigrant.ca/work-and-education/ career/becoming-a-supermom-as-an-immigrant-mother. Reprinted by permission of Canadian Immigrant Magazine.

the sometimes conflicting roles of successful breadwinner and nurturing parent. Fathers today, on average, tend to be older than in the past. The role of fathers has also changed, and many books have been written to support fathers in their role in the birthing process, their parenting skills, and their role in the family. Fathers’ interaction w ithin the structure of the family is based on many variables— the attitude of partners toward traditional roles, the number of people living in the home, work responsibilities, income, number and ages of the children, health of family mem­ bers, and so on.

Historically, fathers have been the major pro­ viders for their family. In many cultures, fathers are the decision makers in the family and in the com­ munity, and they are often supported in this role by religious beliefs. Because status in the family and community may depend on a father’s ability to pro­ vide financially for his family, the shifting reality of our economic times is altering this position for fathers. And so the challenge for many fathers today is that they cannot look back to their own fathers as role models. Their fathers may in fact be less than supportive of those who become stay-at-home dads or fathers who see themselves as more than just the breadwinner.

The biggest roadblocks to fathers’ active partici­ pation in child care are still sociocultural, with regard to how fathers see themselves. Practices related to pregnancy and childbirth have changed over time and now involve fathers more, contributing signifi­ cantly to changing fathers’ perceptions of their own role in the family. Bigner (2005) says, “Several studies conclude that the father’s participation at birth helps

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Ottawa mother Maithreyi Ramanathan grew up in south India, where she says that, typically, a mother goes to her own mother’s house when she is eight months pregnant and doesn’t return home until the baby is three or four months old. When Ramanathan was pregnant in Canada with her son Sanjay, her grandmothers were genuinely worried. “How could you do this on your own? Who is going to help you?” they asked. “I told them my husband would,” she says. “But what good is a man’s help?” they asked. Her grandmothers couldn’t have appreciate that in today’s North America, parenting takes place in more isolated nuclear families, often far removed from extended family members and without the support of once every-present neighbours— who now head off to work each day. In that context, a father’s effective early involvement is arguably a necessity.

Source: Hoffman (2005). ft £

the mother assume her role; the birth itself may be a strong stimulus for nurturing behaviours from both fathers and mothers, as well as a time for attitude formation” (in Gestwicki, 2010: 81).*

All research shows that it is women who take up the slack when social services are slashed, although many wish that men played a more active role. Yet, “some research projects also show that men who attempt to take on more family responsibilities get increased negative feedback from grandparents and even from wives. The legacy of the model of male as breadwinner and female as caregiver may create stress for men trying to find new roles” (Geswicki, 2010: 47)J Many women define their status within the family and community by their ability to care for and nurture their children. These women may be resistant to allowing fathers greater involvement with the children, since it may undermine their position. Also, if extended-family members live in the home, such as grandparents who aid in the caregiving of children, the father may play a more limited role.

In 2016, a program entitled “The Role of the Family in Strengthening Social Development” was held at the United Nations. Dr. Kyle Pruett, clin­ ical professor of child psychiatry at Yale University

From Gestwicki, Home, School, and Community Relations, 7E. © 2010 South-Western, a part of Cengage, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions. ^From Gestwicki, Home, School, and Community Relations, 7E. © 2010 South-Western, a part of Cengage, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions.

School of Medicine, outlined the differences between the parenting of mothers and fathers across the lifespan of the child. According to a report of the presentation, “Fathers more typically are playful, stimulating and unpredictable and more fun for a child. In contrast, the mother tends to be comforting, calming and regulating. Fathers’ method of relating and disciplining prepares the child for dealing with challenges of the real world, while mothers build children’s skills for relationships” (Universal Peace Federation, 2016). Pruett also states that the benefits of fathering also lead to stronger bonding and sen­ sitivity, which contribute to longer marriages and longer lives.

Concerns continue to rise about fathers who are absent as a result of divorce, separation, or incar­ ceration. With the high incidence of divorce, many fathers are estranged from their children. Some can’t or won’t pay support and, as children age, they may be less likely to want to spend time away from their friends. If a new family is started, the father may spend less time with his original family. Some fathers may also resent having to support two fami­ lies. On the other hand, some fathers may see more of their children and take on more child-related responsibilities than they did when they were living with their partner. There is no question that inter­ actions between fathers and their children are now much more complex. Clearly, more analysis needs to be done on paternal involvement, cross-cultural differences, the impact of religious beliefs, and the impact of paternal involvement in the lives of their children.

NEL THE C HANG IN G FACE OF C A N A D IA N FAMILIES 11

When Sanjay was born, Ramanathan’s husband was excited about playing an integral role in the raising of their son. But for Ramanathan, although she knew she wanted his help, she could not completely relinquish Sanjay’s care. She would often hover, correcting and instructing to the point that her husband began to withdraw, feeling incompetent and unappreciated. Researchers have labelled this gatekeeping. In the end, both the mother and the father feel resentful. The lesson here is that together, both mothers and fathers need to redefine their roles.

Source: Hoffman (2005). Ir A FATHERING AND MOTHERING The quality of the marital relationship is signifi­ cantly associated with the nature of both the father- child and mother-child interactions. The more positive the marital relationship, the more involved the father is likely to be in child care and vice versa. Fathers who have, at times, exclusive responsibility for the child will develop caregiving skills and gain confidence. It is also important to note that fathers may play different roles at different stages of their children’s development:

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While many factors can influence a father’s involve­ ment with his child, in most situations it’s possible for fathers to embrace and excel at their important job of child rearing. The keys are consistency, com­ passion, attention, and time. When fathers are able to provide all the above, everyone in the family is sure to benefit—dad included (Bell, n.d).

Many fathers play an active role in their childrens lives.

www.mengetpregnanttoo.com

Where parenting is concerned, the real 21st-century challenge, when discussing “the changing role of men,” or “the changing role of women” is understanding that it is impossible to have one without the other. Dad cannot assume a more involved role as a primary caregiver without Mom also changing her habits. Mom cannot tackle new career challenges outside the home without some sense of compro­ mise, understanding, and support from her partner. That constant state of flux is why I try so hard to refer to “parents” on my website, and not “mothers” and “fathers.” Regardless of the parents genders, a healthy child’s basic needs never waver: shelter, food, clothes, love, encouragement, and safety are only a few. None of these can be achieved without parental attention, devotion, and income. Too often, even as domestic roles (very slowly) shift, men and women still get caught— in the words of the immortal SNL [Saturday Night Live} character Stuart Smalley— “Shoulding” on each other: kids should have a mother who is home for them; sons should learn sports from their fathers. The explosion of information avail­ able to parents through books and, ahem, parenting blogs, often exacerbates the tendency to compare our

(continued)

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household rhythm with our peers. Are we doing the right thing? If I stay at home with my kids does it mean I’m a failure? Why do I feel so guilty about going back to work? I believe one of the most important gifts a parent can bestow upon a child is to be happy and comfortable in their choices as well as in the role they play as a mother or father. This definition is absolutely unique to each family. Men were always encouraged to be strong. The changing roles of fathers demand a different kind of strength, the strength of cooperation and acceptance and compromise. In short, being a father nowadays is less about displays of physical and financial strength, and more about strength of spirit.

Source: Kenny Bodanis, Parenting Columnist and Author £ A t .♦ I * MATERNITY AND PATERNITY LEAVE Following the 2015 federal election, the new Liberal government stated that it would expand parental leave to 18 months.

According to Statistics Canada, 27.1% of recent fathers claimed or intended to take parental leave in 2014. However, this number is greatly skewed by the differences between fathers in Quebec and those in the rest of Canada. For fathers in Quebec, 78.3% claimed or intended to claim parental leave (up from 27.8% in 2005 before QPIP was imple­ mented), compared with 9.4% outside of Quebec.

. . . Eligible fathers may access a portion of the parental benefits by sharing with their partner (either consecutively or concurrently), as benefits are not dad-specific (MacNaull, 2016)*

Eligible parents of a newborn or newly adopted child can take up to 35 weeks of leave with parental benefits, which can be used by one parent or shared between two parents. The parents decide how to use the parental leave available to them.

*Sara MacNaull (2016) is the Program Director at The Vanier Insti­ tute of the Family, http://vanierinstitute.ca/supporting-dads-pater- nity-leave-benefits-canada/. Reprinted with permission from The Vanier Institute of the Family.

On the first Saturday in July, a group of our closest male friends and their young children arrive at a provincial park for the start of our annual “Dad Camp.” As parents, one’s social life has to be adapted and made inclusive of children if adult relationships are to flourish. Dad Camp is the perfect way of get­ ting the best of both worlds. The indirect benefit of partners back home enjoying some “time o ff’ was never the intention.

This year we had 6 Dads and a total of 10 kids, ranging from ages 2 to 8. Naturally this draws attention as we move from the campsite to the public play areas, beach, and swimming. Atten­ tion ranges from general curiosity, playful teases to legitimate concern from observers for the well­ being of the kids without “a mother in sight.”

We received undeserved praise for giving the moms the weekend off, as if we were babysitting instead of parenting. We had others ask if we had enough sunscreen on and when was the last time they ate as “you know, it is nearly lunch time.” Dads’ weekend!

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NEL THE C HANG IN G FACE OF C A N A D IA N FAMILIES 13

In addition to enjoying time out of the city and the great outdoors, the special bond that comes with not having mom around has become the undisputed highlight of the weekend. It is a time where we build our confidence and independence as caregivers, both of which carry over long after our return home.

Dad Camp is a time where I depend on my daughter as much as she depends on me. We build, play, organize, clean, cook, sleep, and pack together. We problem solve, celebrate, and reflect on our experience together. It is bonding in its purest form and a weekend everyone cherishes.

Source: Sean Mullin

IMMIGRANT FATHERS Immigrant fathers face unique challenges as they begin to adapt to life in a new country. In many cases, they may not be able to immediately find work in the same field or industry that they worked in previously, because qualifications or certifications may be different in Canada and further training may be required. This unemployment or under­ employment can affect their self-esteem and can negatively impact how they relate to their spouse and children. If his spouse finds work sooner, this can add to the stress on the immigrant father who may be used to being the primary breadwinner in the family.

When a family arrives in Canada, the parents often bring with them the values and beliefs about their roles in the family that may or may not be sup­ ported in this country. The father—child dynamic might be quite different than it typically is here; they may come from countries where it is common to use physical punitive measures with children. Immigrant fathers may need a period of adjust­ ment as they feel the pressure to adapt to new expectations.

Often, until new immigrants find a social frame­ work with people who share their cultural back­ ground or religion, they can feel socially isolated and even discriminated against. This can intensify the pressures they face not only socially but also psychologically and financially. It can take time for men to feel included in a community and, if they have immigrated from countries at war, they may be impacted by trauma or have experienced unimagi­ nable loss. Feelings of depression and grief are not uncommon.

Despite the many social services available to immigrants in general, there are barriers that immi­ grant men face in particular that may prevent them from gaining access to necessary services. In rela­ tion to services that support children, these services are often run by women, and immigrant men may have a difficult time discussing these matters with women.

FAIRNESS IN FAMILIES INDEX In 2016, the Fatherhood Institute revisited its Fairness in Families Index (FiFI) created in 2010. The FiFI explores a number of measures to com­ pare progress toward gender equality in developed nations.

Countries are evaluated over nine key indicators across three dimensions of egalitarian parenting and earning: policies, social environment, and practices. The 2016 FiFI analyses 22 upper income nations, based on the most recent data available to date, across the following indicators:

• Parenting leave design • The gender pay gap • M en’s percentage share of the part-tim e

workforce • Percentage of GDP [gross domestic product]

spent on childcare and education for children under five years old

• Percentage of women sitting in parliament • Percentage of women in management positions • Ratio of men’s to women’s time spent caring for

children

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• Ratio of percentage of men to women in fami­ lies caring for elderly people and persons with disabilities

• Ratio of men’s to women’s time spent on house­ work (“The Fairness in Families Index,” 2016) 1

SCIENCE AND THE FAMILY In Vitro fertilization (IVF) and genetic testing are increasingly used, and recent scientific break­ throughs have made it possible to scan every chro­ mosome in a single embryonic cell to test for genes involved in hundreds of conditions. In the future, DNA microchips will be able to analyze more than a thousand traits at once. These genes will be linked, not only to a child’s health but also to athletic ability and appearance, including height and the colour of hair, skin, and eyes. These tests were devised to help those dealing with infertility, but people able to have babies the old-fashioned way may now opt for IVF

^Excerpted from “The Fairness in Families Index,” The Father- hood Report, 2016. http://www.fatherhoodinstitute.org/wp-content/ uploads/2016/06/FINALFatherhood-Institute-Capstone-FiFI-2016. pdf. Reprinted by permission of The Fatherhood Institute.

and embryo screening, paying a high price in return for the chance to have greater genetic control over their children.

“We now have the potential to banish the genes that kill us; that make us susceptible to cancer, heart disease, depression, addictions and obesity; and to select those that may make us healthier, stronger, and more intelligent. The question is, should we?” (Abraham, 2012). Preimplantation genetic diag­ nosis (PGD) extracts a cell from a newly created embryo and amplifies enough of its DNA to check for mutations.

We see the rise of smaller families, as parents choose to limit their family size. There may be many reasons for this decision but it is often because of the cost of raising and educating children; with two par­ ents working, it may be overwhelming to manage a large family in addition to work commitments.

Unfortunately, some couples in Canada may find themselves facing infertility challenges that are emotionally, financially, and physically exhausting. According to The World Bank Group (2016), the fertility rate for women in 1960 was 3.8 children; in 2014 the rate was 1.6. Women who have waited until later in life to have children, have fewer child­ bearing years, and may have difficulty conceiving.

TABLE 1.1 2016 Fairness in Families Index: Overall Ranking on Nine Key Indicators of Gender Equality

Rank Country Fairness in Families Index 2016

1 Sweden 0.749

2 Denmark 0.745

3 Iceland 0.720

4 Norway 0.720

5 Finland 0.696

6 Belgium 0.555

7 Canada 0.522

8* Portugal 0.512

9 New Zealand 0.493

10 France 0.469

Note that Canada’s ranking in 2010 was 12th in the list and its score was 0.489!

* According to the source material, Portugal was in sixth place with an index number of 0.512. For this publication, Portugal’s index number remains the same and the rankings have been adjusted.

Source: Excerpted from “The Fairness in Families Index,” Table 2, The Fatherhood Report, 2016. http://www.fatherhoodinstitute.org/ wp-content/uploads/2016/06/FINALFatherhood-Institute-Capstone-FiFI-2016.pdf. Reprinted by permission of The Fatherhood Institute.

NEL THE C HANG IN G FACE OF C A N A D IA N FAM ILIES 15

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“Some days I curse that IVF treatment. ”

Those who are determined to have children may seek out reproductive treatments, such as IVF and artificial insemination, while others have their eggs frozen to preserve fertility. Artificial insemination is often the first treatm ent for infertility. It is a simple procedure with few side effects, though the cost of the treatment and the necessary medications may be a barrier for many families.

For some women, the new technology succeeds too well; they bear far more children than they had bargained for. For many families, reproductive technology has succeeded, but for many others it is a disappointing and difficult experience. These families may continue to look for other options; as a consequence, surrogate motherhood is increasing and gives rise to a family model where the children may have three parents.

AN AGING POPULATION Canada’s aging population will have a major impact on the economy and public policies as baby boomers (those born between 1946 and 1965) begin the transition into retirement age. “By 2021,17.8 per cent of the total Canadian population will be over 65— that’s nearly seven million people. By 2041, that number is expected to jump to 9.7 million, or 22.6 per cent” (Gazer, 2016). Governments across the country will face severe challenges in terms of health care and social supports. Canada, like many other countries with aging populations, will struggle with the loss to the labour market. Yet many seniors

As older adults leave the workforce, they will have time for greater involvement with their grandchildren.

are remaining longer in their jobs because they lack pension plans or other funds to retire comfortably. While increased immigration will help to alleviate this issue, it may not be enough. Creativity and innovation will be required to meet the upcoming demands.

THE INCREASING DIVERSITY OF CANADIAN SOCIETY

RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY Canadians are religiously diverse, and more now report being followers of Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Buddhism. A recent report by the Angus Reid Institute has found that while “26 per cent of the population...are inclined to reject religion, a solid segment— 30 per cent of Canadians— embraces religion,” and the remaining 44 per cent said they were “somewhere in between” (Hutchins, 2015b).

The big boost in numbers comes from abroad. Among those born outside Canada, almost 40 per cent are inclined to embrace religion while less than a quarter reject it. As one might expect, among the Canadian-born, those older than 55 are more likely to embrace religion than younger gen­ erations. The exact opposite is the case for those born outside Canada: almost half of those 18 to 34 said they attend a religious service at least once a month. (Hutchins, 2015a)

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Portrait of households and families in Canada

Credit: Statistics Canada, 2016 Census of the Population, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2017024-eng.htm Catalogue number: 11-627-M

ISBN: 978-0-660-09160-0

www.statcan.gc.ca/census

1*1 Statistics Statistique Canada Canada Canada

Spiritual practice is strongly interwoven through most cultures of the world. While not every person understands the sacred in exactly the same way, and significant numbers of people around the world remain agnostic, many parents speak of the

important roles that spirituality and religion play in their parenting practices. Teachers often may not know the religious background of a family, but it may be an important element in family dynamics. Some families will share information that impacts

NEL THE C HANG IN G FACE OF C A N A D IA N FAM ILIES 17

on practices in the child-care centre, such as reli­ gious celebrations. Variations in religious beliefs must be respected in the way that all other elements of acceptance of family practices are embraced. The world’s great religious traditions also have

some similar values that bind people together (see Figure 1.2): • Buddhism: H urt not others in ways that

you yourself would find hurtful (Udana Virga, 5:8).

FIGURE 1.2 The Golden Rule

Source: With permission of Paul McKenna

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• Christianity: All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them (Matthew, 7:12).

• Confucianism: Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you (Analect, 15:23).

• Hinduism: This is the sum of duty: do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you (Mahabharata, 5:1517).

• Islam: No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself (Sunnah).

• Jainism: In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self (Lord Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara).

• Judaism: W hat is hateful to you; do not to your fellow man. That is the law: all the rest is com­ mentary (Talmud, Shabbat, 31a).

W ith Canada’s increasing cultural diversity, inter-religious conjugal unions are also on the rise. Educators should be knowledgeable of the reli­ gious affiliations of the families with whom they are working and encourage people to share informa­ tion about their faiths. By learning more about the community, educators are in a position to educate children and help them develop tolerance for others.

BOOKS FOR ADULTS

The Sacred Paths: Understanding the Religions o f the World, by T. Ludwig

A Little History o f Religion, by R. Holloway How to Be a Perfect Stranger: The Essential

Religious Etiquette Handbook, 4th ed., by S.M. Matlins and A.J. Magida

Understanding Religion in a Global Society, by E.M. Rapple, J.C. Modschiedler, and R.D. Peterson

Religions in Global Society, by P. Beyer

CHANGES IN THE LABOUR FORCE One significant change in the labour force is that women are entering the workforce in record num ­ bers. Baker (2014:151) states “women’s employment

rates continue to be influenced by their marital status, the financial need of their households, the age of their children, ideologies about women’s roles, opportunities to work part-time, and the availability of affordable child-care services, but they are also affected by national or local employ­ ment conditions.” For many Canadians, temporary jobs have become the norm. Many families attempt to restructure their work and private lives to reach some balance. Parents whose work falls outside the standard workweek find it doubly difficult to coor­ dinate child care and other family responsibilities. To reduce child-care expenses, spouses may work on different shifts— a strategy called “off-shifting,” but these irregular hours may have a negative impact on relationships within the family.

The safety net that so many of us have relied on in the past is now not always available to the most disadvantaged people in our society.

EMPLOYER ATTITUDES Many factors affect employers’ attitudes to their workforce. Globalization, trade agreements, and government policies have increased pressure on employers, and resulted in downsizing, contract work, part-time workers, increased workloads, and the need to acquire new skills in many areas. Employers are noticing the effect of work—family conflict on their companies, particularly in terms of productivity and the bottom line. Govern­ ments have also been examining the effect of work—family conflict on individuals and fami­ lies. However, corporations have been slow to respond.

Many have not adopted progressive changes in the workplace that would support families, such as the following:

• workplace child-care centres • more flexible work schedules, including part-

time work or voluntary summers off without pay

• shorter workweeks at full pay or compressed workweeks

• flexible hours with no shift work • job-sharing schemes • working from home, telecommuting, mobile

offices, and satellite offices • prenatal and postnatal care for families and

their babies

NEL THE C HANG IN G FACE OF C A N A D IA N FAM ILIES 19

• phased return from parental leave • supplementary unemployment parental benefits

plan • opportunities to work at home • workplace child care or extended-hour child

care • child-care resource and referral services • parenting courses • flex time for child care and school involvement • salary deferrals and sabbaticals • compassionate care leaves • respite care and other emergency referral

services • counselling services • job training and retraining • a voucher system in which families choose those

benefits that best meet their needs, including reimbursement for child-care expenses for work responsibilities outside regular hours

WORK-FAMILY BALANCE: WILL I GET IT RIGHT?

The work—family balance is a constant struggle.

Balancing work and family life is challenging for many Canadians, who would appreciate and benefit from a more supportive work environments.The sources of stress are varied, and so too are the abilities

Balancing Work and Care giving in Canada A comprehensive major Canadian study on work—life balance was conducted in 2012 by Linda Duxbury, Carleton University, and Christopher Higgins, Western University. This study found that work demands have risen, flexible work arrangements are rare, and career mobility is an issue. Their study looked at the work—life challenges of 25,000 Canadians working full time in all provinces and territories. Two thirds of the participants were parents.

“Stress levels have gone up and life satisfaction has gone down,” said Duxbury. “Email use has gone up, as have work demands. There are more employees balancing work, elder care and childcare. But despite the talk, many companies have not made progress in the area of work—life balance and employee well-being.”

Among the findings: • Most Canadian employees still work a fixed nine-to-five schedule— about two-thirds. • Overall, the typical employee spends 50.2 hours in work-related activities a week. Just over

half of employees take work home to complete outside regular hours. • The use of flexible work arrangements such as a compressed work week (15 per cent) and

flexible schedules (14 per cent) is much less common. • Fifty-seven per cent of those surveyed reported high levels of stress. • Employees in the survey were twice as likely to let work interfere with family as the

reverse. • W ork-life conflict was associated with higher absenteeism and lower productivity.

Source: Reprinted by permission of Dr. Linda Duxbury, Carleton University.k________ 0 * 0 * 2 0 CHAPTER 1 NEL

EXHIBIT 1.2 A Mother's Memories of Poverty How does poverty affect Canadian families? We can gain some understanding of this issue by consid­ ering Linda Marchotte’s memories of mothering in poverty:

• the kids always having stained, patched, or out-of-fashion clothes;

• sending them to school with plain, unexciting lunches every day;

• no hot-dog or doughnut treats at school fund­ raising days;

• no cable TV, actually no TV for five years; • no movies; • arriving places tired from carrying stuff and

worn out from waiting in the cold or wet or hot;

• shame in inviting kids over: “Where’s the couch?” “Where’s your stereo?” “Where’s your room?” were the kinds of questions from these young visitors;

• birthday parties, where kids asked, “Is this all there is?”;

• worry and anxiety about money— “Will we make it to cheque day?”— and being scared

anything will happen that costs anything, this fear taking energy away from living, having fun, and paying attention to the children;

• dragging the kids and two garbage bags full of dirty laundry on the bus every week to do laundry;

• always looking for money or returnable bot­ tles on the ground;

• being constantly worried the kids weren’t getting enough nutritious food to grow and be healthy;

• being homeless for four months and living with friends and at two different friends’ houses while they were away, with our things stored on another friend’s back porch;

• being aware of how outside of their peers’ culture and experience my children were, and being powerless to do anything about it.

Source: Baxter, S. 1993. A Child Is Not a Toy: Voices o f Children in Poverty. Vancouver: New Star Press, p. 169. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

of and resources for families to deal with these chal­ lenges. These disparities highlight the importance of informal and formal support networks and the need for community resources and family-friendly workplace programs. Employees have voiced strong concern over the child-care difficulties they expe­ rience. Research shows consistently that compared with employees without child-care responsibilities, parents experience higher stress levels, lower pro­ ductivity, and higher absenteeism, all of which have a negative effect on their workplace performance. Organized labour and other concerned groups have proposed that child care be universally accessible and publicly funded. In taking this position, they support the view that child care is not a women’s issue or a parental responsibility but a societal issue that requires community involvement and support as well as family participation. It is interesting to note that today’s 30-year-olds are the first generation of parents who may have been in child care them­ selves but they may be experiencing the frustration of not being able to find it for their own children.

New parents, half of whom are in their mid-30s, are connected to their parenting role in ways that

could not have been imagined by their own parents. Hundreds of experts have written about every pos­ sible aspect of child rearing and parenting. Parents are sure to feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of their task when each expert has a different strategy for raising successful and caring children. Internet access to blogs, email alerts, and health care and parenting sites exacerbates the situation since par­ ents can now retrieve more information than was ever thought possible. For many parents who are educated and environmentally conscious, this infor­ mation supports their demanding role. For others, it may make them feel not just anxious but over­ whelmed, as the content may be too complicated, too basic, or in conflict with cultural practices.

Changing family structures, economic pressures, eroding community support systems, and govern­ ment cutbacks at all levels contribute to stressors on the family that can lead to clinical burnout and may affect children’s social, emotional, and intellectual development. For a look at poverty’s effects on a family, see Exhibit 1.2.

One of the manifestations of the control that parents exercise over their children is found in the

NFI T H F C H A N G IN G ! F A fF D F C A N A D IA N F A M IL IE S 21

“hurried child syndrome” (Elkind, 1981). W hat happens to the family when child/parent schedules and needs collide? When stress induces parents to put their own needs ahead of their children’s, then children are expected to adapt to adult schedules and timetables rather than adults adapting them­ selves to the pace of childhood.

THE COST OF CHILD CARE In 2017 Canada’s federal government, in agreement with the provinces and territories, announced the funding of additional child-care and early learning programs. This funding is critical since the cost of child care places an enormous burden on families, one more element of stress in the home environ­ ment. A study by the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives (Macdonald and Klinger, 2015) pro­ vides insight into the financial burden that families encounter when researching the cost of child care in their community. Even if families can afford the fees, many spend years on waiting lists for a child­ care space and even more low-income families wait for subsidized care.

POVERTY W hat are the implications of poverty? Regional variations and the different issues facing urban and rural populations make it difficult to measure pre­ cisely the depth of poverty in this country. One of the striking facts about poverty in Canada is that many people who live in poverty have jobs! We also know that a significant number of children in Canada live in circumstances that place them at social, physical, and emotional disadvantages. A study based on 2014 statistics, the most recent avail­ able, written by a wide range of advocacy groups state that in Toronto, 27 percent of children are living below the poverty line (Toronto Star, 2016).

So what are the real implications of gender inequality in the workforce? Ambert (2006) claims, “If women were paid equitably, the poverty rate in Canada could be cut in half. The economic disadvan­ tages to women are exacerbated for single mothers” (as cited in Shimoni and Baxter, 2008: 120).*

Campaign 2000 is a non-partisan network of national, provincial, and community partner

*From R. Shimoni and J. Baxter. 2008. Wording with Families, 4th ed. Toronto: Pearson, p. 120. Reprinted with permission by Pearson Canada Inc.

organizations committed to working to end child and family poverty. Its website has a comprehen­ sive overview of child poverty in Canada (www .campaign2000.ca). Children who live in pov­ erty experience both short-term and long-lasting effects for their physical and mental health, leading to wide-ranging social ramifications. Campaign 2000s 2016 Report Card on Child and Family Poverty in Canada makes recommendations to

address housing, precarious employment, gaps in the social safety net, income inequality, and early childhood education and care.

Children and families need bold, unrelenting and collaborative federal leadership for a com­ prehensive anti-poverty plan that uproots pov­ erty. Nearly 1 in 5 children in Canada live in poverty today because their families are forced to navigate the uncertainty of precarious work, skyrocketing housing costs, and uneven and unaffordable childcare services while they try not to slip through the holes in Canada’s social safety net. The Canada Child Benefit and gov­ ernm ent’s commitment to reduce and monitor child poverty are im portant steps forward in the battle against child poverty. But, w ith over 1.3 million children in poverty, and Canada ranking 26/35 in U N IC E F ’s international ranking of child inequality, Canada’s work is clearly not done,” says Anita Khanna, National Coordinator for Campaign 2000....

“We must also focus on ending discrimina­ tion experienced by groups of children with higher poverty rates, those who rely on women’s employment incomes, Indigenous children, racial- ized children, children affected by disability, and children who have recently im m igrated,” said Khanna (Campaign 2000, 2016).*

FOOD INSECURITY Many Canadian families struggle to put food on the table for a variety of reasons but the main reason is a low income. Low income may result from low wages, or living on a fixed income or social assis­ tance. In remote areas, the cost of shipping fresh food may increase the prices of store-bought food too high for families to purchase.

Food bank use is up, according to a report by Food Banks Canada (The Canadian Press, 2016). Across Canada, food bank use has gone up, particu­ larly in the North— Yukon, Northwest Territories,

*Reprinted by permission of Campaign 2000.

2 2 CHAPTER 1 NEL

Second Harvest In 1985, two local women, Ina Andre and Joan Clayton, saw that good food was being thrown away while people were going hungry right here in Toronto. This contradiction didn’t sit well with them, and so, with two volunteers, a hatchback, seven food donors, and seven community agencies, Second Harvest was born. Thirty-one years later, 4 million Canadians don’t have access to healthy food, and Second Harvest estimates that there are over 360,000 children, adults, and seniors in Toronto currently experiencing food insecurity. Today, Second Harvest is the largest food rescue charity in Canada. Every year, this organi­ zation rescues over 4.3 million kilograms of fresh, surplus food that would otherwise go to waste, and delivers it to 250 social service agencies in the Greater Toronto Area. All of the food is donated by local food retailers, manufacturers, farmers, restaurants and caterers. Second Harvest is the main provider of fresh food to people in need in Toronto, and unlike traditional food banks, it focuses on rescuing and delivering fresh, healthy, perishable foods— protein, dairy, and produce.

Supported by hundreds of corporations, foundations, and the community at large, Second Harvest rescues and delivers enough food to provide over 30,000 meals a day. You can read more about Second Harvest at www.secondharvest.ca.

Source: Contributed by Second Harvest (2016).

_____________________________________________

and Nunavut—as well as in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Nova Scotia. The only provinces where the number of people who turned to a food bank did not increase were Ontario and Manitoba. “T hat’s enough kids to fill 6,000 school buses,” says Shawn Pegg, the organization’s director of policy and research (The Canadian Press, 2016).

The federal government has increased child benefit payments, which are expected to push many children above the poverty line. The new system, the Canada Child Benefit, combines the Canada Child Tax Benefit and the Universal Child Care Benefit into one plan. In a more fair and comprehensive income-tested system, poorer families whose net income is below $30,000 will see an increase in their payments, while wealthy families with an income over $200,000 will no longer receive this benefit. The new payment is also tax-free.

“Families with children under the age of six will receive $6,400 per child per year and those fami­ lies with children between six and 17 will receive a maximum of $5,400 annually” (Saltzman, 2016). It is hoped that the fund will have a stimulating effect on the economy.

Based on a United Way report, Monsebraaten (2015) states that Toronto has become the country’s largest concentration of the working poor with “more than 9 per cent of workers or 264,000 adults

living on poverty-level wages__Vancouver follows closely in second place at 8.7 per cent, while most other Canadian cities hover around the national average of 6.6 per cent.”

The Canadian Teachers’ Federation character­ izes the negative consequences of poverty in general:

Outside of the classroom, social inequity looms affecting educators’ ability to maximize every child’s potential. Inequity comes in many forms including discrimination and reduced socioeco­ nomic opportunity. O f special concern to the Canadian Teachers’ Federation is poverty. Pov­ erty stunts the potential of the one in ten Canadian children affected by it. Empty stomachs and less money for extracurricular activities can translate into lower achievement levels. Poverty’s symptoms include reduced motivation to learn, delayed cog­ nitive development, lower achievement, less par­ ticipation in extracurricular activities, interrupted school attendance, increased illiteracy and higher dropout rates. N ot surprisingly, children who grow up in poverty have lower university atten­ dance rates (Tremblay, 2012).*

Yet money does not necessarily ensure that a child is not vulnerable as the following Inside Look feature demonstrates.

*Claire Tremblay, “Canada’s A Grade Teachers.” Reprinted by per­ mission from Ottawa Life Magazine.

NEL THE C HANG IN G FACE OF C A N A D IA N FAMILIES 23

The Early Development Instrument, or the EDI for short, was developed by Dr. Dan Offord and Dr. Magdalena Janus at the Offord Centre for Child Studies at McMaster University.

The EDI is a 103-item questionnaire completed by kindergarten teachers in the second half of the school year that measures children’s ability to meet age-appropriate developmental expectations in five general domains:

• Physical Health and Well Being, • Social Competence, • Emotional Maturity, • Language and Cognitive Development, and • Communication Skills and General Development. .. .The EDI has been used since 1998 in Canada and has been implemented in every province and ter­

ritory in the country with the exception of Nunavut (“W hat Is the EDI?, 2016).* For example, in one of Vancouver’s most exclusive enclaves:

fully 43 per cent of kindergarten-aged kids from the neighbourhood qualified this year as “vul­ nerable” on a standard index of childhood development__The kids were assessed on the Early Development Instrument (EDI), atool used.. .to measure school readiness based on language skills, emotional maturity, socialization, physical health and general knowledge.... Nancy Farran, chair of the city’s community foundation, has gone so far to suggest that the trappings of wealth them­ selves— live-in nannies, perimeter fences, winding approaches guarded by electronically controlled gates— discourage neighbourhood youngsters from socializing, deepening the linguistic divide.... Lara Aknin, a Simon Fraser University psychology professor...says...“pursuing money comes at the cost of time spent with friends and others close to us, which are some of our greatest sources of well-being (Gillis, 2016: 21-22) +

"Reprinted by permission of The Offord Centre.

tC. Gillis, 2016. “In one Vancouver corner, even money can't buy happiness, Rogers Media Inc. All rights reserved.

’’ Macleans, October 28. Used with permission of

4*

HOUSING, HOMELESSNESS, AND SHELTER LIFE A growing concern is the num ber of families facing homelessness. Some avoid being counted in statistics since they often “couch-surf,” staying

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with family or friends while they seek housing. W hen affordable housing is limited, young par­ ents and those with disabilities are most often at a disadvantage. C hildren are m ost vulner­ able in these situations. “One in seven of those in homelessness shelters are children. Living in inadequate, crowded and unaffordable housing is associated with higher vulnerability to asthma and injury, an accelerated spread of comm u­ nicable diseases, anxiety and insom nia, less physical exercise and diminished school perfor­ m ance” (Campaign 2000, 2016). W hen housing becomes available, and mothers have children, their needs become more complex. There are so many issues to consider, such as the location of the local school, transportation to and from a job, and local resources such a grocery stores, banks, and doctors. In some situations, mothers may be

2 4 CHAPTER 1 NEL