—

F a i r D e a l i n g ( S h o r t E x c e r p t )

Reading: Ch. 12. Culturally Diverse Families (excerpt) (Working with Families)

Author: Shimoni, Rena; Baxter, Joanne M.

Editor: N/A

Publisher: Pearson Addison Wesley Publication Date: 2008 Pages: 214-224

Course: ECED 421 63A 2023W1 Supporting Young Children Through Home, School, and Community Relationships Course Code: 63A Term: 2023W1

Department: ECED

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12Culturally Diverse Families

This chapter will focus on culturally diverse families and some of the challenges they face. Two types of families will be considered. The first are immigrant and refugee families; the second are First Nations, Inuit, and Metis families.

Objectives • To understand and appreciate the cultural diversity that exists in Canada.

• To understand the demographic shifts in Canada as a result of migration.

• To understand the impact of war trauma and immigration on children and families.

• To understand the factors that influence adjustment and successful accultura­ tion in Canada.

• To examine attitudes toward immigrants and refugees.

• To understand the experience of First Nations families.

• To put the experience of First Nations people in historical perspective.

• To understand First Nations' beliefs and beliefs around family.

• To dispel common myths surrounding First Nations families.

• To discuss ways in which the early childhood professional can support children and their families who are new Canadians or First Nations.

liana is the mother of a 5-year-old g irl who comes to a drop-in centre. Her husband was killed at the beginning of a war in the ir country, and the fam ily spent almost four years as refugees in another area of the ir coun­ try , sharing a small apartm ent w ith extended family members.

" I t was a tim e of poverty, loneliness, and sadness. Grief and loneli­ ness seemed to be the only things I could feel. During our times as

2 0 9

refugees, my daughter became extrem ely anxious when we were sepa­ rated. She would cry at all times when I was out of sight. When we arrived in Canada, I wanted to look for work, or go to English classes, and tried to put my daughter in a child-care centre. Every morning, as we approached the centre, my daughter started to feel ill, cried, and refused to stay. I was becoming so frustra ted, and feeling a b it angry w ith my daughter.

"The sta ff at the centre helped me understand tha t my daughter had severe separation anxiety as a result of the life we had led as refugees. My daughter really never had the opportun ity to play, and we were always so tense. They helped me understand how im portant it was for me to let my daughter play, with me nearby. A fter a long time, she was okay if I le ft for a while. I can't believe tha t now I can leave for several hours, and my lit t le girl lets me go. Sometimes she s till fusses again, but I see other Canadian children behaving the same way. So I th ink tha t we are in a much better situation now. I am thankful for the help we received."

The cultural map of Canada has been changing considerably over the past few years. People immigrate to Canada for many reasons. For some, it is the opportunity to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy the economic and social opportunities that life in Canada affords. For others, coming to Canada is an opportunity to reunite with family and loved ones who have immigrated to Canada in the past. For others still, Canada provides an escape and safe haven from war and other situations that are simply unimaginable to many Canadians. We will discuss in this chapter the demography of immigration and the impact of immigration on children and families. Then we will consider the ways in which the early childhood educator can provide support to new Canadian families.

Immigrating to Canada Vast demographic changes are taking place throughout Canada. In 2001, 20 percent of Canadians were immigrants (Ambert, 2006) A walk through any large city, many small towns, or just about any college or university campus reinforces the fact that Canada is largely a collection of many different cultures (Devito, Shimoni, & Clark, 2007). Many cultural groups have been successful in preserving their uniqueness and special traditions while contribut­ ing to Canadian society as a whole. Over the past decade, much emphasis has been placed on diversity in early childhood education. Fifteen years ago, many of the articles, workshops, and chapters in books were entitled “Tolerating Diversity.” Public awareness of the possible negative connotations of that phrase led to a reconsideration. We then began to talk about “celebrating diversity,” which better reflects the idea that Canadians are proud of their multi­ cultural society. Canadian identity is considered a multicultural mosaic, with different cultures and groups within the mosaic influencing each other in a number of ways.

Canada is a very diverse society, made up of a multitude of ethnically diverse groups. This diversity is constantly changing. For example, according to the 2001 census, 7.7% of the population was of Asian origin (all countries included). However, of the 5.45 million immigrants up to that year, 36.5% were of Asian origin (http://www40.statcan.ca/101/ cst01/demo34a.htm, modified in 2005). This clearly indicates the ongoing shift in demographics. Overall, the proportion of foreign-born population had increased from 16.1 to 18.4% between 1991 and 2001 (ibid), although the distribution between provinces is very uneven. For example, the proportion increased from 22.3 to 26.1% in British

210 Part 2: Facing Family Challenges

Columbia, whereas it declined from 15.1 to 14.9% in Alberta (ibid). Clearly, these changes will affect many aspects of society in the future.

While the terms embracing diversity and celebrating diversity appear in many textbooks, many Canadians feel some of the ambivalence that societal change often brings. It may be easier to celebrate difference when those who are different are in the minority than when there is a concern that the traditional ways of mainstream Canadians may be challenged. We have to be careful not to automatically assume that someone is a racist or prejudiced if they question how the changing landscape of Canada may affect their lives. Successful adaptation to change requires a strong commitment to mutual understanding and much dialogue. It is very important that, as professionals, we move beyond the slogans of Celebrating and Embracing Diversity to encourage these dialogues to occur. A first step for educators is to learn about the culture of others and about the range of behaviours and values that reflect these cultures. Second, and perhaps more important, is to understand our own culture. That is, why do we do the things we do or think the way we think (Klein and Chen, 2001)? Third, we need to understand the challenges faced by many new Canadians who undergo the transition from country to country, some of whom have fled from circumstances that we can only begin to imagine.

It is often difficult to imagine the experiences of new Canadians as they build their lives in Canada. Even under the best of circumstances, moving to a new location, communicating in a new language, and encountering a profusion of new sensations, experiences, and people can be simply overwhelming. Clark et al. (2002) have described a number of risk factors faced by immigrant families. Some of these are the same risk factors that apply to many Canadian families, and some are unique to immigrants and refugees. However, as we have discussed in previous chapters, it is the intensity and number of risk factors facing a family at any particular time that we need to be concerned about. These risk factors include the following: Underemployment or unemployment. Many immigrants to Canada arrive with education,

experience, and professional qualifications from their home country. Due to a number of factors, such as language barriers, different demand levels of occupations in various countries, and different criteria for qualifications, many immigrants do not find work in their own fields. For example, many immigrants are highly trained engi­ neers, technicians, or teachers. Yet barriers to employment result in either underem­ ployment (working in a job that they are overqualified for) or unemployment.

Role reversal. Often when new Canadians seek employment in Canada, women find jobs (often in child care or domestic realms) more easily than their husbands. Therefore, in many immigrant families, the father becomes the primary caregiver of the children while the mother is at work. Some families find this “role reversal” very difficult, as fathers have not had the socialization or training to be the primary caregivers and nurturers of children.

Social isolation. Many immigrant Canadians left behind networks of family and friends. In their new country, feelings of isolation often intensify the social, psychological, and economic pressures that they face. Immigrants are of diverse religious and cultural backgrounds. They often feel excluded from mainstream social events and sometimes experience discrimination and exclusion (Ambert, 2006).

Barriers to helping services. There is a growing awareness of the barriers that prevent new Canadians from fully utilizing community and health services that offer support to individuals and families. An inability to communicate in English, lack of knowledge and information about services, perceptions that help is unavailable or that profes­ sionals “won’t be able to help them,” fear of stigmatization and deportation, and lack

Chapter 12: Culturally Diverse Families 211

of child care are seen as key barriers to accessing helping services. Further, health professionals have suggested additional barriers, such as fear of hospitals and clinics, professionals’ lack of understanding of immigrants’ cultural background, and agen­ cies’ inability to provide translators or workers who speak immigrants’ first languages. While in recent years there have been many efforts made to improve the accessibility of services to diverse populations, barriers still exist.

English/French as a second language. Clearly, competence in the English or French language is necessary for success in Canada, and many efforts are made to help new Canadians focus on teaching and learning English. However, as pointed out by Chud and Fahlman (1995), people who required language training became labelled “ESL,” much the same way that children were labelled “special needs.” The skills, talents, and potential of the adult and child are often overlooked when the label “ESL” is applied.

Loss, grief, and depression. Many immigrants to Canada are grateful for the opportunity to live in this country and appreciate all the advantages that Canada offers. However, even if they are here by choice, it is normal to need to grieve the losses of family, friends, and way of life that is left behind. Depression has been noted as one of the common problems among immigrants. This has a major impact on the child-rearing capacity of immigrant parents, who, for extended periods of time, may be emotionally unavailable to their children. In addition, studies on immigrants report that many cases of depression go undetected due to cultural barriers and inappropriate services.

Trauma induced by war or enforced refugee status. It is well known that families who have been affected by traumatic events and refugees require special intervention and atten­ tion. Adults who have suffered these kinds of trauma appear to need to move through several stages as they seek to restore mental health after being uprooted and displaced. Post-traumatic stress disorder is fairly common and can deeply impact a family’s life.

Effects of Refugee Experiences on Children Young children who have experienced the trauma and horrors of war are often in need of extensive treatment and care. Imagine the impact of witnessing the torture or beating of a sibling, parent, or relative; of being moved from place to place to hide; and going for days without shelter or food. These experiences, followed by a trying journey to a new and unfa­ miliar country, are overwhelming for children. Parents, who usually provide support for children in stressful situations, may be so overwhelmed by their own reactions to trauma and grief that they are unable to provide the emotional support and security to their chil­ dren. It is no wonder, then, that refugee children commonly display signs of chronic sadness. They may seem excessively fearful or shy, and many develop symptoms of school phobia. The opening scenario in this chapter portrayed a very common occurrence—that is, a heightened degree of separation anxiety that would under normal circumstances be seen as inappropriate for the age of the child. Regressive behaviour, learning disabilities, and poor school performance are often seen in refugee children. Hyper-alertness or hyper- aggressive behaviour are other common symptoms.

Immigrant children who are not refugees will likely have experienced less severe trauma. But they will have experienced the uncertainty, fear, and sadness associated with moving from their familiar setting to a new and strange country. As they grow up in their new country, many immigrant children experience conflict between the norms and values of their peers and their teachers and those of their parents, who maintain the beliefs and values of their country of origin. This is especially notable in the adolescent years.

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Coping Strategies of Immigrant and Refugee Parents The previous description of the risk factors that apply to immigrant and refugee families may lead readers to the mistaken conclusion that the odds are high against successful immigration. The truth, however, is just the opposite. After an almost inevitably difficult beginning, most immigrant families acculturate and become successful Canadian citi­ zens. As with many of the issues facing families that have been described in this text, the appropriate support, at the appropriate time, when families have young children, can make a tremendous difference. For this reason, it is important to understand the risks facing immigrant families. It is equally important to understand differences in child-rear­ ing approaches and strategies so that we do not approach these families from an assump­ tion of deficit. Effective support usually builds on the family’s strengths.

Shimoni, Clarke, and Este (2002) describe different coping methods used by families who are immigrants and refugees. They will have different approaches to professionals—some may be worried that professionals will “interfere" with their way of life, some may feel disempowered as parents due to their own adjustment difficulties and may even go as far as abdicating responsibility for decision making to professionals, such as teachers and nurses.

Different Strokes Lee was doing his practicum in a family resource program in two locations in the city-one with predominantly young single mothers living in impover­ ished settings, the other with new immigrant families. One of his tasks was to plan play experiences for drop-in time in both locations. For the young mothers' group, he planned open-ended activities that children typically worked on while their mothers interacted or attended support meetings. In the other location, the play experiences were totally different. Parents often stayed with their children and directed them in completing the tasks "righ t" for the "teachers." Parents often asked for models, sought c larifi­ cation, and insisted children complete projects correctly. They joined circle time to ensure the ir children paid attention and participated. Lee commented on the difference in his planning and how difficult this was for him since he really did not favour highly structured activities. However, he said that this was obviously important to those parents and that he would plan accordingly.

When immigrants move from one culture to another, they can either preserve the image of a successful adult from their home country, or abandon it in favour of the image of the successful adult in their new country. In fact, it is never quite this clear-cut. Many interrelated factors affect the image parents hold following immigration. But in each case, immigrant families have to find ways to cope with the different norms, expectations, and values regarding children that are prevalent in the new country and that surface when they interact with professionals at preschool, school, and with health and social services.

Chapter 12: Culturally Diverse Families 213

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Sadhana, Age 4

The Meeting of Parental Styles with the Perceptions of Professionals Almost without exception, parents want their children to grow and develop to be success­ ful adults. Parents who have immigrated to Canada may have very different ideas of what a successful adult is, and therefore will have different child-rearing approaches and strategies. When they arrive in Canada and begin to interface with educational and other frameworks, they will develop strategies to cope with these differences. Some will hold dearly to the norms of their countries of origin, some will encourage their children to abandon these in favour of quickly becoming “Canadian,” and others may attempt to help their children live successfully in both worlds. Usually these strategies are not evident in the extreme, but as general tendencies. There is no right or wrong way of making this adjustment to life in Canada. But if professionals understand these differ­ ences they will be better able to understand parents. The mother who doesn’t come to parent meetings because she feels she has little to offer and the teacher knows best anyway is not acting out of lack of concern for her child. She may well believe that her non-involvement is in the best interest of her child. Similarly, the parent who adamantly insists that his child should maintain customs and appearances that belong to the culture of the family’s home country is generally doing this in the belief that it is in the best inter­ est of his child. Therefore, rather than judging the behaviour of the parents and their approach to child-rearing, caregivers must appreciate that there are differences that they need to respect and understand.

When early childhood educators work with families of different cultures, questions inevitably arise regarding value differences. Struggling with these value differences is sometimes difficult for early childhood professionals, and can be a barrier to providing

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new Canadian families with empathy and support. Bradley and Kibera (2006) give two examples. The first relates to privacy. In some families in their study, mothers did not feel comfortable sharing information about the family, yet the early childhood educator felt that without this knowledge, she couldn’t do her job properly. The second difference Bradley and Kibera (2006) cite relates to families’ perceptions of disability. Cultural beliefs may have a significant impact on parents’ expectation about their child’s ability. Some may believe that “this is the way he was born and we just have to live with it" rather than accepting support to help the child reach his full potential. Klein (2003) cites gender roles and approaches to discipline as two other areas where important value differences may emerge. There are no simple solutions to the question, “How do we deal with these differences?” but we can offer some advice.

Learning about other cultures sometimes helps put these value differences in a context to help us appreciate them. Citizen and Immigration Canada has created a website that provides cultural profiles for close to 100 countries. (See “Recommended Websites” at the end of this chapter.)

It is helpful if staff have open discussions regarding the adaptations that are possible for them to make and those that are not (e.g., “We do treat boys and girls the same at the centre, and that shouldn’t change, but we can appreciate that in homes this may not be the same.”) Most children can sort out these inconsistencies. Bradley and Kibera (2006) stress that staff must recognize the benefits families can gain from connecting to the strengths of their cultures and accessing the sources of their cultural communities. Sometimes that is more important than the support that can be provided at the centre.

There is no question that any behaviour by a parent that would be classified as physical or emotional abuse and/or neglect goes beyond (and is rarely related to) a cultural difference.

cenano Bridging the Gap Shibana's parents immigrated to Canada before she was born. In some ways, they adapted to Canadian customs, but in other ways they held onto their cultural beliefs. When Shibana finished ECCE at college, her parents felt it was time that she married, and they began the search for a husband. Shibana felt caught but did agree to meet the many eligible suitors. After several years she decided to marry a man who lived in the same city and who was chosen by her parents. Prior to her marriage, her colleagues at the child-care centre threw a very "traditional" bridal shower/stagette, where many "marital aid" items were given as gifts. Shibana received all of the gifts good-naturedly but remarked that she was unsure what to do with all the gifts since they would be living with his parents, as expected.

First Nations, Inuit, and Metis Families This section of the chapter will focus on First Nations, Inuit, and Metis families and children. The term Aboriginal refers to “the descendents of the original inhabitants of North America. The Canadian constitution recognizes three groups of Aboriginals: First Nations, Metis and

Chapter 12: Culturally Diverse Families 215

Inuit” (Alberta Education, 2005, p.10). There are over 500 distinct nations in North America, each with their own set of values, languages, dialects, and child-rearing patterns, as well as geographical differences, unique cultural differences, and differences; between urban and rural peoples. And these differences between nations make it difficult to define what First Nations is. However, we should bear in mind that many First Nations people share common values and world views, and it is the commonalities that we will explore while remembering the cultural diversity that exists and the need to learn more from local elders and resource centres.

There have been significant and rapid changes in North American society, all of which have had effects on the family—families have become more isolated, women are active members of the workforce outside of the home, children spend large blocks of time in and out of home care, people are busy, and stresses have increased. These changes also exist for First Nations families but have been compounded by the loss of traditional lifestyles, interventions in lifestyle, and the disruption of family life: “generations of First Nations peoples experienced profound, unsought and irreversible changes in their cultural and family life (Alberta Education, 2005, p.2).

Historical Perspective Before Europeans landed, First Nations societies were well developed, highly organized, and stable (Mandell & Duffy, 2000). The basic social unit was the family (Ambert, 2006), which existed primarily as the extended family and was communal by nature. That is to say, reciprocity and sharing were basic values. Labour was shared, and divisions of labour were by sex (e.g., men were the hunters and women the cultivators of food and caregivers for young children). The products of labour were shared among the members of the community or the band in a spirit of cooperation, not competition.

Europeans found this culture different and unfamiliar and considered it a barrier to their goals of colonization. They forced changes on First Nations people that eroded their culture and livelihoods and resulted in changes to family life as well. For example, some nations had matrilineal descent patterns, while Europeans were largely patrilineal.

One significant influence has been the Indian Act. The Indian Act was established by Europeans who settled in Canada and ensured that government maintained power over First Nations people by regulating every aspect of their lives. For example, the Indian Act detailed who was qualified as “Indian” and restricted activities that promoted culture (e.g., pow wows) (Alberta Education, 2005). These laws stayed in effect until the 1980s.

In addition, government and religious authorities deemed it necessary to assimilate First Nations into Canadian ways or into the “dominant English Christian ways” (Alberta Education, p. 5). This assimilation occurred in language, culture, and religion. Children were removed from families to be taught Canadian ways and culture in residential schools. Others would say “the primary objective was to purge the children of all traditional cultural identifiers” (Ambert, 2006, p. 93). Churches established residential schools as part of their missionary experiences in Canada prior to Confederation (McCue, 2000). The government of Canada assisted in the administration of these schools from 1874 to the last closing in 1996 to meet its obligation under the Indian Act to integrate Natives into Canadian culture. In residential schools, First Nations children were not allowed to speak their own language or practise their own traditions. They lived in a structured, militaristic way: they wore uniforms and had their heads shaved. They were brainwashed to believe Christian principles and to abandon their own beliefs. This

216 Part 2: Facing Family Challenges

occurred in an atmosphere of severe corporal punishment and often abuse (Mandell & Duffy, 2000). Appalling as it seems today, these children were separated from their families and communities in an attempt to break all cultural ties with their native culture and language. The short-term effects of residential schools included running away, acting out, depression, and alcohol abuse. The long-term effects are still being experienced by many First Nations people today. Residential schools disrupted or destroyed the First Nations family (Ambert, 2006; McCue, 2000). When children were raised in an institution, their parents lost their responsibilities to this generation, including the loss of opportunity to develop parenting skills. Children removed from family life were unfamiliar with family relationships when it came time to raise their own children (Crossen-Tower, 2005). As a result, they often resorted to harsh forms of punishment such as what they had experienced in the residential schools (Alberta Education, 2005).

The legacy of residential schools has infiltrated the child welfare system. Parents’ experiences from childhood (e.g., residential schools) may explain their reluctance toward outside intervention. A national report completed in 1979 found that 20 percent of children in foster care were First Nations, although they represented only 6 percent of the Canadian population (Mandell & Duffy, 2000). In addition, the majority of children were placed in non-First Nations homes. This trend continued into the 1980s and appeared to mark the continuation of the practice of devaluing First Nations parenting practices. It was assumed that First Nations people did not possess the skills required to parent because their cultural ways were misinterpreted. There have been several clear examples of this. For example, Native cultures generally hold strong beliefs that children deserve full respect, since they believe children are developed human beings (Mandell & Duffy, 2000). Accordingly, Native children are not forced to do things they don’t want to do nor are they disciplined. Child welfare authorities have often misinterpreted this as poor parenting practice. Similarly, when parents encourage their children to participate in traditional cultural events that may interfere with school, the parents are seen as incompetent.

This tendency to “blame the victim” has always existed with regard to the First Nations community. Statistics of the high rates of alcohol abuse, drug abuse, and physical illness have always been used to demonstrate that First Nations people are unfit, rather than considering the contributing roles of poverty, marginalization, and discrimination. This prevailing attitude has in turn led to more self-destructive behaviours, such as drug and alcohol abuse and suicide. Statistics on living conditions in First Nations communities have consistently noted the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome, drug addiction, poverty, teen pregnancy, low levels of education, and suicide (Gregory, 2003). Parents consistently report their children have more emotional or behavioural problems (Gregory, 2003). In general, First Nations people experience a higher rate of health concerns and have a shorter life expectancy (Kirmayer, 2000). All rates are consistently higher than is typically found in the Canadian population (Bulletin of the Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development, 2003).

Clearly, the history of First Nations culture in Canada and North America sheds light on the root of issues and concerns that exist today. First Nations children and youth have been estranged from their culture: they speak a different language; they have lost the traditional ways; and they have adopted the ways of modern society (e.g., based on television, movies, and popular culture). First Nations families are now starting to speak openly about residential schools—the abuse they suffered there and the lasting impact on their culture and family life. There has been a focus on community healing, such as healing circles, to help break the silence and move forward. The effects of colonization on family life and culture have had major effects on First Nations people that they continue to struggle with today.

Chapter 12: Culturally Diverse Families 217

Beliefs To begin to understand First Nations families, we must begin to understand some of thei':ir beliefs. More important, we need to understand how these values sometimes differ frort111 our own so that we no longer continue to view First Nations people as inferior or lacking in ability but, rather, as guided by different principles. There are several examples o?f confusion that result from values, beliefs, and communication styles. One p rom inen t example is the concept of time. North American society is dictated by time; our lives aree run by watches and schedules. In First Nations culture, however, time is measured by'V natural events and not by a clock (Crossen-Towers, 2005). Life is lived in the present—“ they make the most of each moment and live in the moment. The need to be on time, to0 rush to the next event, has little meaning in many First Nations cultures, which stresss patience as a sign of respect. North American culture, on the other hand, values action11 and people who are quick to respond. In First Nations culture, avoiding eye contact is aa sign of respect and humility, whereas in North American society, eye contact is a prereq-" uisite for learning, a sign that you are focused and ready to learn. People from First1 Nations cultures are often careful about what they say, whereas North American culture3 values talking and asking questions. These different world views often lead to misinter-' pretation (e.g., she doesn’t care) and judgments (e.g., she is a bad parent). First, we will * examine some traditional First Nations values and compare them to Western values; th en 1 we will consider views on children and child-rearing.

Traditional First Nations Values (Dokis, n.d.)

1. Live in harmony with nature 2. Present-time orientation 3. Explain natural phenomenon

through mythology 4. Aspiration is to learn and follow the

ways of elders

5. Cooperation 6. Anonymity 7. Submissiveness

8. Work to satisfy present needs 9. Share

10. Time is always with us (Indian time) 11. Humility

In addition, traditional values shared by (Jackson & Hood, n.d.):

• Sacredness of the continuity of life. • Connection to past generations.

Western Values

1. Mastery over nature 2. Future-time orientation 3. Scientific explanation: everything

happens according to natural law 4. Climb the ladder of success—child

expected to achieve a higher level than his or her father

5. Competition 6. Individuality 7. Aggressiveness/assertiveness is

socially acceptable 8. Work to get ahead 9. Save for the future

10. Time lost can never be regained 11. Win at all costs

First Nations people include the following

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• Importance of family. • Emphasis on positive relationships. • Fundamental role of nature and natural law. • Commitment to spiritual health and well being.

Aboriginal peoples have survived for millennia because their cultures are dynamic and able to adapt to changing circumstances. This openness to change does not negate their traditional view o f reality— that life manifests itself in repeating patterns, in the cycle o f days and seasons, and in the universal experience o f birth, maturation, decline, death, and new birth. Life is not a linear journey in which humanity progresses to ever higher levels o f enlightenment. It is a circle, with natural and spiritual laws established from the beginning o f the world, with lessons human beings have been learning throughout thousands o f years o f history. A good and fulfilling life is gained through knowledge and ethical choice; it is not dictated by technology. A hunter in the bush can learn and abide by natural law—or violate it recklessly. An engineer can build electricity-generating devices in a way that respects the right o f all creatures to share the environment— or disregard those rights. An Aboriginal person who is instructed in and lives by traditional wisdom can live a traditional life in the bush or in the city. People who adhere to traditional ways are not hostile to change and growth; but they resist systems and relationships that negate their understanding o f natural and spiritual law.

Source: Gathering Strength, Volume 3, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal People, 1996.

Views of Children and Child-Rearing In addition to traditional views and perspectives, some of the views commonly held by First Nations societies about children and child-rearing are listed below (Dokis, n.d.).

Traditional

1. Children are gifts from the Creator.

2. Children are unique, whole individuals.

3. Children learn by observation and experience.

4. Children are the responsibility of the extended family and community.

5. Adults explain and model responsibility of society.

6. Children make mistakes many times until they learn.

7. Children are children for life.

Western

1. Children are creations of their parents.

2. Children must be moulded and directed in becoming adults.

3. Children learn through formal education and planned activities.

4. Children are the responsibility of parents or government.

5. Parents discipline and teach the rules of society.

6. Mistakes are made once; parents teach by consequences.

7. Children are adults (reach maturity) at age 18.

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In addition to these, there are many traditional child-rearing practices. For example, ceremonies are important to First Nations children and their families. The naming ceremony, for example, helps children to establish their identity within the community. Names are considered an integral connection to family and are often passed down through generations, along with the stories that accompany them. Nurturing children is critical to child-rearing: the use of cradle boards allowed children to be close to their mothers with little separation. No one person assumes full responsibility for raising children—grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins are always available to help (Crossen-Towers, 2005). Children are respected and understood. Children are valued by adults, as can be seen in children’s involvement in all social activities and in the gentle styles of discipline used (Couchenour & Chrisman, 2000). Children are expected to have responsibilities and chores since these are important to the family’s well-being (McCue, 2000). Again, some of these practices are misinterpreted (e.g., parents are using children when they give them too much responsibility; children are without discipline).

Perspectives This story was related by Laurie, a graduate from the Early Childhood Care and Education program regarding her experiences in her family.

"My experience as a child was very different than most families': I spent many months in the hospital, I lived at home, and my grandmother and my uncle influenced my childhood. I had many surgeries while I was growing up. I spent three months at a time there, then I would come home for about three months. I lived with my family on the reserve, and my grandparents lived nearby. I was raised in a single-parent home with my mom, two younger sisters, and two younger brothers. It was expected of me to take responsibility for my siblings because I was the oldest. My uncle was not related to me in any way, but he was raised by people on my reserve. They took him in when he was very young and my family always knew him. He took me in as a daughter because I didn't have a father. He made sure I always had new clothes, nice toys, and he took me to the circus, movies, and the stampede. He spoke Blackfoot to me and told me stories of his chuckwagon days and how poor everyone was when he was a young man. While I was in the hospital, he would come to see me every weekend and bring me toys and candy. When I was well enough, he would take me out to go see a movie. He would bring his friend's son, then have dinner at their house. People in my family said I was spoiled. My grandmother taught me many things about life and how to do things for myself. She would take me on ceremonies, taught me how to pray and smoke a pipe, and I would wear my moccasins, and then we would go to church. She would tell me legends, and try to teach me my language. She would tell me stories in Blackfoot; those stories I understood. She has patience. She taught me how to cook, sew, bead, and would take me on long walks through the bush and teach me things about the plants and animals, and how not to get lost. Today I still have no sense of direction. She had a craft store downtown; I would watch for shoplifters and count stuff. My grandmother took me to all kinds of meetings with the Friendship Centre and other government business. I

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would sit at the meetings with her. I spent many days with her. She taught me how to keep busy while I was in the hospital and I would make stuff for her shop and I made money for the stampede. In my family, my first cousins, I thought of them as my brother or sister and when we were at each other's homes we were with our other family and we would take turns staying at each other's homes during the week and on the weekends. Each adult would take full responsibility for the other children. I asked my grandmother about this and she said that anyone that comes to your door, you feed them and give them some tea. That's how many families took in other children and they would raise them as their own until they wanted to leave. She said when you are raised with a big family, one more child does not make a big difference.”

Many First Nations people hold a different perspective regarding education (Jackson & Hood, n.d.). Education is largely intuitive, based on modelling older genera­ tions and expressed through daily activities (e.g., arts and crafts). Core values and beliefs are passed down through legends, traditional songs, dance, and prayer. Through stories and legends, children learn about relationships with other people and the environment. Children are taught to be good listeners and observers. First Nations people believe that all people have a life journey that is unique to each person. In many communities, land and nature is the first teacher. They believe that healing will begin when children and youth are able to reconnect with these cultural values, and particularly with elders, who are the keepers of cultural values.

This brief overview of First Nations families has focused on families and children. It has not taken into account the myriad conditions affecting communities of First Nations people, including economics, finances, governance, laws, and funding. However, we hope that early childhood professionals might begin to understand the unique and distinctive nature of First Nations culture and family life so they can better care for children and provide support for First Nations families.

The Role of Early Childhood Professionals Working effectively with people from cultures different from our own requires a will­ ingness to examine our own values and biases. Much has been written about diversity education and the importance of increasing the awareness and competence of early childhood educators in multiculturalism. We must consider the impact of culture on children and the family. Professionals should begin to explore the white world view (Jackson, 2003) and take the perspective of someone non-white. It may also be neces­ sary to explore experiences of oppression/marginalization/racism that families have experienced. Early childhood educators need to gather information about the child’s family’s cultural context and learn how to respectfully bring it into the child-care envi­ ronment (Jackson, 2003). While we can only touch on some of these principles in this chapter, we highly recommend that readers refer to the work of Chud and Fahlman (1995) on “honouring diversity.” There are also many articles on multiculturalism in early childhood education in the professional journals. Answering the questions listed below in “Examine Your Attitudes” might help you clarify some of the areas you need to explore further.

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xamine Your Attitudes • Is respecting parents more important than getting along with peers? • Is it better to educate children in settings where boys and girls are together

or separate? • Is it more important to adapt to "Canadian ways" or to preserve your

culture of origin? There are no right or wrong answers to the above questions, although there would certainly be strong opinions that support one view or the other. If you do feel strongly about any of the above questions, it may be helpful to examine how your own cultural background influenced your opinion, and how and why a person from a different cultural background may have a different opinion.

Understanding and Empathizing Providing support to children and families who are immigrants or refugees requires the ability to empathize with their difficulties. Try to imagine what young children who are refugees might feel like when:

• They witness the torture or killing of a loved one. • They live in fear and hiding. • They see fear and horror on their parents’ faces, and don’t understand why. • They need to be “on the move” for days and weeks. • They are hungry, exhausted, and confused.

Try to imagine the experiences of an immigrant child who:

• Experiences strange smells, new sounds, and a very different home. • Hears a strange language everywhere he or she goes. • Meets strange new people. • Doesn’t see familiar people anymore, and doesn’t understand why. • Watches children behaving in very different ways from what he or she is used to. • Sees and hears other children making fun of him or her because of the way he or she

dresses or speaks.

Understanding the experiences of people who are victims of war is very difficult. You might want to watch a movie such as Schindler’s List or After the Rain, and try to picture yourself in a similar situation.

Think about how might you feel as a new Canadian when:

• People treat you as if you are stupid because your English isn’t perfect. • You feel that you have no right to complain, because you will be told, “If you don’t like

it, go back to your own country.” • You cannot work in your own profession, even though you have the appropriate

education and experience. • You cannot help your children with their homework because the subject matter or

the language was different in your home country.

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• You want your children to get along well in Canada, but see them forgetting about the things that were so important to your parents and grandparents.

Supporting First Nations children and families also begins by understanding. Imagine how you might feel as a First Nations child when:

• You are called a “dirty Indian.” • Expectations for interacting are very different than what you are taught at home. • You are ignored or punished for acting the way that you have been taught at home. • People expect you to act in ways that are not valued in your home or community.

Imagine being a parent when:

• You are constantly worried that your ways, values, and beliefs are under scrutiny. • You live with the constant fear that your children will be removed for no reason or

little reason. • You try to abide by the laws of society while being true to traditional ways, maintaining this

balance and ensuring that everyone understands your motivations so misinterpretations don’t occur.

Scenario A Native student completing her education in early childhood education discovered that she was pregnant. Though absolutely delighted, she harboured some major fears. Her fears were associated with her age—she was over 40 and her husband older. But her greatest fear was that "they" would take her child away because she was too old. When I tried to reassure her that this wouldn't happen, she said, "When you are Native, it does."

Providing Support to Parents There are a number of ways you can provide support to parents who are immigrants and refugees:

• Provide them with easily accessible information about relevant resources. This would include information on preschools, child care, health services, and social support and recreational services.

• Provide information in first languages. Many immigrant-serving agencies translate brochures, posters, and handouts into a number of first languages. This is extremely helpful to parents who are struggling to learn English.

• Make extra efforts to include newcomers in programs. Don’t assume that, because they don’t speak English, their knowledge is limited. Provide opportunities for parents to participate in and contribute to programs. Just because someone doesn’t know English, it doesn’t mean they can’t play a musical instrument, design a cover for your newsletter on the computer, or contribute in a variety of other ways.

• Bring representatives of other agencies to the centre to meet with parents. The community nurse or social worker could make a short presentation at a parent evening. It may be easier for parents to make contact with new agencies after meeting these professionals at a familiar place.

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Caregivers can help children who are new Canadians in a number of ways as well:

• Provide opportunities for staged entry into the program. As many immigrant and refugee children may feel insecure in a new setting, particularly if they do not speak English, they may need to spend a lot of time at the centre with their parents.

• Learn a few key words in the first language of the children. “Dolly,” “lunch,” “book,” and a few phrases such as “good morning” may make a child feel at home.

• Find symbols that represent their home country and culture. Parents will be able to help you or perhaps bring something from home that will make new Canadian children feel that the centre is their home away from home.

• Ensure that you are familiar with, and respect, the dietary laws. If possible, provide food and snacks that the child might be familiar with. (This is educational for all the children at the centre.)

• Be patient, and work hard to develop a trusting relationship with the child. Children may be wary of new people in their lives, especially when they do not understand the language you speak. Try to be nearby, and watch for opportunities to provide support or to show the child something interesting. Gradually, a relationship will form.

cenano Teaching Tolerance Sharon, the caregiver, noticed that Miyoko was sitting in the corner of the play­ room and that a tear was beginning to form in the corner of her eye. As she approached Miyoko, a little boy interceded. "Sharon," he said, "why does Miyoko talk funny?" "Miyoko doesn't speak funny, she speaks differently than you do," responded Sharon. "You speak English like your mom and dad. It is okay to ask questions about what Miyoko is saying, but it is not okay to say that she sounds funny because that can hurt her feelings." Source: Adapted from Teaching Young Children to Resist Bias, Louise Derman- Sparks, NAEYC, Washington, D.C.

Supporting children and families from First Nations communities may include the following:

• Begin by examining your own attitudes. There are many myths and stereotypic images of First Nations people in Canadian culture. What beliefs do you hold?

• Begin to understand First Nations culture and the values and beliefs inherent within that culture. It may be useful to compare these to the typical Western values and beliefs that Canadians hold so as to better understand them. A comparison will help caregivers in coming to the realization that the beliefs and values held by First Nations people (or any other cultural group) are not bad, wrong, or inappropriate but are different than our own and require our understanding.

• Recognize that we live in complex and challenging times. First Nations families are dealing with these complex changes and may be attempting to balance traditional ways as well. Raising children is difficult, and parents and caregivers need to work together to best assist children.

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• No one parent or caregiver is all-knowing. We must have realistic expectations of children and be willing to work together in the best interest of the child.

• Attempt to promote traditional ways, not just stereotypic images of First Nations life or a “tourist curriculum” (CCCF, 1998) that trivialize traditions. Use everyday activities to introduce First Nations legends, stories, songs, and dances to daily activities so that all children can come to appreciate traditional ways. Include outdoor play and opportunities for contact with plants and animals so that children may strengthen their appreciation of the natural world.

• First Nations children and youth may feel disconnected to their community and ways of life. Find ways that they may connect both to traditional ways of life and to the community that you are creating for them.

• Find First Nations people to guide you and your program to help ensure relevance and authenticity for both First Nations and non-First Nations children.

• Acknowledge and accommodate different learning styles. Provide opportunities for children to learn by watching and through trial and error; emphasize cooperation and group learning rather than competition or individual achievement; focus less on abstract concepts (e.g., numbers, letters) out of the context of daily living.

Scenario In a methods class, we were discussing activities that might be used to promote different cultures in respectful ways. This discussion began with stereotypic images and how these might be avoided. For example, making teepees can be a fun activity but can also be used to explore different types of living arrangements, how houses are built, etc. One student mentioned that she had her 5-year-old children make dream catchers. Another First Nations student reacted with surprise and concern—dream catchers are considered spiritual and have many traditional beliefs associated with them. She felt that it would be difficult to use this as an art activity respectfully without the spir­ itual association. She explained this perspective very well so that the other students realized the importance of understanding activities in context.

Conclusion Working with children and families who are First Nations or new to Canada involves many of the same considerations of any child and family. Understanding, empathy, and some special efforts to understand their culture and the context of their culture and to assist them in learning about life in Canada can have a lasting positive impact.

Chapter Summary • Vast demographic changes are taking place in Canada. In 2001, 5.5 million

immigrants were living in Canada, representing 18 percent of the total population. • Immigrants to Canada face many challenges and stressors, even if immigration was

by choice. These include role transitions, barriers to employment, and grieving the losses of what was left behind.

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• Refugees will face additional problems related to recovering from the traumas caused by war or other extreme conditions.

• Value conflicts may occur relating to perceptions of privacy, disability, discipline, and gender roles.

• It is important to understand the context of First Nations people—their history and the influences that have impacted them.

• Understanding some of the different ways that First Nations people view their world may help us to better support children and families.

Recommended Websites Aboriginal Children’s Circle of Early Learning: www.accel-capea.ca/index_en.php Canadian Child Care Federation: www.cccf-fcsge.ca/ Citizen and Immigration Canada: www.cp-pc.ca/english/ Health Canada: www.hc-sc.gc.ca/index_e.html

1. Oftentimes playrooms are multicultural and include families from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds. How will you accommodate the different and some­ times conflicting perspectives and requests in your playroom (e.g., food requests, celebrations)?

2. Review the “messages” a visitor to your centre would receive about culture. Look at toys, books, equipment and decorations, and information brochures and pamphlets on display. What cultures are represented? What would you change?

3. Consider different strategies that you might use if children and/or their parents do not speak English or French.

4. What are some of the resources available to new Canadian families and First Nations families in your community? How will you communicate this information?

5. What resources are available in your community to help staff work more effectively with new Canadians (translation services, multicultural training, etc.) and with First Nations families?

6. What are the stereotypic images held about First Nations children and families? How do these images affect your relationships with First Nations children and families? Consider ways to address these images.

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