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22REFLECTIONSVOLUME19, NUMBER 1

Background

Legacy of Oppression

The historical exchanges between wealthy nations

and poorer nations were riddled with exploitation

and suffering. Colonizers, who conquered and

administered foreign lands for their own benefit,

enslaved or otherwise subordinated populations,

remapped the world based on Western greed and

broke down societal structures, as well as altered

cultures and human relationships within native

populations. Colonization determined global

relationships and left a legacy of challenges for

those from wealthier countries who try to contribute

in positive ways through their visits and work in

developing nations.

More U.S. Americans Travel Overseas

Only 10% of U.S. citizens travel out of country each

year, yet the trend has been increasing (Smith,

2008). In spite of terrorism and the economic

plunges, international travel has become easier and

cheaper. It's not just employees of international

businesses, the very rich, church-sponsored

missionaries, or students on study abroad programs

who are able to travel, but more people from a

broader cross section of society for a wide variety of

reasons choose to move between continents

(Furnham, 2010). This diversity of travelers offers

the possibility of forging more interconnection that

builds respect and mutual understanding or

increases the chance for exploitation and

misunderstanding, including church groups' moral

tourism.

Travel brings people face to face with different

realities, worldviews and cultural symbols, and

thereby often generates some level of stress (Smith,

2008). Though it has not been empirically shown

that all people experience culture shock, there is

agreement in the literature that encountering new

cultures is stressful (Martin, 2010). For these

reasons there are sometimes pre-departure

orientations that teach students and employees

sojourning abroad about the complexities and

ambiguities of new cultural exposure and

intercultural communication (Martin, 1980).

Cultural Intelligence

Intelligence in the context of one's home culture

doesn't necessarily transfer to intelligence in

understanding and responding in a different cultural

context. Slawomir Magala (2005) discusses that

culture is both the medium through which we accrue

knowledge of the world and the shaper of that

knowledge. The author stresses, “the meaning of

culture as a language in which we express ourselves

and through which we become aware of our ends,

means and meanings” (p. 47). Some, who are

successful at working, learning, and functioning in

their own familiar culture, do not have the cultural

intelligence to successfully adapt to another cultural

setting.

Cultural intelligence (CQ) is a new construct

defined as a person's “overall capability to function

and manage effectively in culturally diverse

settings” (Ang et al., 2007). Cultural intelligence

involves appropriately interpreting others behavior

in the new environment, respecting different cultural

values and behaving in ways that are culturally

acceptable. According to Earley and Ang (2003)

Pondering Ethical Issues and Cultural Sensitivity When Working, Volunteering, and Traveling in “Developing

Nations”

Su san Wei n g er

Abstract: Aconscious self-awareness may help travelers explore and adapt to another culture. In this paper, I

attempt to demonstrate this self-monitoring process by sharing my reflections about some internal thoughts,

conflicts, and ethical issues which I pondered while traveling, conversing, and researching in two Asian

countries.

Keywords: social work; cultural intelligence; ethics; developing nations; Bangladesh; Cambodia

23REFLECTIONSVOLUME19, NUMBER 1

there are four components of cultural intelligence:

metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and

behavioral. The metacognitive component involves

high order mental processes that enable the

acquisition of cultural learning. It involves skills

used to understand a different cultural framework

and take in information about that culture. The

cognitive piece consists of the specific knowledge

acquired about a culture's norms, traditions, and

practices. The motivational aspect refers to the

desire to learn about and adapt to a different culture

so that one can direct one's attention and energies in

cross cultural situations to do so. This motivation

empowers people to reach beyond their comfort

zone, confident that they can be successful in cross

cultural exchanges (Ang et al., 2007). The

behavioral component concerns having a sufficient

repertoire of behaviors from which to choose

adaptive behavioral responses required in the new

cultural context.

CulturallyAdaptive Personal Characteristics

Alongside the importance of cultural intelligence,

the literature in the fields of international

management and psychology suggest that the

personal characteristics of new settlers relate to their

successful adaptation in new cultural settings.

According to Furnham (2010), successful

expatriates have personal characteristics of stress

tolerance, flexibility, communication skills, and

cultural empathy. Mol, Born, Willensen, and Van

der Molen (2005) found several personality factors

associated with high job performance among

expatriates including: extraversion, emotional

stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, local

language ability, cultural sensitivity, cultural

flexibility, social adaptability, ego strength,

interpersonal interest, and tolerance for ambiguity.

Mol, Born, and Van der Molen (2005) suggest nine

competencies that support employees' success in

foreign countries: (a) adaptation skills, (b) an

attitude of modesty and respect, (c) an

understanding of the concept of culture, (d)

knowledge of the host country and culture, (e)

relationship building, (f) self-knowledge, (g)

intercultural communication, (h) organizational

skills, and (i) personal and professional

commitment. The traits and competencies

emphasized by these authors suggest that it is

important to accept the validity of different points of

view, hold an interest and respect for different

cultures, and demonstrate a flexibility and

adaptability that stems from self-confidence and

mature humility. It appears that the very

characteristics that are needed for openness and

adjustment to stay abroad are also those that are

strengthened by cultural immersion.

Cross-Cultural Competence

The literature of social work and psychology refers

to ‘cross-cultural competence’ as a necessary

professional capacity for counseling and otherwise

serving diverse clients. Cross-cultural competence

involves knowledge of histories of oppression,

cultural characteristics of different groups, and self-

knowledge about one's own culture and ethnic

prejudices, so that workers can justly serve clients

through sensitive understanding and effective

communication. The National Association of Social

Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics and social work

education emphasize cultural sensitivity in an effort

to eliminate discrimination or cultural disrespect in

serving diverse clients and to promote policies and

societal changes based on social justice. Although

cross-cultural competence is most often used in

relationship to work across cultures within the

United States, the term has application to cross-

cultural exchanges abroad as well.

Hooker (2005) claims that there is a “Western mind-

set” which assumes “that there is essentially one

way to live – ours. Anyone who lives differently

just needs some time, and perhaps some advice from

us, to develop properly.” Perhaps a way of

mitigating an ethnocentric mindset and developing

cross-cultural competence is to monitor one's own

reactions, feelings, and thoughts. Rather than

focusing on the differences in the foreign culture

compared to one's own culture, it may be helpful to

question how one differs from the unfamiliar

culture. Keeping the focus on oneself as being

different and needing to figure out how to negotiate

these differences, may lessen interference from

personal biases while learning about others (Laird,

1998). Dean (2001) proposes the importance of a

continual conscious awareness of our lack of

cultural competence. Maintaining such awareness

of “not knowing” would encourage an orientation to

learn about those from whom we differ and

critically increase self-knowledge. Knowledge

about one's biases and values and “not knowing”

paradoxically opens up possibilities for effective

cultural exchange and adaptation.

PonderingEthical Issues andCultural SensitivityWhen Working, Volunteering, andTraveling in "DevelopingNations"

24REFLECTIONSVOLUME19, NUMBER 1

Background information suggests that the constructs

of CQ, culturally adaptive personal characteristics,

and cross-cultural competence, may be derived and

strengthened by staying alert to one's feelings and

thoughts in the various cultural contexts. Conscious

self-awareness that permits a traveler to be in touch

with themselves and their new environment may

slow down the process of arriving at conclusions,

and encourage toleration of ambiguity and different

realities. In this paper, I reflect on some internal

thoughts, conflicts, and ethical issues which I

pondered while traveling, conversing, and

researching in two Asian countries. Other travelers'

experiences, encounters, conversations, and

thoughts will be different of course, but maybe this

process of self-monitoring is a useful way to explore

and adapt to another culture. Perhaps the process of

questioning and wondering attempted in this paper

will contribute to a dialogue about the uncertainty

stemming from exposure to worlds in which

different ways of doing, seeing, believing, and

communicating are normative.

Observations, Thoughts, Conflicts

Before Take-Off

Issues popped up during the preparation stage even

before my departure date. Anurse at the university

health center reviewed the shots and medicine that I

needed to help prevent illnesses such as malaria. I

packed expensive malaria medication to protect me

from this serious illness that inhabitants and long

staying ex-pats cannot take, and hence must by

necessity live at greater risk. Do I take a camera or

not? Might people feel intruded upon or demeaned

by being the subject matter for a white foreign

woman's photo collection? Will these pictures be

used in a helpful way that outweighs the possible

slights that taking them might cause?

Internal questions arose after the declarations of

others when they learned about my impending

travels. Some questioned why I was going overseas

to volunteer when there were people in distress and

worthy causes in the United States. It might indeed

be easier to encounter people of other cultures

overseas than within our country where racial/ethnic

oppression has spurred lasting debris of distrust,

anger, and alienation. Was my trip to reach out

really one of avoidance, a path of least resistance, a

timid by-pass? It may be easier to work in a

developing nation in some ways than personally

confront the distrust, anger, denial, and danger

between the underprivileged and overprivileged in

my home country. The battle lines are drawn more

harshly here, perhaps, where persecution,

oppression, and indifference have shaped our

exchanges indelibly. I likely wouldn't be greeted

with smiles, curiosity, and seeming interest and

hospitality, but more likely tested and kept at a

distance until some modicum of trust was earned.

Such questions beg other questions about my own

prejudices, character, and values.

Sometimes praise of me or my plans seemed to be at

the expense of those I'd be visiting – as if the

countries would be populated with “poor people,”

one undifferentiated bland mass offering nothing of

value or interest to someone from a “developed”

nation. Simply revealing my plans seemed to put

me and my soon-to-be hosts in a category of ‘other,’

so I began to distinguish those in my support

network with whom I would share my experiences

trusting that they'd be respectful toward me and all

concerned.

I heard comments such as, “Oh, you are so gutsy.”

“You always do good things in the world.” “I live

through you and your adventures.” True, in part I

traveled to Asia for the purpose of trying to

contribute. In Bangladesh, I volunteered to research

the sustainability of an international non-

governmental organization's (NGO) program of

teaching gardening techniques and nutrition

information to rural women so that they can increase

the productivity of their home gardens and provide

more adequate nutrition for their families. In

Cambodia I volunteered to visit the programs of a

local NGO with the hope that I could lend my skills

as a social work professor to help them advance

their service delivery. But along with these good

intentions I knew that I was also expecting to

receive more than I gained from the experience.

Call it enlightened self-interest, but it was self-

interest nevertheless that motivated me. I also knew

that good intentions, especially when combined with

lack of cultural knowledge, can do harm. In

response to the comments about being brave and

adventuresome, I surely thought that I was going out

of my comfort zone but also that the United States

flushed with firearms, gross inequality of wealth,

and epidemic violence against women isn't in my

comfort zone either. Even the sincere,

congratulatory well wishes from people who care

PonderingEthical Issues andCultural SensitivityWhen Working, Volunteering, andTraveling in "DevelopingNations"

25REFLECTIONSVOLUME19, NUMBER 1

about me set off internal disputes.

The countries of destination presented particular

concerns. I am a Jew embarking to Bangladesh, a

largely Muslim country. Though there is a

movement toward extreme fundamentalism in

Bangladesh, it does not appear to be predominantly

supported by the citizenry. Nevertheless, there was

hardly, if at all, a Jewish presence in the country. In

the past, two Jewish organizations were forced to

shut down (Choudhury, 2009). So I wondered, do I

keep my Jewish identity under wraps, do I lie if

need be, am I OK with being untrue to who I am for

a duration, what is the cost to me of staying in a

country that might not want me, and have I

internalized prejudice to the degree that I am

volunteering in a country where I might be

shunned?

Then there is Cambodia, a country that the United

States bombed during the Vietnam war, creating the

instability that assisted the Khmer Rouge to come

into power. Our passivity in the face of this

genocide, and sometimes our support to the Khmer

Rouge, are shames on our nation. This happened

during my lifetime; I carried this shame as a U.S.

citizen as I thought about my pending stay in

Cambodia. What would my emotions be as I

communicated with Cambodians, and how would

they respond to my presence?

The conflicts, value issues and questioning didn't

stop at the border; they mushroomed while in

Bangladesh and Cambodia.

Ethical or Unethical Behaviors?

I was rebuked by a savvy tourist who warned me,

“Travelers should operate within the country's

norms or not travel at all because they do harm.” I

admitted to overpaying tuk-tuk (a carriage pulled by

a scooter/motorcycle) drivers up to four times the

local rates. In these transport vehicles passengers sit

in a carriage pulled by a scooter or sit directly on the

scooter behind the driver. The traveler accurately

noted that because tourists grossly overpay, these

drivers follow tourists around moving away from

possible local customers who need this transport as

well, and often annoy tourists by their frequent

solicitations. Furthermore, I knew from stays in

other countries that paying significantly more for

goods and services than what the local market

demands can unfairly result in higher prices for the

local population and for travelers on a tight budget.

Additionally, this overpayment does nothing to

increase mutual respect. Locals, for one, might

regard those who over pay as stupid, naïve and

incompetent; or they may surmise that such

overpayment reflects a leisurely life without any

financial concerns. Tourists might mistakenly

regard the exchange of smiles as no more than a

confirmation of the goodwill between them and the

driver/merchant.

From previous international sojourns, I remembered

the resentment I sometimes felt toward tourists who

readily paid even as much as 40 times the market

price only to congratulate themselves on snatching

an amazing bargain. Still, I succumbed to the desire

to overpay these drivers, who often waited for long

periods of time competing with other drivers for the

occasional customer, and did so six or seven days a

week. I was even more tempted to overpay in

Bangladesh where I sat in a carriage while the

rickshaw puller pedaled his bicycle in heat above

100 degrees Fahrenheit. I was so uncomfortable

being a player in this blatant enactment of over- and

under-privilege that I often tried to avoid the

emotional queasiness by walking instead. This

however offered no resolution because then I was in

the position of denying the rickshaw puller the

money my fare would have provided him. These

daily transportation decisions, rather than becoming

anodyne routine, were riddled with value dilemmas.

Respecting diversity and being culturally sensitive

should not mean deferring to injustice. Seeing a

man throwing a stone at a scampering dog, I shouted

at him in anger. He stopped and that was the end of

communication between us, perhaps one of the few

communications between him and a white woman,

and it wasn't pleasant. I carried food scraps with me

and gave them to hungry dogs. Later I learned that

one woman reportedly mentioned to another that I,

as an American, am more concerned with animals

than people. I know that my giving food to dogs

doesn't diminish any of my attempts to help humans,

but my actions could fuel stereotypes about the

callousness of U.S. Americans. Where people are

hungry, residents likely cannot afford the emotional

overload of seeing animals as highly sentient beings.

Still I believe that animal cruelty is universally

unethical.

PonderingEthical Issues andCultural SensitivityWhen Working, Volunteering, andTraveling in "DevelopingNations"

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Class Dilemmas

My jump up the economic ladder just by roaming

from one part of the world to another provided me

with opportunities and responsibilities that I am not

afforded in my own country. Of course, these come

with complications. I straddled the back of a nurse's

motorcycle as he drove to his patient's home in a

remote rural village in Bangladesh. We climbed up

ladder-like stairs to a bamboo house with a thatched

roof raised off the ground by 12 foot posts. We sat

on the floor of the unadorned porch across from the

patient and his wife. Soon the porch became

crowded with curious neighbors. The man's leg was

so seriously infected from a snake bite that he could

not walk. Without the availability of crutches, he

could only scoot. He couldn't afford transportation

to the hospital in Dhaka that provides free medical

care for certain patients; and the consequence of not

getting further treatment was dire. I was grateful to

be able to pay for this man's transportation.

Subsequently, I asked the nurse, “What happens to

others who need hospitalized medical care but can't

pay the costs of transport?” He responded,

“Sometimes I cover the cost with my own money,”

but if sufficient funds are lacking, the ill person

“waits at home to die.” Obviously serendipity

wouldn't always work, so I gave some money to the

nurse to potentially cover two future transports. I

returned to the city and bought some gifts and dined

in a lovely opened-air restaurant overpriced for the

average Cambodian. These expenditures on non-

necessities, if channeled to transportation fees,

might have saved additional lives. These choices, of

course, are always present when I am in the States

as well, but it is easier for me to ignore that I am

indeed making such a choice. Here, unmet medical

needs that result in physical disabilities and death

are tied to human faces, real people suffering, not

statistics about a distant population. This brings up

questions such as, ‘Is my enjoyment of a luxury

dinner equivalent to another person's life?ʼ And

could I enjoy my meal with such questions clashing

in my head?

In the United States we also have connected wealth

to health, medical care, and the right to live. But in

the U.S. my low middle-class living standard,

combined with the exorbitant costs of medical care,

preclude me from financially helping someone in

such calamitous need. However in Bangladesh, I

suddenly have the option of using my money to be

immensely helpful. And these responsibilities and

opportunities stay with me to some degree after I

return home, because I can't unlearn what I've

learned – although the immediacy disappears, the

memory dulls, distractions abound, and the

recriminations for not doing more soften.

Jumping to Conclusions

Good intentions might not lead to good deeds. I

noticed police pulling over scooter-taxis for reasons

that were not apparent to me. Aresident in

Cambodia informed me that police pull over drivers

of less expensive cars/vehicles in order to extort

bribes from those lacking power to cause any

repercussions. Similarly they impound carts that

persons use for their livelihood and reportedly

charge $50 for repossession. This can be a fortune

to a Cambodian, and it leaves the person without

means of earning a living until s/he pays up. I

thought I witnessed the prelude to such extortion,

when I saw police direct a man pulling his empty

cart to stop and wait along the side of the street. I

gave the distressed man $20. It was all that I had

and yet it fell short of the presumed $50 charge.

Perhaps it lessened his financial burden and eased

his emotional distress to know that someone cared.

However, it could be that the police noticed and

upped the charge. Who knows how the police

regarded a foreigner's presence, and maybe as a

result he was subjected to harsher punishment. Had

I even understood what was going on at all or

merely tied a piece of information to a happening

that seemed to match? With all these unknowns and

the possibility that I misread the interaction, my

small kindness could have resulted in more anguish,

so is it still kindness?

It's so easy to jump to conclusions when imposing

one's own norms onto other cultures. It became

apparent that persons communicated more subtly; it

was necessary to read between the lines in a way

that I wasn't used to doing in casual conversation.

At the end of a work day the woman who served as

my interpreter in a research project invited me to

join her in a visit to the man who formerly worked

as a cook in her parents' home. I had met this man

earlier in the day and when introduced he hardly

acknowledged me. My inclination was to

graciously decline because I wondered whether she

was acting out of polite obligation and whether he'd

sincerely welcome me to his home. She replied, “I

don't want to push you to come, but I want you to

PonderingEthical Issues andCultural SensitivityWhen Working, Volunteering, andTraveling in "DevelopingNations"

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have the choice.” Thinking that I was taking the

hint I said, “I am a bit tired so I will pass on your

invitation this time.” But she resumed saying, “I

understand that you might not choose to come, but

you should feel free to come with me.” Not being

sure about the signals, I responded, “I would like to

accompany you.” It was a guess, but a good one.

We visited this man and his family who lived most

humbly in one room and cooked on the floor in a

storage room outside. Later, it emerged that the

interpreter was delighted and reassured by my

having joined her for the visit. Reportedly, she had

discussed inviting me with her mother who opined

that as an American I was sure to decline. This

outing built trust and helped our working

relationship.

Another example of the need to read between lines

and get past engrained assumptions was when an

interviewed mother stated that three of her sons had

died. My response of “I'm sorry,” was not translated

by the interpreter. I insisted that she relate that

apology which I assumed was empathic. Finally,

after my third unequivocal assertion, she interpreted

my retort to the participant, who did not respond to

my sympathy. After the interview I asked the

interpreter why she had repeatedly ignored my

condolences. From the interpreter's perception, this

mother, living in deep poverty, may be so

overwhelmed with trying to keep her other children

alive, that she likely feels relief that those sons did

not survive to need what she can't provide.

Jumping to conclusions is easy to commit when

dialogue circles about without resolution. One day,

squashed in the back seat of a car with five

employees of the NGO, we rode past a park the size

of one square block. I had walked in that park a

couple of times before and after bulldozers

unexplainably came to widen and deepen the pond

in its center. Now I had the opportunity to find out

from residents of Dhaka who surely knew why this

was being done. In response to my inquiry one

passenger noted, “Bulldozers are being used to

widen the pond.” “Yes, but why?” I asked in an

effort to clear up my confusion. “Because they are

trying to make the hole larger.” “There was just

room for the path around the pond and now that

land is being dug away,” I asserted in bafflement.

“Since there is not a lot of room for parks in Dhaka,

we need a bigger pond.” After one or two more

attempts for clarification, I ceased questioning.

Needless to say I was as puzzled after this dialogue

as I was before. Perhaps if I had been less curious

or a better reader between the lines, I would have

stopped inquiring sooner. Perhaps my questions

gave offense and so were circumvented. Possibly

this wasn't a politically safe topic. Maybe my

fellow passengers didn't know but thought they

needed to provide me with a response. I was left

knowing that I didn't discern something about the

culture that would have helped me to understand the

process of our communication. Reminding myself

that I am the one who lacks some cultural

knowledge is a protection against judging others in

my frustration.

Unearned Privileges

Many in developing countries might hold

resentments toward the U.S., but generally

individuals I encountered did not convey such

sentiments or I didn't interpret their communications

that way. Certainly I have experienced remarks,

stereotypes and generalizations, but overwhelmingly

I have been treated kindly, sometimes even with an

unearned layer of attention and respect. At times

my views or comments were considered seemingly

with the assumption that I had competencies not yet

demonstrated. This benefit of the doubt, unearned

privilege, even deference, provided me with a boost,

added to the pressure to perform, or caused me

discomfort.

Being repeatedly treated this way over time may

lead to or reinforce a sense of superiority. I

certainly saw examples of “Westerners” acting

disrespectfully toward the host population. Now in

the minority, I pondered that the actions of one

would stick to me as well. I couldn't help but feel

embarrassed by association when a U.S. American

grumbled about groceries being placed in a bag in a

different order than she preferred; or drove an SUV

fast in the rain skidding inches from a tuk-tuk only

to roll down his window to swear in English at the

soaking driver; or reportedly complained that “the

maid” in the guest house had placed his laundered

shirts on the wrong shelf.

The kindliness and respect afforded me had a

particular disconnect for me in Cambodia given our

heavy bombing of this country during the Vietnam

war and our support for the Khmer Rouge long

afterward. During the Nixon administration we

heavily bombed this country which sought

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28REFLECTIONSVOLUME19, NUMBER 1

neutrality. Some bombs killed and maimed civilians

outright, some exploded years later. We also lent

support to the Khmer Rouge who laid mines and

maimed civilians by this means and others.

(President Carter's administration covertly

encouraged China to support the Khmer Rouge not

wanting to do so overtly and be known for aligning

with a genocidal force. President Reagan's

administration backed seating the Khmer Rouge as

the legitimate representative of Cambodia at the

United Nations [Blum, 2000; Pilger, 1997, 2013;

Vacon, 2010].) Persons with physical disabilities

without benefit of prostheses were very noticeable

on the streets of Cambodia. Too, everyone I spoke

with at any length or depth had had family members

impacted/killed by the bombing, war, and Khmer

Rouge rule. Visiting an interrogation/torture center

of the Khmer Rouge, Tuol Sleng, was a chilling

experience. Complicated thoughts and emotions

sprang from being accepted so well as a U.S.

American and knowing how unjust our actions have

been. These internal conflicts were magnified for

me because, as a Jew, I could strongly identify with

the parallels to the Holocaust of degradation,

barbarity, and murder. While walking the streets of

Phnom Penh I knew that I was a citizen, in this case,

of a nation that was not victimized by genocide, but

which had inadvertently or directly abetted it.

Conclusions

The concept of cultural intelligence suggests that it

is important not to reach conclusions quickly.

Whereas social and emotional intelligence in a

familiar cultural environment aids a person to

quickly focus on relevant information and make

accurate judgments, in a cross cultural context fast

conclusions and actions are often erroneous and

unfortunate (Elenkov & Manev, 2009; Triandis,

2006). It takes thought, curiosity, openness,

deliberation, questioning and time to understand

relevant factors, motivation, nuances, behavior, and

cognitions. This paper suggests the need for a

running internal dialogue of questioning that

involves back and forth glances between reflection

upon oneself and one's own culture(s) and country

in accordance with the dialogue, situations and

observations present in the new cultural setting.

Such a reflective process slows down a quick

processing of information and decision making that

has been born and developed in a different cultural

context. Being slower to categorize, prioritize,

judge, and act; tolerating not knowing; hovering in

ambiguity might be steps toward growing cross-

cultural competence.

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About the Author: Susan Weinger, Ph.D. is

Professor, School of Social Work, Western

Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI (269-387-

1000; [email protected]).

PonderingEthical Issues andCultural SensitivityWhen Working, Volunteering, andTraveling in "DevelopingNations"

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