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22.1

Economics and International Cooperation

Section 22.1 Lecture Video

Section Objectives

· Define sustainability.

· Describe the international efforts being made to increase sustainability.

Although education standards and lifespan have generally improved in the last 50 years, more work still needs to be done to enhance the sustainability of the Earth's resources. Sustainability is a condition in which the present generation uses the Earth's resources prudently to enable future generations to benefit from the same resources. This is important considering that certain resources, such as energy and fresh water, are becoming scarce by the day.

A view across a reverse osmosis desalination plant. Photo by James Grellier

International Development and Cooperation

Globalization has ensured that economic and environmental conditions in different countries are related and linked. This has prompted various world leaders to collaborate in developing common goals for addressing these interlinked environmental problems.

Sustainable Development

The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, was the most prominent meeting that brought together various global stakeholders to address sustainable development. One product from this summit was Agenda 21, a general plan for addressing various environmental concerns while improving economic development.

The Earth Summit of 1992 in Rio de Janeiro‚ Brazil.

Climate and Atmosphere

Various international agreements emerging from these meetings have experienced mixed fortunes as far as addressing environmental concerns is concerned. The Montreal Protocol is an example of an international treaty that was successful in reducing the amount of ozone-destroying chemicals in the environment. However, the Kyoto Protocol, which seeks to reduce greenhouse gases emission and global warming, has not been as successful due to opposition from certain countries. The U.S. is the most notable critic of the protocol and argues that it is unfair towards developed countries and favors developing countries. Its argument is that implementation of the protocol is costly considering that it may not even reduce global warming. Critics also argue that developing countries will continue to use fossil fuels while preventing the developed countries from doing so. Nonetheless, U.S. companies operating in countries that have signed the treaty may have to abide by the conditions.

Other Agreements

MARPOL, known as marine pollution, is an example of an international agreement that has produced results. It prevents large ships from dumping garbage close to shores, as well as oil tankers from washing out their tanks. These regulations have resulted in the fining of various cruise lines, which has reduced the rate of tar pollution along beaches. Also, the 2016 Paris Climate Accord was held to discuss how to minimize global warming. The United States pulled out of this agreement in 2017.

Lagos, Nigeria is exempt from Kyoto Protocol requirements. Photo by Stefan Magdalinski cc-by-2.0

Economics and the Environment

Within the traditional model of economics, the study of choices people make when utilizing and distributing resources - markets are considered self-contained systems where money and products flow in cycles. Within this model, a successful economic system is equated with economic growth in which the flow of money and products increase within the system. However, these arguments do not consider the environmental cost or ramifications of the use of these products.

As an external factor, environmental failures are perceived as market failures, in which case, the affected product does not reflect its true cost. In this context, gasoline can be said not to reflect its true cost because it does not consider its environmental effects, such as the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. However, pricing the environmental costs of a product is a challenging undertaking.

Regulation and Economic Incentives

Governments exercise control over economic systems through regulations, punishment, or economic incentives to people who engage in actions that benefit the environment. These incentives may be in the form of monetary rewards or other rewards, such as rebates that are usually given to people who purchase energy-saving appliances. Nonetheless, certain regulations may encounter opposition, especially when they are costly to implement.

The Nature Conservancy’s main objective is to preserve ecosystems.

Private Efforts

Businesses and private organizations may also boost environmental conservation efforts by donating land for preserves or parks as well as money to various environmental initiatives. These organizations may also cooperate with government agencies in researching or creating strategies for environmental management. Other manufacturers may adopt environmentally friendly practices, such as recycling waste products. The Nature Conservancy is an example of a nonprofit organization that has worked hard on environmental management by creating preserves all over the U.S., as well as 28 other countries worldwide, by collecting donations of land and money. These funds have helped the organization to buy land, which it then converts into preserves.

22.2

Environmental Policies in the United States

Section 22.2 Lecture Video

Section Objectives

· Describe environmental policies in the United States.

Environmental issues have been featured prominently in both local and national elections in the United States. Millions of dollars have also been pumped into various environmental initiatives by individuals, businesses, and private organizations. These contributions have complemented the billions of federal tax dollars that the government has set aside for implementing environmental policies and managing resources.

Many national forests and parks, and agencies to manage them, were established around the early 1900s.

History of U.S. Environmental Policy

Following the reckless and rapid use of natural resources in the 1800s, the 1900s was a period during which the United States realized the need to protect and prudently manage its national resources. It was during this time that many environmental agencies were established as well as parks and forests.

Environmental Agencies and Laws

Many soil conservation policies were adopted in the 1900s. Around that same time, many people started to demand better waste disposal methods. The same year the first Earth Day was celebrated in 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established with the mandate of enforcing the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act. The EPA uses regulations and economic incentives to encourage people to abide by the provisions of these Acts.

Glen Canyon Dam in Arizona.

Environmental Impact Statements

Regulations require that government agencies file an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for any project or policy that would significantly affect the environment. These projects may be highways, airports, dams, as well as other projects that are controlled or funded by the federal government. Contents of an EIS include the rationale for the project, its environmental impact, and strategies for minimizing its negative impact. EISs are often subject to public comments, although these comments are rarely sufficient to warrant the cancellation of the project. However, these opinions or suggestions can enable the authorities to alter the project or policy. An example of an EIS conducted was in the 1980s when federal agencies were exploring alternative ways of releasing water from the Grand Canyon Dam.

Unfunded Mandates and Economic Impacts

In 1995, Congress passed a law barring unfunded mandates, which prevent federal agencies from developing regulations without funding for state or local governments to implement these regulations. Because laws, such as the Clean Water Act, require more than $50 million to implement, Congress is barred from passing such laws. Even when laws like this are passed, the federal government must provide funding for their implementation. Federal agencies are also expected to assess the environmental and economic ramifications of their policies.

Public use greenways are appearing along the Hudson River.

Influencing Environmental Policy

At an individual level, you can influence environmental policies in your area by reaching out to your local representatives. You can contact them individually or as part of a lobby group including business organizations, media, and nonprofit organizations.

Local Governments

Local governments are influential in determining environmental policies in local communities. They bring together locals to discuss environmental issues in town hall meetings. Local governments are also responsible for urban planning, including plans for waste disposal facilities as well as recycling. To be successful, this local environmental planning should be coordinated among many groups to ensure that all stakeholders are working towards the same goal.

22.2 - Check your understanding

Leaders such as President ____________ and conservationist John Muir, called for increased protection and management of the nation’s resources.

A. Franklin Roosevelt B. Calvin Coolidge C. Theodore Roosevelt D. Warren Harding E. Dwight Eisenhower F. Jimmy Carter

Choose your answer and check it below.

Click here to show the correct answer

State Governments

While the federal government passes minimum standards related to specific environmental issues, individual state governments may set higher standards for these environmental issues. An example is the standards set by California for vehicle emissions within the state. State governments are also free to decide how to implement laws set at the national level and manage public resources.

Lobbying

Lobbying is the organized efforts to influence lawmakers' votes or viewpoints on particular environmental issues. As an individual, you can become part of this organized attempt to influence your lawmakers. Lobby groups may include industry and environmental groups advocating for a specific cause.

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska.

The Media and Sources of Information

Various media, such as radio, TV, and newspapers, provide information on the current environmental issues affecting you, such as Congress's debate on the oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. However, these media may not provide you with the full information needed to make an informed decision. You can find more information on the Internet, where you can read through numerous environmental reports and magazines on various environmental issues. While searching the Internet for information, you should be wary of biased and inaccurate information.

22.3

The Importance of the Individual

Section 22.3 Lecture Video

Section Objectives

· Identify well-known individuals whose actions have increased attention to environmental issues.

· Explain how knowledge of environmental science is critical in making decisions on how you use the resources in your environment.

As an individual, increased awareness of environmental problems and their solutions will enable you to make responsible decisions on how you use your environment.

Henry D. Thoreau and John Muir were two of the earliest notable naturalists.

Influential Individuals

The following are some people whose actions have increased attention to environmental issues throughout history:

Henry D. Thoreau (1817-1862): A conservationist and writer who is renowned for his memoirs about his stay in a cabin at Walden Pond in Massachusetts.

John Muir (1838-1914): A Scottish naturalist and writer who established the Sierra Club, explored the American West, and fervently advocated for the preservation of the western lands as wilderness.

Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt (1858-1919): First American president to strongly advocate for environmental conservation and established the Forest Service while expanding national forests by 400 percent. He also pioneered the establishment of the first National Monuments.

Jane Goodall (1934-): Her study and subsequent book on chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania, raised awareness of the plight of endangered species. She also prompted new thinking about primate behavior.

Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997): A renowned French oceanographer whose various books, programs, and films documented over 40 years of his undersea expeditions.

Rachel Carson, author of Silent Spring.

The 1960s Decade

During the 1960s, biologists such as Garrett Hardin, Paul Ehrlich, Barry Commoner, and Rachel Carson brought public attention to environmental issues, such as rapid population growth, resource depletion, and pollution. Rachel Carson, in particular, authored a book in which she argued that most public lands and resources were inadequately protected. Her book partially influenced the writing of the Wilderness Act of 1994, which required that certain federal lands were to be used as wilderness areas for human activities that were restricted to low-impact recreation, such as camping and hiking.

Rising Awareness

The 1960s were also marked with many environmental disasters, including increased air pollution in New York, which caused 300 deaths, as well as the endangerment of the bald eagle as a result of the widespread use of DDT. These incidents, coupled with the excessive pollution of Lake Erie and the massive oil spill near Santa Barbara, led to the first Earth Day in 1970. This was a demonstration of the increasing public awareness and concern for environmental issues.

Many community groups engage in nature cleanup efforts.

Applying Your Knowledge

Your knowledge of environmental science will be critical in making individual decisions on how to use the resources in your environment.

Voting

You can decide how the resources in your environment are to be managed by voting for candidates who value environmental conservation as part of their agenda. By seeking out information from voter organizations, the Internet, and the media, you can make an informed decision on the candidate that best represents your environmental issues or concerns. You can also join groups with similar interests as yours, such as lobby groups or volunteer groups, some of which participate in environmental clean-up activities.

22.3 - Check your understanding

Which of these individuals was NOT generally considered an important voice for environmentalism?

A. Jacques Cousteau B. Jane Goodall C. Theodore Roosevelt D. Henry D. Thoreau E. John Muir F. John D. Rockefeller

Choose your answer and check it below.

Click here to show the correct answer

Weighing the Evidence

We should be conscious of how our different actions impact the environment around us. Thus, we should be guided by the environmental slogan, "think globally, act locally".

Preserving our environment is the greatest gift to pass on to future generations.

Consumer Choices

Our consumer choices should be influenced by the phrase, "reduce, reuse, recycle". We should purchase products that are manufactured sustainably and cause minimal damage to the environment. We should also avoid disposing of products or materials that could still be useful for other activities. Instead, we can recycle or reuse them.

As you learn more about Environmental Science, hopefully, you make decisions that only positively impact your environment and preserve it for future generations to come.