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NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3

The Relationship of University Students’ Sleep Habits

and Academic Motivation

Kellah M. Edens

v College students are sleeping less during the week than reported a few years ago. Lack of sleep among college stu- dents has been identified as one of the top three health- related impediments to academic performance by the American College Health Association’s National College Health Assessment survey; and it is associated with lower grades, incompletion of courses, as well as negative moods. This research examines the underlying dynamics of lack of sleep on academic motivation, a key predictor of academic performance. Specifically, the relationship of sleep habits with self-efficacy, performance versus mastery goal orientation, persistence, and tendency to procrasti- nate were investigated. Findings indicate that 42% of the participants (159 students out of a total of 377) experi- ence excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS); and those iden- tified with EDS tend: (1) to be motivated by performance goals rather than mastery goals; (2) to engage in procras- tination (a self-handicapping strategy) to a greater extent than students who are rested; and (3) to have decreased self-efficacy, as compared to students not reporting EDS. Several recommendations for campus health professionals to consider for a Healthy Campus Initiative are made based on the findings.

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Kellah M. Edens is an associate professor of educational psychology and research at the University of South Carolina in Columbia, South Carolina.

NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 43, no. 3

Sleepiness among college-aged students frequently is observed in uni- versity classrooms, particularly in classes with large enrollments where drowsiness and even “nodding off” is common (Appleby, 1990; Grande, 2005). College students are caught up in the drive to “do it all,” for the college experience itself is rife with concerns about new challenges related to classes, grades, relationships, and extracurricular activities. With too little time in a 24-hour day to “do it all,” college students’ sleep habits have changed noticeably during the last few decades, and they mimic the trend of less sleep reported in the recent National Sleep Foundation (NSF) poll. According to Hicks, Fernandez, and Pellegrini (1990), between about 1970–2001, stu- dents reported more than 1 hour less sleep per night, from 7.75 to 6.65 hours (as cited in Jenson, 2003).

Providing additional evidence about the sleep habits of college stu- dents, the American College Health Association’s (ACHA) National College Health Assessment (NCHA) addresses the broadest range of health issues in the college-age population and is the largest known comprehensive data set on the health of college students. Developed in 1998 by college health professionals from items drawn from nation- al survey, the instrument tracks health trends and changes among col- lege students. When asked to identify factors that have affected acad- emic performance, students over seven survey periods (spring 2000 through spring 2004) consistently indicated stress and lack of sleep among the top three impediments to their academic achievement. More specifically, students (N = 47,202) responding to the spring 2004 survey reported that stress, cold/flu/sore throat, and lack of sleep resulted in a lower grade on an exam, project, or course; or forced them to drop a course or take an incomplete.

College and university professionals working in campus health recog- nize the interdependence of health and learning and support students in diverse ways to promote health (Sacher, Moses, Fabiano, Haubenreiser, Grizzell, & Mart, 2005). The ecological perspective of the campus environment emphasizes the importance of identifying negative consequences of health issues and predictive links between health and learning (Sacher et al., 2005). ACHA’s (2002) Healthy Campus 2010: Health Impediment to Learning has established compre- hensive sets of national health objectives that target a reduction over the next decade in the frequency of occurrence of specific health issues

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that negatively impact academic performance. In addition to the top three impediments (stress, cold/flu/sore throat, and lack of sleep), other illnesses (asthma, sexually transmitted diseases), alcohol and drug use, sexual assault, relationship problems, and depression also are identified as factors. These contributory health factors are interre- lated; and in many cases, causality likely can be established between or among factors. In particular, lack of sleep is associated with the majority of health issues either as a symptomatic factor or a causal fac- tor (NSF, 2005).

As a causal factor rather than a symptom of other underlying health issues, “Not getting enough sleep” may simply be a symptom of a hec- tic life style. As such, campus health professionals promoting student wellness benefit from examining the negative consequences of sleep behaviors. The research described in this paper seeks to clarify the link between sleep behaviors and academic achievement by describing how typical sleep behaviors influence academic motivation. Abundant research indicates that concepts associated with academic motivation substantially influence academic achievement (Bandura, 1986; Midgely, 2002). The view that sleep behavior plays an important role in academic motivation appears likely, based on research concerning the influence of sleep behavior on academic achievement and on anec- dotal evidence about the advantages of “a good night’s sleep.” Current research has found that lack of sleep affects school performance and is related to achieving low grades (Wolfson & Carskadon, 1998), yet research has not addressed specific questions concerning sleep behav- ior’s relationship with specific factors linked to academic motivation.

Purpose The purpose of this investigation is to examine the relationship of sleep behavior with the following factors associated with academic motivation: self-efficacy, goal orientation, and procrastination—a type of self-handicapping behavior. Empirical data about sleep habits, excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), academic goal orientation, and procrastination were obtained and analyzed by gender and classification.

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The specific research questions were:

1. What is the relationship between students who have EDS with self-efficacy, goal orientation, and tendency to procrastinate?

2. Are demographic factors, such as gender, class rank, ethnicity, and on-campus versus off-campus living arrangements associated with EDS, self-efficacy, goal orientation, and procrastination?

3. What is the relationship between students who have EDS and demographic factor such as work hours and number of courses taken?

4. What percentage of students may have sleep disorders associated with their EDS?

Factors Associated with Academic Motivation

Academic motivation affects students’ learning and behavior in the school setting (Brophy, 1988; Ryan, Pintrich, & Midgely, 1993; Winne & Marx, 1989). Self-efficacy, the belief that one is capable of perform- ing certain behaviors or reaching particular goals, is an important component of academic motivation. Students who believe that they can achieve academically (i.e., students with high self-efficacy) are more motivated to engage in challenges. They believe they can suc- cessfully accomplish the activities and tasks and thus are motivated to make an effort (Bandura, 1986).

Another aspect of achievement motivation relates to the different rea- sons students may have for being motivated academically. Some stu- dents have mastery goals, which are typified by a desire to acquire new knowledge or learn a new skill. Other students have performance goals, which are based on a desire to appear competent or smart to others (Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck, 1986). A considerable amount of research describes numerous differences between students with mastery goals versus performance goals. Included among the findings are: students with mastery goals exhibit more self-regulated learning. Self-regulation is the process of setting goals for oneself and engaging the behaviors and cognitive processes that lead to achieving the goals. Self-regulation includes several behaviors such as goal setting, plan- ning, self-monitoring, attention control self-evaluation, and solicita-

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tion of help when needed (Ryan, Pintrich, & Midgely, 2001; Winne, 1995; Zimmerman, 1998; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Research generally has found that adults have high self-regulatory skills to achieve a goal, yet a recent study suggests that college adults are poor self-regulators when it comes to academic behavior. When given the opportunity, the college students did not use self-regulation strategies that would have helped them achieve an academic goal (Peverly, Brobst, Graham, & Shaw, 2003).

In addition to being better self-regulators than students with perfor- mance goals, students with mastery goals tend to interpret failure as a sign that they should expend more effort, evaluate their own perfor- mance in terms of the progress they make, and remain relatively calm during tests. In contrast, students with performance goals not only exhibit less self-regulated behavior, but also tend to interpret failure as a sign of low ability, evaluate their progress in terms of how they com- pare with others, and are often quite anxious about tests (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002).

Other behaviors occur that hinder self-regulation. Procrastination is one of several forms of self-handicapping regulatory behavior in which students may engage (e.g., setting unrealistic goals, reducing effort, taking on too much), and it involves postponing either the ini- tiation or completion of a task until success is difficult or impossible to attain. These self-handicapping behaviors give students a chance to justify the failure and protect their feeling of self-worth (Covington, 1992; Urdan, Ryan, Anderman, & Gheen, 2002).

Developmental Patterns of Sleep Behavior

The pattern of sleeping less begins in younger years, for sleep behav- ior changes significantly during adolescence. Adolescents from 13–19 years of age, as a whole, sleep less than when they were younger because of behaviorial and psychosocial factors, as well as biological processes (Carskadon, 1999). In another survey by the NSF (2002), over half of the young adults reported “waking up feeling unrefreshed” (55%), and the percentage of young adults suffering from significant daytime sleepiness (33%) is equivalent to that of shift workers (29%). In a study examining sleep habits, EDS, and school performance of Korean high school students, the prevalence of EDS—as defined by

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the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), an extensively used questionnaire (Johns, 1991) used by sleep specialists and researchers international- ly to measure daytime sleepiness—was about 18% for females and 15% for males (Sin, Kim, Sangduck, Ahn, & Joo, 2003). This is a lower percentage than reported for American youth in the NSF poll.

Insufficient sleep affects school performance—students who struggle or fail in high school report about 30 minutes less sleep than students who make As and Bs (Wolfson & Carskadon, 1998). Insufficient sleep also may influence negative moods (Wolfson & Carskadon, 1998) and be associated with a decreased ability to control or modify emotional responses (Dahl, 1999). In addition, an increased chance of stimulant use is related to insufficient sleep (Carskadon, 1990). Clearly, the ram- ifications of lack of sleep in the lives of students (and all Americans) are vast and certainly warrant additional investigation beyond the scope of this study.

Method

Participants and Instrumentation

Participants were 377 undergraduate students in a large Southeastern university, and the majority (95%) ranged in age from 18–23. In addi- tion, the majority of students lived on campus in residence halls. Eighty-two percent of the participants were female and 18% were male, a percentage representative of the college in which the sample was drawn, but not representative of the university’s total student enrollment. The majority of students were sophomores and juniors, 44% and 36% respectively. Only 8% were freshmen, and 12% were seniors. Eighty-four percent of the participants were White, with 13% African American and 3% Latino. The students were enrolled in an introductory educational psychology class and voluntarily completed the instrumentation developed for the study. The survey was not com- pleted during class time, and they were not required to participate as part of course requirements.

Students completed a questionnaire developed for the study from sev- eral existing and widely-used instruments measuring the following: sleep habits and the extent of EDS, self-efficacy (high or low), goal ori- entation (mastery or performance goals), and procrastination (high or

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low). Sleep habits were measured using the ESS, along with other sleep assessment questions. EDS is defined as a score of 10+ on the ESS. Other items derived from the sleep assessment scale pinpoint specific characteristics associated with sleep disorders, such as “Not feeling rested, no matter how much sleep I get” and “Have anxiety or worry about things.” In order to examine sleep behavior as a factor unasso- ciated with other health issues other than stress, students were asked if they had recently or currently experienced an illness (e.g., cold, flu, sore throat, allergies).

Self-efficacy, goal orientation, persistence, and level of procrastination were measured from a series of 16 self-report items taken from instru- ments used in previous research to measure these constructs (Pintrick, 2000; Wolter, 2003). The self-efficacy subscale of the instrument con- sisted of 4 items. An example of an item from this subscale is “I’m sure I can do an excellent job in the class” (Pintrich, 2000). Goal orienta- tion (mastery and performance goals) was measured by 6 items, such as “Doing better than other students in the class is important to me,” an item assessing a performance goal orientation (Pintrich, 2000). The subscale for persistence consisted of 3 items such as “When I decide to do something, I persist until I have completed it.” The subscale for procrastination consisted of 6 items from Wolter’s scale (2003), con- structed to assess students’ tendency to postpone completing their assigned schoolwork. An example of an item assessing procrastination is “I postpone doing work for this class until the last minute.”

Analyses and Results The data were analyzed in SPSS using descriptive statistics and MANOVA. Correlational analysis was used to determine relationships among the following variables: goal orientation (performance versus mastery goals), self-efficacy, persistence, tendency to procrastinate, and EDS. In addition, correlations were computed to examine the association of demographic information such as number of hours taken and number of weekly work hours with sleep habits and goal orientation. Data from students who indicated they recently had been or currently were ill were not included so that only sleep behavior that potentially could be self-regulated was examined. MANOVA was used to examine sleep habit and goal orientation differences between males

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and females and to determine if differences existed among students of differing ethnicity and class rank.

The first research question investigated the relationship between stu- dents’ sleep habits and self-efficacy, goal orientation, and tendency to procrastinate. As shown in Table 1, A Pearson product-moment cor- relation indicates a significant relationship between level of EDS and tendency to have performance goals, r (377) = .133, p < .001. Thus, students who are excessively sleepy tend to be motivated to be driven by an external motivator of “making a grade” rather than having an intrinsic desire to acquire new knowledge.

Table 1 Intercorrelations Between Subscales of EDS,

Mastery Goals, Performance Goals, Procrastination, Persistence, Self-Efficacy, and GPA

Students who are excessively sleepy also tend to engage in procrasti- nation, a self-handicapping strategy, r (377) = .163, p < .001, to a greater extent than students who are rested. The excuse “I waited too late to start the project to get a good grade” is a way to justify failure while protecting self-worth. In addition, a significant negative correla- tion, r (377) = -114, p < .05, exists between students reporting exces- sive sleepiness and self-efficacy. Quite understandably, when sleepy,

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students tend to feel less capable of performing certain behaviors or reaching particular goals.

Also shown in Table 1 and as expected, mastery goals were negatively correlated with procrastination, r (377) = -330, p < .001; and posi- tively correlated with persistence, r (377) = .725, p < .001. Mastery goals were positively correlated with self-efficacy, r (377) = .116, p < .05; and negatively correlated with GPA, r (377) = -.25, p < .05. Also as expected, students holding performance goals tended to pro- crastinate more than students possessing mastery goals, r (377) = .193, p < .001; and a negative relationship existed between students driven by mastery goals and procrastination, r (377) = -.330, p < .001. Students who procrastinate also tended to have a lower GPA, r (377) = -.131, p < .05. A positive relationship existed between GPA and ten- dency to persist on academic tasks and academic self-efficacy, r (377) = .161, p < .001 and r (377) = .381, p < .001, respectively.

The second research question investigated if demographic factors— such as gender, class rank, on-campus versus off-campus living arrangements, and ethnicity—are associated with EDS, and the sub- scales related to academic motivation. Findings indicate that no sig- nificant differences existed between males and females with respect to EDS and components of academic motivation. Apparently, females and males are equally likely to experience excessive sleepiness and possess similar motivational patterns, as are students who reside on campus in residence halls and those who live off campus. In addition, no significant differences were found among classes (freshmen, sopho- mores, juniors, and seniors); all reported similar patterns of sleepiness and motivation.

MANOVA revealed differences, however, on the EDS measure among students of differing ethnicity, F (2, 376) = 3.4, p < .05. African American students reported a significantly greater extent of EDS than White students (Mean difference = 1.24, p = < .05) and Latino stu- dents (Mean difference =1.47, p = < .05). White students tended to score significantly higher on the mastery goal measure than Latino stu- dents F (2, 376) = 3.45, p < .05 (Mean difference of 1.22, p = < .05). African American students also scored higher than Latinos on the mas- tery goal measure, but not at a significant level. White students also scored higher than Latino students on the tendency to persist on aca-

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demic tasks measure, F (2, 376) = 3.81, p < .05 (Mean difference of 2.05, p = < .05). Again, African American students scored higher than Latinos on the tendency to persist measure, but not at a significant level.

Third, findings about the relationship between students who have EDS and number of job-related work hours per week and number of courses taken during the semester indicate that the greater the num- ber of hours students are enrolled in, the greater the likelihood of being excessively sleepy, r (377) = .135, p < .05. Surprisingly, no rela- tionship existed between number of job-related work hours and EDS.

Finally, the percentage of students who have sleep disorders associat- ed with their EDS was computed. While 42% of the participants reported experiencing EDS, only 28% of participants were identified as likely having a sleep disorder. Interestingly, while African American students scored higher on the ESS than Whites and Latinos, they were no more likely to have characteristic sleep behaviors associated with sleep disorders than White or Latino participants.

Discussion Recent studies have found that college students are sleeping less num- bers of hours per night during the week (NSF, 2005) and that insuffi- cient sleep is reported as one of the three health impediments to aca- demic performance (ACHA, 2005). These findings certainly have implications for many aspects of student behavior related to academ- ic performance and motivation. While research has found an associa- tion with lack of sleep with grade performance, negative moods, and other behaviors, the influence of lack of sleep (EDS as measured by the ESS) on academic motivation was explicitly examined. Findings from this study suggest that EDS is associated with academic motivation in several ways.

First, EDS is related to the different reasons students may have for being motivated academically. Students who do not experience day- time sleepiness tend to have mastery goals, which are typified by a desire to acquire new knowledge or learn a new skill; while those with EDS tend to have performance goals, which are based on a desire to

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appear competent or smart to others (Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck, 1986). Students with mastery goals exhibit more self-regulated learn- ing and tend to interpret failure as a sign that they should expend more effort, a healthy attribution. In contrast, students with perfor- mance goals not only exhibit less self-regulated behavior, but also tend to interpret failure as a sign of low ability, evaluate their progress in terms of how they compare with others, and are often quite anxious about tests (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). Excessive sleepiness, and anxi- ety sometimes related to it, appears to be an important component of some of the undesirable behavior associated with performance goals. EDS also was found to be associated with tendency to procrastinate, which is a self-handicapping self-regulatory behavior. This empirical finding supports ample anecdotal evidence about the difficulty associ- ated with accomplishing a task when overly sleepy. EDS also was neg- atively associated with self-efficacy. Unlike students with high self-effi- cacy who are more motivated to engage in challenges, those with EDS tend to have lower self-efficacy and thus are not motivated to complete an academic task.

The students in this study were from a large university, with the major- ity between 18–23 years of age, female, and residing on campus in res- idence halls. The percentage of these students reporting EDS (42%) was much greater than the percentage of students (18% females and 15% males) from the Korean high school (Sin et al., 2003), mentioned previously. Taken together, these finding portray a significant dispari- ty between these two cultures regarding sleep behavior, something that campus health professionals should consider when evaluating environmental influences of residence hall life. Research examining differences between behavioral and psychosocial factors in the late high school experiences of Korean students may provide an explana- tion for differing sleep patterns, and subsequently lead to identifying strategies to address sleep deprivation in U.S. college students. How to increase the numbers of well-rested students certainly would enhance school performance; moreover, it would contribute to an overall sense of self-efficacy.

Student learning is the core of the academic mission, and campus health professionals are aware of the mutual dependence of health and learning. Using the ecological lens to campus health requires close examination of the individual influences and environmental influ-

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ences in order to develop a plan. An understanding of the effects of excessive sleepiness on academic motivation, which is the basis of aca- demic achievement, suggests several recommendations to include in a Healthy Campus Initiative:

1. Demonstrate within student communities the interrelationships and reciprocal relationships of the identified health impediments to academic performance.

2. Communicate to campus health professionals and student com- munities that ‘getting enough sleep’ is a predictor of increased aca- demic motivation. Emphasize the influence of academic motiva- tion on academic performance.

3. Establish behavioral norms of student wellness, explicitly includ- ing statement of adequate sleep norms.

4. Evaluate individual and environmental influences in residence halls that affect sleep habits and develop a plan to mediate the negative influences.

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