Describe the company and how the selected process fits into the overall framework of the company.

A learning process model to achieve continuous improvement and innovation Buckler, Bill . The Learning Organization ; Bradford  Vol. 3, Iss. 3,  (1996): 31-39.

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ABSTRACT  

According to R. Revans (1983), for an organization to be successful in today's rapidly changing environment, its

capacity to learn must exceed the rate of change imposed on it. Through an examination of the processes by

which individuals in organizations learn, this paper develops a learning process model to facilitate continuous

improvement and innovation in business processes. It draws on relevant theories which provide an understanding

of how and why people learn, barriers which prevent learning, and the role managers need to play in the learning

process. W. Edwards Demming's system of profound knowledge provides a focus for learning activity. FULL TEXT  

Bill Buckler: Bill Buckler is at Marton House, Marton, Rugby, Warwickshire, UK

Objectives

The management philosophy of W. Edwards Deming[1] with its profound implications for management-led

business transformation, is underpinned by the practice of innovation and continuous improvement of systems

and processes, based on understanding and knowledge. More recently, business process re-engineering has been

adopted by many organizations as a tool for a fundamental review of their key business processes, and is

providing many opportunities for significant step change improvements. It can also provide the added opportunity

to design into the new process the capability of continuous ongoing improvement. Success in this area will

depend on the ability of leaders, working in the process, and the overall system in which it operates, to create an

environment where learning and innovation can be facilitated.

This article seeks to help practising managers:

- Develop an understanding of how learning can be stimulated, by examining various relevant theories, concepts

and techniques of learning.

- Examine how this knowledge can be applied to the design of processes, so that learning, and thereby continuous

improvement and innovation, is maximized.

Learning as a process that results in changed behaviour

Figure 1 shows learning as a process. Three ingredients are needed for this process to be effective:

- (1) focus to plot a course for the learning effort;

- (2) an environment which facilitates learning;

- (3) techniques which enable learning to be efficient.

The interlocking circles on the model imply that the ingredients are not discrete, but overlap, and are

interdependent if the whole learning process is to be optimized.

In simple terms these are the hows, whys, and whats of learning, and these will be examined in more detail.

Readers are invited to relate the hows and whys to their own lifetime learning experiences, to establish a "ring of

truth", before going on to examine what has to be learned to achieve continuous improvement and innovation in

business processes.

The "hows" of learning - techniques to help the learning process

The learning debate centres on two models, which reflect profound differences in values and ideology. In very

simple terms the first model, which I have called the "taught model", sees learning as something which is "done to"

people, whereas the second, the "discovery model", sees it as something which people "do" for themselves. Each

model appears to be based on sound theory; mainly behaviourism in the case of the taught model or gestalt in the

case of discovery learning. The extreme versions of the models, together with the characteristics which seem to

accompany them, are shown in Table I.

Each model has a distinct set of advantages and disadvantages. I believe it is useful to consider the models as the

opposite ends of a spectrum, with an infinite range of options in between. This approach allows us to relate the

relative benefits of each learning model, more precisely to the objectives of the business process being

considered, rather than take up a black/white, good/bad position.

To implement the learning company concept[2], seems to require a move through the spectrum towards the

discovery model, to gain the benefits of creativity, innovation, customer responsiveness, and continuous

improvement, which this style of learning can deliver. At the same time it is necessary to manage the

disadvantages of discovery learning, namely aligning organizational and personal objectives, and minimizing the

risk of failure. A move too far along the spectrum will lose some of the benefits of the taught model, such as

consistency and conformity. Also, the move away from the taught model will be resisted by conditioned responses

which that model has itself created, and which show themselves as learning disabilities and barriers to change.

I do not believe that the taught model is bad, per se, and that the discovery model is good. It is more a case of what

is appropriate to the business requirements. For instance, in a matter relating to the safety of staff or the public,

there may be a need to adhere strictly to safety procedures, and a taught learning process may be the only

effective way of ensuring such conformity. A key requirement in developing organizational learning will be to

achieve an optimum balance between the learning systems described, which meets the detailed requirements of

the business process. Nevertheless the release of individual potential, resulting in behavioural change and creative

and innovative process improvements will only really happen if existing learning systems move radically towards

the discovery model.

The "whys" of learning - creating an environment which provides meaning

Whichever learning method is appropriate, it is useful to consider the learning process as taking place in stages,

and the model developed to explain this is shown in Figure 2.

In concept, learning requires a movement through the stages, but for this to happen, the individual will need to be

motivated to expend the effort necessary. Motivation can be intrinsic, i.e. from within the individual, or extrinsic, i.e.

imposed from outside, usually by the organization. Theory suggests that individuals will be intrinsically motivated

to move through the model, and the strength of this motivation will vary from individual to individual. Also,

individuals will be prevented from moving through the model by inbuilt attitudes, values, beliefs and responses, of

which they are often not aware. These responses may be the direct result of conditioning, by the organization, or

"taught" learning systems in general. An individual will only move through the model while the driving forces

exceed the restraining forces, and will become "stuck" when the forces are exactly matched[3]. Typical expressions

which describe the driving and restraining forces at each stage of the process are shown on the model, but it is

important to understand that these will be unique to each individual[4]. It will be useful to look at each stage of the

model in turn, and explore some of the issues which may surround it.

Ignorance

"No one knows what they don't know", so no blame can be attached to individuals who finds themselves in a state

of ignorance. Indeed, this stage is, or was, the starting point for everyone. It can be argued that it is also the

easiest stage to move from by enquiring.

Awareness

Having developed an awareness, motivation will be needed for the individual to input sufficient effort to gain an

understanding of the subject[5]. Barriers to learning are likely to be a legacy from rigid organizational and wage

structures - "It's not my job", and "I'm not paid to know that" being typical responses. The development of

supportive teamworking, and peer recognition for the effort of self-development may be powerful antidotes.

Conversely, ill-considered reward systems and team structures reinforce the barriers.

Understanding

The development of understanding will take place in stages, as the depth of knowledge increases. Shallow

understanding will generally result from single-loop learning[6], but double-loop learning will be needed if deep

understanding is to be achieved. Commitment will start to develop provided the knowledge is perceived as meeting

the needs of the individual and the organization[7, 8]. On the other hand, as the depth of understanding increases,

it may start to challenge deeply held beliefs and values, which either overtly or sub-consciously may limit the move

to commitment. Senge[9] calls this "creative tension".

Commitment

Commitment will not be achieved without "intrinsic interest and curiosity"[9]. If this is not present, the move to

action may not take place. Many training courses do not have the desired effect because they are imposed, and

are not attended because of an intrinsic desire to learn. This desire cannot be directed, but must come from within

the individual. However, it can be nurtured and encouraged. To be most effective, learning at this level must be

pulled by the individual, not pushed by the organization. Also, the barriers preventing the transition from

commitment to enactment can be formidable. Usually, they will require the individual to change behaviour. Often

this will bring into play a powerful, inbuilt, and unconscious defence mechanism. Argyris[6] calls this "defensive

reasoning". The individual will need to develop a high level of self-awareness if this barrier is to be breached.

Enactment

When individuals, working within teams, move to enactment, real improvements to working processes will start to

emerge. However, this involves a degree of risk, and the working environment must allow this if benefits are to be

gained. Development of this environment will facilitate insight learning[10], and increase the probability of

innovation and creative solutions to problems[11]. The release of this creativity will be the source of future

competitive advantage. Effective discovery learning systems can enable individuals to move very quickly to this

stage, and Revan's action learning concepts[12] are based on this. On the other hand, the environment created by

taught learning systems may inhibit changes to processes and limit their capacity to improve. For instance, quality

management systems, such as BS 5750 and ISO 9000, can create a culture of "conformance", where changes to

processes and new ideas are discouraged, and would be criticized by auditing procedures.

Reflection

This is probably the most important part of the learning process which is often missing in "taught" organizations.

This is where actions, outcomes and theories are evaluated, and deep learning takes place. The compliant nature

of "taught" systems often means that individuals are not encouraged to question or challenge theories, and

inappropriate actions continue to be taken long after those theories have been discredited. In extreme cases of

operant conditioning, where actions are a result of "learning by rote", the difficulties in achieving a change in

behaviour needed to enable deep learning to take place should not be underestimated. When effective, reflection

increases understanding, which, in turn increases commitment and action, and a virtuous cycle of learning is

unleashed.

The role of leadership in creating a learning environment

My experience has shown me that success in achieving the learning company vision depends greatly on the

effectiveness of managers and team leaders in creating an environment where individual, team, and thereby,

organizational learning is facilitated. In order to do this they will need a deep understanding of the learning

process, to be able to identify an individual's position on the stages of learning model, to understand the driving

and restraining forces applicable to the individual at that time, and have intervention strategies to facilitate

movement through the stages.

Figure 3 shows the stages of learning model, with the role of leadership superimposed. The various aspects of the

leadership role will be examined in more detail.

Questioning

The first step up the learning ladder is to move from a state of ignorance to being aware that an area of knowledge

exists, and that it may be of benefit to both the individual and the organization. The leader will need to have this

knowledge already, and the enthusiasm and commitment to put it into practice. The leader's position as a role

model[13] will therefore be vital in gaining the attention and interest of the team. Other team members may also

have greater understanding, and can provide help as mentors and role models.

Developing shared vision and ownership

Senge[9] sees "developing a shared vision" as one of the five disciplines of learning, and an ability to do this in a

participative way with the team will be a key requirement of the leader. This will be a two stage process, as the

level of understanding of the team develops. Initially the leader will concentrate of the "whats" of the vision, and

the role that learning will play in its achievement. As learning develops, the debate will increasingly move into the

"why" areas, and the facilitation of this process up and down the organization will enhance organizational learning.

It will also start to expose the barriers preventing movement up the learning ladder, and enable the leader to evolve

his own understanding and develop strategies to minimize their effects. The participative approach[14] will help

unlock intrinsic motivation, by enabling individuals to satisfy their inner needs[7, 8].

Enabling

At some stage there will be a need to try something new. We can develop an understanding and commitment to

riding a bicycle, but until we try we will never be able to ride. However, the first few attempts involve a high risk of

falling off. The leader must, at this stage, provide both opportunity and encouragement, if the benefits are to be

achieved. Strategies must also be developed to minimize risk, and ensure that failure does not prevent the

individual from trying again. The more quickly individuals can be moved to the enactment stage, the more quickly

experiential learning will start.

Removing barriers

Probably the most important role of the leader is to identify and minimize the effects of barriers to learning[3].

These will be present at each stage of the learning process, but will become more challenging as the higher stages

of the ladder are reached. The leader will need to understand the sort of things which cause individuals to become

"stuck" on the ladder, and develop an awareness of when and why this is happening. Individuals will not

necessarily be aware of the high level barriers which are operating within themselves, and these will need to be

drawn into conscious awareness before they can be managed. This is a very complex area to delve into, and to be

effective, leaders will require a high level of understanding of psychology. The level of understanding needed is

very rare in most organizations. Clearly we have here a "chicken and egg" situation, where leaders from the top

down will need to be highly motivated to learn about psychology, without yet having the very understanding which

will be needed to remove the barriers to such learning. The work of Senge[9], Argyris[6] and Goldratt[15] will help to

start this learning process, but as high level barriers are encountered, outside help may be needed to understand

and manage them.

The "whats" of learning - enabling a focus on organizational goals

The learning requirements, which will provide the focus for learning activity, will need to come directly from the

requirements of the business process to which they relate, and the needs of the individuals working within that

process. By applying the four areas of learning outlined in Deming's "system of profound knowledge"[4] to a

business process, a "menu" of learning, as shown in the Appendix, can be developed. This will form a basis from

which detailed, prioritized learning plans can be formulated.

The "menu" contains a mixture of knowledge, attitudes and skills, and different approaches will be needed to

assess, and provide learning opportunities in these areas.

A learning process model

The learning process model, Figure 4, has been developed as a tool for systematically applying the various

concepts which have been outlined to achieve improvement of business processes.

The various components of the model will be examined in more detail.

The learning support system

The learning support system will need to be designed to provide the environment in which learning will be

facilitated, and its success will depend heavily on the quality of leadership provided by managers and team

leaders. Consideration will need to be given to the learning styles of the individuals concerned[16, 17] and other

learning techniques to enable tailored support to be developed which will enable learning experiences to meet

individual and team needs.

The main features of the learning support system are described next.

Systematic approach

While discovery learning requires a minimum of control and direction to be effective, nevertheless a systematic

approach to learning support will be needed if individual learning is to contribute towards achieving and

developing the aims of the organization. Also it will demonstrate the organization's commitment to supporting

individual learning.

Leadership

It is clear that effective leadership is the key ingredient for the success of the learning model. A participative

leadership style will be required, with high levels of facilitation and coaching skills. Leadership behaviours which

stifle learning will need to be recognized and avoided. Extensive work will be needed with managers and team

leaders during the implementation of the model.

Team learning support

Flatter structures, with fewer tiers of management, and greater empowerment of teams, are a feature of business

process re-engineering. These structures require changes in the way people work together, and support each other.

Support for these changes towards effective teamworking will be necessary. The move of leaders from a directive

role to a facilitating role, and the greater responsibility placed on team members will need to be supported by team

building and group learning activities. There will be a need to move teams more quickly towards "action mode",

with effective "what have we learned?" reviews.

Individual learning support

Support for individual learning will come from coaching and mentoring, assisting with self-managed learning, and

making opportunities available for distance learning where this is appropriate. The emphasis will need to be on

identifying and removing barriers to learning, and allowing individuals sufficient freedom to maintain high levels of

intrinsic motivation. At the same time, activities will need to be aligned with business objectives.

Experimentation opportunities

Discovery learning requires that opportunities for individuals and teams to experiment are maximized. This will

require a creative approach to problem solving, which initially will not sit easily with the existing culture of most

organizations. Careful management of risk will be needed, which will include identifying and minimizing exposure

to risk.

Learning resource information systems

Recent developments in computer systems present exciting opportunities to develop learning resource material,

which can be accessed according to need. This enables training and learning material to be "pulled" by individuals

and teams on a "just-in-time" basis. Multimedia systems open up enormous potential for demonstrations to

support the learning of skills. Feedback from learners can be added to the database. The result can be an organic

learning resource, capable of rapid response to changing circumstances, which will help to maximize the

effectiveness of organizational learning.

Learning needs diagnosis

Successful diagnosis and prioritization of organizational learning needs should be directly related to the

company's strategy via its policy deployment process. The diagnosis will take place in three stages:

- (1) Defining the process requirements: The "shopping list" of learning, outlined earlier, can be used as a basis for

developing detailed learning requirements for the people in a particular business process.

- (2) Individual and team assessment: Using the stages of learning model as a guide, team leaders and individuals

can jointly make an assessment of the level of knowledge or skill in each area. By summating the levels of

understanding of individuals, it should be possible to build up a profile of the whole team. Mentors, who have high

levels of skills and knowledge, can be identified during this stage of the process, to help individuals with their

learning.

- (3) Prioritizing learning needs: A process will be needed to merge individual and team learning priorities with the

priorities of the organization, again using a participative style. A "little and often" approach is recommended here,

so that individuals and teams are not swamped with a daunting list of activities, but focus on a few vital areas,

within a short timescale.

Progress review

Probably the most important feature of the model, is the progress review process. By questioning "What have we

learned?" and "How have we learned?", and feeding this information back into the learning process, a cycle of

continuous improvement will be established. More importantly, by establishing a feedback loop to the company

policy deployment process, company policy can be questioned, challenged and modified as learning takes place.

Such "double-loop learning"[6] is the hallmark of a learning organization, and is the vital mechanism for converting

individual and team learning into organizational learning.

The review process will only be truly effective in an environment where "challenge" and "criticism" are not

perceived as "threat", and where the views and considered opinions of everyone working in the business process

are valued by managers at all levels.

Company policy deployment process

This is the process by which the company develops, communicates, and implements the strategies and policies

necessary to meet its business objectives.

Conclusions

The models and processes outlined have been developed following many years' experience in managing change

and process improvement in a large organization. They seek to provide an explanation why some initiatives were

successful, while others were less so. They should not be considered as models to be rigidly followed, in a taught

manner, but rather as a framework against which past experience can be assessed. All managers have

experiences of actions which produced successful outcomes, and actions which failed. So often, however, we omit

the reflection stage of the learning process, and continue to take inappropriate actions, destined to fail. Worse still,

we copy initiatives which have worked elsewhere, and do not understand why they do not work for us.

Instead, it will be more useful to view the models using a discovery learning process, to help evaluate successful

initiatives, and experiment with other ideas which are of interest, always adding a reflection stage to our thought

process.

Ideally managers will be stimulated to follow up some of the references, to increase their depth of understanding.

In today's uncertain economic times, it is essential that our capacity to improve and innovate exceeds the rate of

change imposed on our organizations. It is essential, therefore, that managers understand the learning process

and know how to facilitate its application throughout their areas of responsibility.

References

1. Neave, H.R., The Deming Dimension, SPC Press, Knoxville, TN, 1990.

2. Pedler, M., Boydell, T. and Burgoyne, J., Learning Company Project Report, Department of Employment, Sheffield,

1988.

3. Lewin, K., Group Decision and Social Change , Readings in Social Psychology, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New

York, NY, 1958.

4. Deming, W.E., A System of Profound Knowledge , British Deming Association Booklet No. 9, Salisbury, 1990.

5. Vroom, V.H., Work and Motivation, Wiley, New York, NY, 1964.

6. Argyris, C., On Organizational Learning , Blackwell, Oxford, 1992.

7. Maslow, A., "A theory of human motivation", Psychological Review, Vol. 50, 1942.

8. Herzberg, F., Mauser, B., Peterson, R.O. and Capwell, D.F., Job Attitudes: Review of Research and Opinion,

Psychological Service of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 1957.

9. Senge, P.M., The Fifth Discipline - The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, Century Business, New

York, NY, 1990.

10. Kohler, W., The Mentality of Apes, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York, NY, 1925.

11. Koestler, A., The Act of Creation, Pan Books, London, 1970.

12. Revans, R., The A.B.C. of Action Learning, Chartwell-Bratt, Bromley, 1983.

13. Bandura, A., Social Learning Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1977.

14. Lewin, K., Lippitt, R. and White, R., "Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates",

Journal of Social Psychology, 1939.

15. Goldratt, E., It's Not Luck, Gower, Aldershot, 1994.

16. Kolb, D.A., Experiential Learning, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1984.

17. Honey, P. and Mumford, A., The Manual of Learning Styles, Honey, Maidenhead, 1986.

Appendix: process requirements "menu"

Systems/processes

- Company mission/values;

- Strategy/business plans;

- High level business processes;

- Policy deployment process;

- Policy deployment plans;

- Policy statements/instructions;

- Budgeting instructions;

- Investment management process;

- Manuals of procedure;

- Design standards/manuals;

- ow level business processes;

- Process flowcharting ;

- Process management understanding;

- Project management;

- The competitive environment.

Learning/knowledge acquisition;

- earning processes;

- earning styles: how we learn;

- earning process model: how to use it; how to extend knowledge database;

- Personal development opportunities.

Variation/data analysis;

- Quality management tools:

- - brainstorming;

- - Pareto;

- - histograms;

- - check lists;

- - cause and effect diagrams;

- - scatter diagrams;

- - flowcharts.

- Statistical process control: control charts;

- Benchmarking data;

- Customer research;

- Staff opinion research;

- Quality function deployment;

- Failure modes and effects analysis;

- Design of experiments;

- Process and performance measurement: identifying/eliminating variation.

People/psychology;

- Team working model: definition of roles;

- Team skills;

- Motivation: intrinsic vs. extrinsic;

- Removing barriers to learning;

- eadership: transition to self directed teams;

- Facilitation skills;

- Coaching skills;

- Directive vs. process management;

- Effective behaviours;

- Managing change;

- Performance counselling;

- Team briefing (including feedback);

- Transactional analysis.

Illustration

Caption: Figure 1; Learning as a process; Table I; Learning methods - two extremes; Figure 2; The stages of

learning; Figure 3; The role of leadership; Figure 4; A learning process model

DETAILS

Subject: Organizational learning; Cognition &reasoning; Management theory; Models

Classification: 9130: Experimental/theoretical; 2500: Organizational behavior

Publication title: The Learning Organization; Bradford

Volume: 3

Issue: 3

Pages: 31-39

Number of pages: 0

Publication year: 1996

Publication date: 1996

Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Place of publication: Bradford

Country of publication: United Kingdom, Bradford

Publication subject: Business And Economics--Management, Business And Economics--Personnel

Management

ISSN: 09696474

e-ISSN: 17587905

Source type: Scholarly Journals

Language of publication: English

Document type: Feature

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09696479610119660

ProQuest document ID: 215660618

Document URL: https://search.proquest.com/docview/215660618?accountid=32521

Copyright: Copyright MCB UP Limited (MCB) 1996

Last updated: 2019-09-06

Database: ProQuest Central

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