Write a brief summary of the important concepts you learned from chapter 2 & 3. (Chapter 2 & 3 summary attached and textbook attached)

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Leader Development

“Leadership and learning are indispensable

to each other.”

~John F. Kennedy

C h

a p

te r

2

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The Action-Observation-Reflection Model

• Making the most of experience is key to

developing one’s leadership ability.

• The action-observation-reflection (A-O-R)

model shows that leadership development

is enhanced when the experience involves

three different processes:

– Action

– Observation

– Reflection

• Spiral of experience: Colin Powell’s

example.

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The Spiral of Experience

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The Key Role of Perception in the Spiral of Experience

• Experience is not just a matter of what events

happen to you; it also depends on how you

perceive those events.

• Perception affects all three phases of the

action-observation-reflection model.

• People actively shape and construct their

experiences.

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Perception and Observation

• Observation and perception both deal with

attending to events around us.

– We are selective in what we attend to and what we, in

turn, perceive.

• Perceptual sets can influence any of our

senses:

– They are the tendency or bias to perceive one thing

and not another.

– Feelings, needs, prior experiences, and expectations

can all trigger a perceptual set.

• Stereotypes represent powerful impediments to

learning.

– Awareness of biases occurs upon reflection.

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Perception and Reflection

• Reflection deals with how we interpret our observations.

• Perception is inherently an interpretive, or a meaning-making, activity.

• Attributions are the explanations we develop for the behaviors or actions we attend to.

• Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the dispositional causes of behavior and underestimate the environmental causes when others fail.

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Perception and Reflection (cont.)

• A self-serving bias is the tendency to make

external attributions for one’s own failures, yet

make internal attributions for one’s successes.

• The actor/observer difference refers to the

fact that people who are observing an action

are much more likely than the actor to make the

fundamental attribution error.

• Reflection involves higher functions like

evaluation and judgment, not just perception

and attribution.

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Perception and Action

• Research shows that perceptions and biases

affect supervisors’ actions towards poorly

performing subordinates.

• The self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our

expectations/predictions play a causal role in

bringing about the events we predict.

• Studies show that having expectations about

others can subtly influence our actions, and

these actions can, in turn, affect the way others

behave.

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The Role of Expectations in Social Interaction

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Reflection and Leadership Development

• Reflection offers leaders insights about framing

problems differently, viewing situations from

multiple perspectives, and understanding

subordinates better.

• Leaders tend to ignore reflection due to a lack

of time or a lack of awareness of its value.

• Intentional reflection may prompt leaders to

see potential benefits in experience not initially

considered relevant.

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Single- and Double-Loop Learning

• Single-loop learners seek relatively little

feedback that may significantly confront their

fundamental ideas or actions.

– Individuals learn only about subjects within the “comfort

zone” of their belief systems.

• Double-loop learning involves being willing to

confront one’s own views and inviting others to

do the same.

– Mastering double-loop learning can be thought of as

learning how to learn.

– Learning is enhanced with after event reviews (AERs).

2-13

Making the Most of Your Leadership Experiences: Learning to Learn from Experience

• The learning events and developmental

experiences that punctuate one’s life are

usually stressful.

• Being able to go against the grain of one’s

personal historical success requires a strong

commitment to learning and a willingness to let

go of the fear of failure.

• To be successful, learning must continue

throughout life and beyond the completion of

one’s formal education.

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Leader Development in College

• The number of college-level leadership studies

programs is rising, but few programs offer

academic credit, such as academic minors.

• Leadership programs should be

multidisciplinary and should cultivate values

through service learning.

• Program elements might involve individualized

feedback to students.

• Case studies, role playing, simulations, and

games provide opportunities for self-discovery

and practice.

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Leader Development in Organizational Settings

• Organization-based leadership programs

benefit both the individual and the organization.

• The return on investment (ROI) for

investments in leadership development are both

positive and substantial.

• Most programs are aimed at leaders and

supervisors in industry and public service.

• Program content depends on the organization

level of participants:

– First-level supervisors

– Mid-level managers

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Leader Development in Organizational Settings (cont.)

• Programs for first-level supervisors use

lectures, case studies, and role-playing

exercises to improve supervisory skills:

– Training

– Monitoring,

– Giving feedback

– Completing performance reviews

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Leader Development in Organizational Settings (cont.)

• Mid-level manager programs use individualized

feedback, case studies, presentations, role

playing, simulations, and in-basket exercises to

improve the following:

– Interpersonal skills

– Oral and written communication skills

– Time management skills

– Planning

– Goal setting

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• Conger states that a multi-tiered approach is

effective and should focus on personal growth,

skill building, feedback, and conceptual

awareness.

• Leadership development in the 21st century

must occur in more lifelike situations and

contexts.

• Leadership programs for senior executives and

CEOs focus on strategic planning, public

relations, and interpersonal skills.

Leader Development in Organizational Settings (cont.)

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Action Learning

• Traditional training programs involve

personnel taking leadership classes during work

hours.

• Such training addresses common leadership

issues, but its artificial nature makes it difficult

to transfer concepts to actual work situations.

• In contrast, action learning involves the use of

actual work issues and challenges as the

developmental activity itself.

• The philosophy of action learning is that the

best learning involves learning by doing.

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Development Planning

• Development planning is a process that helps

leaders to accelerate the development of their

own leadership skills.

• To make enduring behavioral changes, leaders

must provide positive answers to five questions:

– Do leaders know which of their behaviors need to

change?

– Is the leader motivated to change these behaviors?

– Do leaders have plans in place for changing targeted

behaviors?

– Do leaders have opportunities to practice new skills?

– Are leaders held accountable for changing targeted

behaviors?

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Development Planning (cont.)

• Development planning is more than a plan—it is

really a process.

• Good development plans are constantly being

revised as new skills are learned or new

opportunities to develop skills become

available.

• Development planning provides a methodology

for leaders to improve their behavior even as

they go about their daily work activities.

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Coaching

• Coaching is a key leadership skill that can help

leaders improve the bench strength of the group

and retain high-quality followers.

• Coaching is the “process of equipping people

with the tools, knowledge, and opportunities

they need to develop and become more

successful.”

• There are two types of coaching: informal and

formal.

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Coaching (cont.)

• Informal coaching takes place whenever a

leader helps followers to change their

behaviors.

• According to Peterson and Hicks, the best

informal coaching generally consists of five

steps:

– Forging a partnership

– Inspiring commitment

– Growing skills

– Promoting persistence

– Shaping the environment

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Coaching (cont.)

• The 5-step informal coaching process can be

used to diagnose why behavioral change is not

occurring and what can be done about it.

• Informal coaching can and does occur

anywhere in the organization.

• Informal coaching is effective for both high-

performing and low-performing followers.

• Coaching increases in difficulty when it occurs

either remotely or across cultures.

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Coaching (cont.)

• Formal coaching programs are designed for

the specific needs and goals of individual

executives and managers in leadership

positions.

• Such programs share common features:

– The one-on-one relationship between manager and

coach lasts from six months to more than a year.

– The process begins with an assessment of the

manager to clarify development needs.

– The coach and manager meet monthly to build skills.

– Role plays and videotape are used extensively, and

coaches provide immediate feedback.

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Coaching (cont.)

• Formal coaching programs can cost more than

$100,000.

• Coaching may be more effective at changing

behavior than more traditional learning and

training approaches.

• Behavioral changes from coaching tend to be in

place one year after the termination of a

coaching program, indicating permanent

behavioral change.

• Coaching candidates tend to have multi-million

dollar budgets and thousands of subordinates.

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Mentoring

• In an organization, you can gain valuable

perspectives and insights through close

association with a mentor—an experienced

person willing to take you under his/her wing.

• Mentoring is a personal relationship in which a

more experienced mentor (usually someone 2-4

levels higher in an organization) acts as a

guide, role model, and sponsor of a less

experienced protégé.

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Mentoring (cont.)

• Mentors provide protégés with knowledge,

advice, challenge, counsel, and support about

career opportunities, organizational strategy

and policy, and office politics.

• Mentoring is not the same as coaching because

it may not target specific development needs

and the mentor may not even be part of the

organization.

• There are formal and informal mentoring

programs.

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Mentoring (cont.)

• Informal mentoring occurs when a protégé and

mentor build a long-term relationship based on

friendship, similar interests, and mutual respect.

• Formal mentoring involves the organization

assigning a relatively inexperienced but high-

potential leader to a top executive in the firm.

• Formal mentoring is often used to accelerate

the development of female or minority protégés.

• Informal mentoring may be more effective than

formal mentoring due to longer-term

relationships and stronger emotional bonds.

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Building Your Own Leadership Self- Image

• Not everyone wants to be a leader or believes

he/she can be.

• Many people are selling themselves short.

• Keep an open mind about the importance of

leadership.

• Avoid self-defeating generalizations.

• Experiment and take a few risks with different

leadership roles.

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Summary

• One way to add value to your leadership

courses and experiences is by applying the

action-observation-reflection model.

• Be aware of the role perception plays in

leadership development.

• Education and experience can contribute to

your development as a leader.

• To become a better leader, one must seek

challenges and try to make the best of any

leadership opportunity.