Word count is 750 or more words. EVERYTHING MUST BE IN OWN WORDS. There should ONLY be 2 Scholarly resources from bethel university library. So in all I should have only 4 Resources for my Reference page. Everything must be in APA Style. Please make sure
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OVERVIEW Throughout this book we have referred to the empirical research linking particular human
resource practices to corporate financial performance. The last chapter emphasized the
critical role of performance measurement and management as characteristics of “high-
performance work practices.” 1 This same body of research also points to the importance of
training and development as contributors to the “bottom line” of corporate performance.
Training has evolved substantially in recent years with evidence indicating more organi-
zational investment in training and development. Those leaders who understand how to
drive business results in an increasingly competitive, global environment recognize that
a better-trained workforce improves performance and that investing in employee learning
O B J E C T I V E S
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Define what is meant by training and explain why it is a critical function
for corporations today.
2. Explain how to conduct a needs assessment, including performing
organizational, task, and person analyses and deriving instructional
objectives for a training program.
3. Know how to design a training program to facilitate learning.
4. Identify the critical elements related to transfer of training.
5. Compare and contrast the various techniques available for training,
including their relative advantages and disadvantages, with particular
emphasis on e-learning.
6. Identify criteria used to evaluate training effectiveness.
7. Understand different experimental designs that can be used for evaluating
training programs.
8. Understand the components of training programs for employee orientation
and onboarding, teamwork, generational issues, diversity awareness, sexual
harassment, and international assignments.
Training and Development
Chapter
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
and development is critical to achieving success. 2 See Figure 8-1 for current trends in the
workplace shaping human resource development (HRD) systems. Given the intense pressure to compete, improve quality and customer service, and lower costs, leading Amer-
ican companies have come to view training as a key to organizational survival and success.
In fact, ASTD’s 2010 State of the Industry report noted that despite the uncertain economic conditions affecting companies, there was still a continued dedication to workplace train-
ing in firms worldwide. By their investments in learning, executives highlighted their
belief that employee learning and development is critical to the survival, recovery, and
future growth of their firms. 3 In another review, it was found that “many organizations are
more likely to include training solutions as part of a systemwide change to gain competi-
tive advantage.” 4
Many employers throughout the world view the skill level of their workforce as the
top priority for planning. According to the Society for Human Resource Management’s
workplace forecast published in 2011, one of the top 10 trends is global competitiveness
and the need for an educated and skilled workforce. This suggests the need for continual
training for employees, especially given the fact that large numbers of Baby Boomers are
expected to leave the workforce around the same time. As a result, many HR professionals
are worried about a skills shortage in the U.S. labor force. 5 Another survey of those firms
planning to hire new employees indicated that 39 percent of them said they expected to
encounter some difficulty in finding qualified individuals for their new positions. Even
though there are several workers available for every open position in the United States, HR
professionals are still having trouble finding the right people to match the skills required for their job openings. 6
Organizations with exceptional training opportunities and programs often make Fortune magazine’s list of the “Best Companies to Work For,” an honor that also translates into financial success. One study found that companies that made Fortune ’s list had 50 percent less turnover than their peers and returned about three times more money for stockholders. 7
Increase in diversity in the workplace
Changes brought about by global network and
communications
Faster work pace requires more flexibility
Security concerns on a global scale
Impact of technology on work and home life
Concept of work changing
Importance of ethics
Economic climate dictates how
companies operate
Trends in the
Workplace
Figure 8-1 Trends in the Workplace
Employee skill-level a top priority
Training and Fortune’s “Best Companies”
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To become a leading-edge company, a firm will need to be more concerned with the types
of programs it uses to improve workplace learning and performance, not simply with
how much money it spends on training. A transformation of a firm’s training efforts and
other practices and systems that support training may be needed. For example, successful
firms align their training with high-performance work practices (e.g., self-directed work
teams, access to business information), innovative compensation practices (profit sharing,
group-based pay), and innovative training practices (e.g., mentoring or coaching programs,
training information systems). According to ASTD’s 2010 review of the industry, top com-
panies expect their employees to allocate a meaningful amount of time to formal learning
and development activities. 8
Not only must firms invest in the continual learning of workers in order to be competi-
tive, but many companies are providing training to workers who are new to the workforce.
Many companies also include an assessment of workforce trainability as part of their anal-
ysis for expansion and plant openings. Unfortunately, recent evidence indicates that many
U.S. workers are not competing well on the trainability criterion. In 2005, Toyota selected
Ontario, Canada, over the United States as the place for a new plant for its mini-SUVs.
Toyota chose Canada over several U.S. states offering substantial financial incentives
based to some extent on the relative trainability of Ontario’s workforce. The president of
the Automotive Parts Manufacturers’ Association stated that the educational level in parts
of the United States was so low that trainers for Japanese plants have to use “pictorials” to
teach some illiterate workers how to use high-tech equipment. Other reports support the
contention that auto companies with plants in parts of the United States are disappointed in
the trainability of the U.S. workforce. 9
Many firms provide life training in addition to skills training. When Marriott Hotels
hires new workers, it enrolls them in a 6-week training course with classes on hotel duties
and self-esteem and stress. At Burger King, basic training for starting restaurant jobs also
includes Life 101 (e.g., teaching employees how to balance a checkbook, the importance of
getting to work on time). Ecolab established partnerships with welfare-to-work community
groups and started a training program at a Wisconsin plant to teach entry-level employees
math, basic physics, and blueprint-reading skills. 10
This chapter provides an overview of employee training. We will discuss the impor-
tance of training in the context of the organization’s competitive strategy and the need to
link training needs with the mission and goals of the organization. You will learn how to
design and evaluate a training program and to tailor the training to particular situations.
DEFINING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Training is defined as any attempt to improve employee performance on a currently held job or one related to it. This usually means changes in specific knowledge, skills,
attitudes, or behaviors. To be effective, training should involve a learning experience, be
a planned organizational activity, and be designed in response to identified needs. Ideally,
training also should be designed to meet the goals of the organization while simultane-
ously meeting the goals of individual employees. The term training is often confused with the term development . Development refers to learning opportunities designed to help employees grow. Such opportunities do not have to be limited to improving employees’
performance on their current jobs. At Ford, for example, a new systems analyst is required
to take a course on Ford standards for user manuals. The content of this training is needed
to perform the systems analyst job at Ford. The systems analyst, however, also may enroll
in a course entitled “Self-Awareness,” the content of which is not required on the current
job. This situation illustrates the difference between “training” and “development.” The
focus of “development” is on the long term to help employees prepare for future work
demands, while “training” often focuses on the immediate period to help fix any current
deficits in employees’ skills.
The most effective companies look at training and career development as an integral
part of a human resources development (HRD) program carefully aligned with corporate
U.S. workers are not competing well on trainability
Training should be aligned with strategy
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business strategies. This is a critical factor for those firms rated as ASTD’s Best
Companies. 11 It is also important for individual employees. In fact, in a survey reported
in 2010 by the Corporate Executive Board, 20,000 high-potential employees revealed
that being connected to their firm’s corporate strategy was top on their list as something
that drove or engaged them. 12 During tough economic times, it is especially important
for training to be aligned to corporate strategic business objectives. This can be done by
(1) aligning efforts with the organizational mission and business goals, (2) using train-
ing to address skill gaps, (3) designing job-focused instructional objectives, (4) creating sound
training programs that promote learning and transfer to jobs, and (5) collaborating with
sponsors and others outside the training department to promote transfer of training to
jobs. 13 The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) award winners for the Very Best Learning Organizations are those that strike a balance between training and other types of learning efforts (e.g., performance analysis, organizational develop-
ment, talent management, process improvement). In 2010, the ASTD listed 31 firms
that were successful in creating a valuable learning culture despite tough economic
times and budget cutbacks. These firms were able to create engaged learning environ-
ments, use new ways of delivering learning via social media tools, and create innovative
cultures. These included 22 from the United States, 6 from India, 2 based in Turkey,
and 1 from Singapore. The top 10 winners included firms from all around the world in
diverse industries, such as Intercontinental Hotels Group, Datatel, NIT Technologies
Limited (India), University Health System, Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi A.S. (Turkey), Barilla
America, Inc., CaridianBCT, Farmers Group, Inc., ESL Federal Credit Union, and
Wipro Technologies (India). 14
EXTENT OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT In the United States, ASTD estimated that companies spent $125.88 billion on employee
learning and development in 2009 with a slight increase in the dollar amount spent on
training per employee. 15 In 2009, ASTD’s BEST organizations reported an average of 47
hours of learning content for each employee, a 15.9 percent increase from 2008. The BEST
award winners were defined as those organizations honored for demonstrating a clear link
between learning and performance in their firms. Common characteristics of BEST win-
ning organizations were :
■ Evidence that learning has an enterprise-wide role or linkages from the executive team
to the organization’s strategy.
■ Evidence that learning has value in the organization’s culture (e.g., learning opportuni-
ties for employees, C-level involvement, learning for growth of the organization, and
innovation).
■ Evidence that learning links to individual and organizational performance (e.g., align-
ment with the business, efficiency, measurement of the effectiveness of learning, and
success with non-training solutions for business needs).
■ Evidence of investments in learning and performance initiatives. 16
The ASTD BEST Award winner Datatel, an information technology and consulting
firm, averages about $3,000 per employee annually on training and employees average
about 80 hours a year in training. As the chief financial officer, Kevin Boyce, says “our
philosophy is to take care of our people. If our people are prepared, knowledgeable, and
have the right skills, they will take care of our customers.” 17 Farmers Group, Inc., a finance
and insurance company, invests upwards of $106,000 to hire, train, and develop new em-
ployees in its University of Farmers program, which includes both classroom and online
education. 18 Training has been viewed positively among employees. Approximately two-
thirds of employees, regardless of age or gender, view the training they have received from
their employers to be useful in helping them perform their current job duties. They were
less enthusiastic about how well it has prepared them for higher-level jobs (about half were
ASTD’s BEST organizations
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satisfied). They also viewed the training their employer provided as critical for determining
whether or not they would stay with their current firm. 19
Corporations are offering a variety of training programs to meet their organizational
needs. Figure 8-2 lists the most frequent types of learning content offered by ASTD’s
Best organizations as rated in 2011. 20 The importance of training is likely to continue in
the future given recent trends in the workforce. As the United States shifts from manufac-
turing to service jobs, more workers are needed in service-based industries. In addition,
increasing technology demands that current employees enhance their skills and technical
sophistication. For example, U.S. Steel (USX) invested money in training for workers so
that they would be able to use the new technology they implemented in its production pro-
cesses. Similarly, Xerox spent about $7 million on its training center to assist its sales staff
in gaining additional training to better meet customers’ needs for handling documents. 21
Employees at RJR Nabisco who have been confronted with new technology in their jobs
are given the option of receiving retraining or early retirement. 22 Employees themselves are
asking for additional training in using new technology. 23
Learning Content Area Percentage of all Training
Managerial and supervisory training 13% Profession or industry-specific training 11% Processes, procedures, business practices 10% Mandatory and compliance training 10% Other (quality, product knowledge) 10% IT and systems training 7% Customer service training 7% New employee orientation 7% Interpersonal skills training 7% Sales training 6% Executive Development 6% Basic skills training 4%
Source: ASTD 2011 State of the Industry Report . www.astd.org.
Figure 8-2 Average Percent of Learning Content for ASTD’s Best Award Winners
A SYSTEMS VIEW OF TRAINING The basic process of training is illustrated in Figure 8-3 . Three major steps are involved:
assessment, development, and evaluation. The goal of the assessment phase is to collect information to determine if training is needed in the organization. If it is needed, it is then
important to determine where in the organization it is needed, what kind of training is
needed, and what specific knowledge, abilities, skills, or other characteristics (KASOCs)
should be taught. This information is collected by conducting three types of analyses: at
the organizational, job, and individual levels of analysis. After the information is com-
piled, objectives for the training program can be derived. The goal of the development phase of training is to design the training environment necessary to achieve the objec-
tives. This means trainers must review relevant learning issues, including characteristics of
adult learners and learning principles as they apply to the particular training and potential
trainees under consideration. Also, trainers must identify or develop training materials
and techniques to use in the program. Finally, after the appropriate learning environment
is designed or selected, the training is conducted. The goal of the evaluation phase is to examine whether the training program has been effective in meeting the stated objectives.
The evaluation phase requires the identification and development of criteria, which should
include participants’ reactions to the training, assessments of what they learned in the
training program, measures of their behavior after the training, indicators of organizational
results (e.g., changes in productivity data, sales figures, employee turnover, accident rates),
Needs assessment phase
Development phase
Evaluation phase
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and return on investments (ROI) or, as discussed in Chapter 6, utility analysis. An experi-
mental design is chosen to assess the effectiveness of training. The choices of the criteria
and the design are both made before training is conducted in order to ensure that training will be properly evaluated. After the training is completed, the program is then evaluated
using the criteria and design selected.
Research in training is needed now more than ever before as the demand for training in-
creases in organizations. 24 In addition, since much of the literature on training comes from
a variety of scientific fields (e.g., industrial and organizational psychology, human re-
source development, cognitive psychology, anthropology, education, human factors, com-
puter science), it is increasingly important to integrate the findings across those disciplines.
Various fields in psychology even define training differently. 25
Compared to other areas of HRM, practitioners have a fairly strong knowledge of
some areas of training research. 26 A recent survey of training processes used in corporate
America revealed some discrepancies between the academic recommendations regard-
ing training program development and evaluation and the current state of the practice. 27
While larger companies were more likely to have done formal needs assessments , written
Identify needs for training by conducting needs analyses:
• Organization • Task or job • Person
Identify or develop criteria to evaluate training outcomes:
• Reactions • Learning • Behavior change • Organizational results
Derive instructional objectives Choose evaluation design
Design a learning environment by examining:
• Characteristics of adult learners • Learning principles
Identify or develop training materials and methods
Conduct training
Conduct evaluation and cost-effectiveness of
training program
NEEDS ASSESSMENT DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION Figure 8-3 A Systems Model of Training
Discrepancies between Research and Practice
Majority of U.S. companies do not do formal needs assessment
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specific instructional objectives, and evaluated the training with something other than a
simple, post-training reaction questionnaire, the majority of all classes of respondents did
none of these things. Small businesses rarely did any of these things as part of their train-
ing. Over 60 percent of all surveyed companies, regardless of company size, relied only on
trainee reactions to assess the training, taken upon completion of the training, and had no
systematic follow-up to further evaluate the training. Less than 10 percent of companies
used any form of control group to evaluate the effects of the training. Over 50 percent of
companies admitted that managerial training programs were first tried because some other
company had been using them. As one training director put it, “A lot of companies buy
off-the-shelf training programs just because they had heard or knew that a competitor was
using the same training. Shouldn’t we expect more data to determine training needs?”
Other scholars also have noted the gaps between research and practice in the training
field. Practitioners 28 point out that research findings are often ignored and faddish pro-
grams are adopted with little proven utility. In addition, training needs assessments and
evaluations are often rare despite their importance, and most training is informal even
though this is not the best approach to use.
In order to address some of the gaps between research and practice, the American Society for Training and Development has initiated and published its ASTD 2006 Research-to-Practice conference proceedings. In this extensive report, it has included
almost 20 articles examining a variety of training issues such as evaluation efforts, learning
transfer, and web-based and classroom instruction. The intent of the proceedings was to
share knowledge that will affect practice in the field. 29
NEEDS ASSESSMENT The first step in training is to determine that a need for training actually exists. An organi-
zation should commit its resources to a training activity only if the training can be expected
to achieve some organizational goal. The decision to conduct training must be based on
the best available data, which are collected by conducting a needs assessment. This needs
analysis ideally should be conducted in the context of a human resource planning (HRP) program and timely and valid performance data. Companies that implement training pro-
grams without conducting a needs assessment may be making errors or spending money
unnecessarily. For example, a needs assessment might reveal that less-costly interventions
(e.g., personnel selection, a new compensation system, job redesign) could be used instead
of training. Despite the importance of conducting needs assessments, few employers con-
duct such an analysis in the context of their strategic plans or any form of strength, weak-
ness, opportunity, or threat analysis (SWOT analysis).
A needs assessment is a systematic, objective determination of training needs that involves conducting three primary types of analyses. These analyses are used to derive
objectives for the training program. The three analyses consist of an organizational analysis , a job analysis , and a person analysis. 30 After compiling the results, objectives for the training program can be derived.
Many trainers suggest that a training need is any discrepancy between what is desired
and what exists. Thus one of the goals of the needs assessment is to note any discrepan-
cies. For example, the World Bank determined through a needs assessment that many of its
constituents from Eastern Europe required training in transforming state-owned businesses
into self-sustaining businesses. The organization contracted with a number of universities
to develop and provide the necessary training. Comparisons between the expected level
of performance specified (from the job analysis) and the current level of performance
exhibited (evident in the person analysis) may indicate performance discrepancies. The
Sheraton Corporation, for example, specified that all hotel managers must be familiar with
the implications of the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) for hotel operations
(see Chapter 3). A test on the law was administered, and scores on the test were used as a
basis for identifying those managers who needed training on the implications of the law.
Performance discrepancies, however, should not be automatically interpreted as a need for
Research findings often ignored
Three primary types of analysis
Performance discrepancies
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training. The analyst must determine whether the discrepancy is a skill or knowledge defi-
ciency, thus requiring training. If, however, the required skill is present and performance is
still lacking, then the problem may be motivational in nature and thus require some other
type of organizational intervention (e.g., new reward or discipline system). One study
noted that organizations that conducted needs analyses were better able to use the results in
the design and evaluation phases than organizations that did not. 31
An organizational analysis tries to answer the question of where the training emphasis should be placed in the company and what factors may affect training. To do this, an ex-
amination should be made of the organizational goals, personnel inventories, performance
data, and climate and efficiency indexes. This examination should ideally be conducted in
the context of the labor supply forecast and gap analysis. Organization system constraints
that may hamper the training process also should be explored. Training does not exist in
a vacuum, and the context in which it occurs has an impact on whether individuals will
learn. 32 Many companies rely on very detailed surveys of the workforce to determine train-
ing needs as part of the planning effort. Motorola and IBM, for example, conduct annual
surveys that assess particular training needs in the context of the company’s short- and
long-term goals.
The review of short- and long-term goals of the organization and any trends that may
affect these goals is done to channel the training toward specific issues of importance to
the firm (e.g., improved customer satisfaction, increased productivity). For example, after
Merrill Lynch pleaded guilty to a number of fraudulent business practices, the chief execu-
tive officer (CEO) ordered training in business ethics for all employees. To reduce layoffs,
IBM retrained hundreds of employees to be sales representatives. Not only was IBM able
to minimize layoffs, but the larger sales staff was able to attack another corporate goal: to
improve customer satisfaction.
Data from a human resource information system (HRIS) can reveal projected employee
mobility, retirements, and turnover. The more sophisticated inventories also can indicate
the number of employees in each KASOC or competency group, which can then be com-
pared to what is needed based on the gap analysis of the HR planning process. For ex-
ample, the Ford Manufacturing Systems Division decided to change to a new programming
language for future support work. The first step it took was to determine the extent to which
current staff was sufficiently skilled in the new language. The HRIS quickly revealed how
many of the staff had at least basic knowledge of and experience with the new language.
A review of climate and performance efficiency data is important to identify problems
that could be alleviated with training. 33 Climate indexes are quality-of-work-life indicators
and include records on turnover, grievances, absenteeism, productivity, accidents, attitude
surveys, employee suggestions, and labor–management data (e.g., strikes, lockouts). Job
satisfaction indexes provide data on employee attitudes toward the work itself, supervision,
and co-workers. Performance data should be the specific record of important outcomes
over a specific period. A record of competency assessment could be useful data as well.
Multirater data should be maintained here also. Efficiency indexes consist of costs of labor,
materials, and distribution; the quality of the product; downtime; waste; late deliveries;
repairs; and equipment utilization. These data are examined to find any discrepancies
between desired and actual performance.
It is also important to identify any organization system constraints on training efforts.
For example, if the benefits of training are not clear to top management, they may not
plan and budget appropriately for training. Consequently, the training program may not be
properly designed or implemented. Omni Hotels requires senior executives to attend train-
ing programs to ensure that they are supportive of the training that lower-level managers
receive. In addition, the training staff makes sure that the training is tailored to Omni so
that trainees can more readily see the value of the training. 34
Organizational analysis should test hypotheses about training needs. For example, a
retail marketing manager received a complaint from a vendor that the sales staff did not
understand the advantages of a particular product. The manager then “mined” the customer
survey and complaint database to determine the extent to which product knowledge of the
Organizational Analysis
Organization analysis tests hypotheses regarding training needs
Focus on where training should be placed
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sales staff was a problem. He was able to determine that the complaint may have been an
isolated event. Organizational analysis should be about testing theories of where (and why)
training is needed. Complaints about a product or service should be carefully examined to
determine the extent and importance of the problems(s) described in the complaints. Of
course, data can also be “mined” or collected to determine an optimal way to do things
which can then drive training content.
A job analysis tries to answer the question of what should be taught in training so that the trainee can perform the job satisfactorily. As discussed in Chapter 4, a job analysis should
document the tasks or duties involved in the job as well as the KASOCs (or competen-
cies) needed to carry out the duties. When conducting a job analysis to determine train-
ing needs, both a worker-oriented approach, which focuses on identifying behaviors and KASOCs, and a task-oriented approach, which describes the work activities performed, should be used. The critical incident technique (CIT) is particularly valuable because it provides considerable detail on the job and the consequences of specific work behaviors.
A task-oriented approach is beneficial in identifying specific training objectives that are
used in curriculum development and program evaluation. Ideally more than one method
of job analysis should be used to determine training needs. If interviews or questionnaires
are used and discrepancies exist between what a supervisor says is an important job duty
and what an employee states, these discrepancies should be resolved before any training
programs are designed. 35
The O*NET is also a very valuable resource for training needs and content for many
jobs and job families. Occupations included in the O*NET database describe specific
training needs for each occupation. For example, the O*NET analysis for “Advertising and
Promotions Managers” describes over 20 tasks that have to be mastered in order to excel
in this occupation.
A person analysis attempts to answer the question of who needs training in the firm and the specific type of training needed. To do this, the performance of individuals, groups, or
units on major job functions (taken from the performance appraisal data) or assessments of
KASOCs or competencies are compared to the desired levels. Many companies use self-
assessments in this process. For example, Ford determined the training needs for a new
computer language based on a self-assessment questionnaire distributed to the staff. At
the managerial level, many organizations (e.g., IBM, AT&T, Federal Express, the World
Bank, and the Federal Aviation Administration) use peers and subordinates to provide
performance information about their managers. At Ford, each supervisor is responsible for
completing an individual training plan for each subordinate. The plan is developed jointly
by the supervisor and the subordinate. The two decide on the courses that should be taken
and the time frame for completion. The goal is for each employee to reach a certain level
of proficiency considered necessary for current and future tasks. Many organizations in the
service sector rely on customers for information about sales personnel. Bloomingdale’s,
for example, uses “paid” customers to assess the sales techniques of probationary employ-
ees. The data are then used to determine the appropriate managerial intervention to take
with the employee (e.g., training, discipline, new compensation).
Performance discrepancies are used to indicate areas needing attention. It is important
to determine whether any discrepancies are due to a lack of KASOCs, which KASOCs are
missing, and whether they can be developed in employees through training. Individuals
may lack the necessary skills or perceive themselves as lacking the skills (i.e., they may
lack confidence in their abilities). In these cases, training may be needed. In other situa-
tions, employees may have the skills yet lack the needed motivation to perform, and other
action may be called upon (e.g., changes in the reward system, discipline). Employees also
can be tested on the desired behaviors using a performance test such as those discussed
in Chapter 6. If they can perform the duties satisfactorily, the organization will know that
skills training is not required. The U.S. Navy, for example, uses miniature training and
testing in order to determine skill level prior to comprehensive training. Pratt & Whitney
Job Analysis
Person Analysis
Focus on what should be taught in training
Focus on who should receive training
Identify performance discrepancies
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and Office Depot are among the many companies that use an assessment center to measure
supervisory skills judged to be critical based on its goals. Person analysis can also be used
to assess trainability—whether the individual is capable of benefiting from the training
and who, among candidates, might benefit the most. We discuss trainability later in the chapter. Research is clear that individual difference variables such as cognitive ability and
motivation to learn are related to trainability and the extent to which someone will learn. 36
A variety of techniques have been suggested for conducting a needs assessment and for
collecting data to use in the organizational, job, and person analyses. Figure 8-4 lists these
techniques. Some techniques (e.g., work sampling) can be used for more than one type of
analysis. Thus efforts to coordinate and integrate results are recommended.
After completing the three types of analyses in the needs assessment, the training profes-
sional should begin to develop instructional or learning objectives for the performance dis-
crepancies identified. Instructional objectives describe the performance you want trainees
to be able to exhibit. Well-written learning objectives should contain observable actions
(e.g., time on target; error rate for things that can be identified, ordered, or charted), mea-
surable criteria (e.g., percentage correct), and the conditions of performance (e.g., specifi-
cation as to when the behavior should occur). ESL Federal Credit Union, one of ASTD’s
Best organizations, has SMEs (subject matter experts) help to identify strategic objectives
and then create training objectives.
Some sample learning objectives for a training program with sales employees are
■ After training, the employee will be able to smile at all customers even when exhausted
or ill, unless the customer is irate.
■ After training, the employee will be able to calculate markdowns on all sales merchan-
dise (e.g., 30 percent markdown) correctly 100 percent of the time.
Although training programs can be developed without deriving learning objectives,
there are several advantages to developing them. First, the process of defining learning
objectives helps the trainer identify criteria for evaluating training programs. For example,
specifying an instructional objective of a 20 percent reduction in waste reveals that mea-
sures of waste may be important indicators of program effectiveness. Second, learning
objectives direct trainers to the specific issues and content to focus on. This ensures that
trainers are addressing important topics that have been identified through strategic plan-
ning. Also, learning objectives guide trainees by specifying what is expected of them at
Figure 8-4 Data Sources Used in Training Needs Assessment
Organizational Analysis Job/Task Analysis Person Analysis
Organizational goals and objectives Job descriptions Performance appraisal data HRIS data Job specifications or task analysis Work sampling Skills/competency inventories Performance standards Interviews Organizational climate indexes Performing the job Questionnaires Efficiency indexes/performance data Work sampling Tests (KASOCs) Changes in systems or subsystems Reviewing literature on the job Attitude surveys (e.g., equipment) Asking questions about the job Training progress charts/checklists Management requests Training committees/conferences Assessment centers Exit interviews Analysis of operating problems Critical incidents Management-by-objectives or work planning systems
O * NET data Self-efficacy measures
Source: Academy of Management Review by M. L. Moore and P. Dutton. Copyright 1978 by Academy of Management (NY). Reproduced with permission of Academy of Management (NY) in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Centre.
Techniques for Collecting Needs Assessment Data
Deriving Instructional Objectives
Advantages of deriving objectives
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the end of training. Finally, specifying objectives makes the training department more ac-
countable and more clearly linked to other human resource activities, which may make the
training program easier to sell to line managers.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM After a needs analysis has been conducted and the staff is confident that training is needed
to address the performance problem or to advance the firm’s strategic mission, the training
program is developed. This can be done by an in-house training staff or by outside consul-
tants. Many firms now even design and manage their own corporate training centers. Some
of the companies that have their own corporate universities include Toyota, BB&T, Ford,
Disney, GE, Union Carbide, IBM, Home Depot, Xerox, Motorola, Phillips Petroleum,
McDonald’s, Black & Decker, Aetna Life & Casualty, Kodak, and Goodyear Tire & Rub-
ber. 37 To develop the program, the trainer should design a training environment conducive
to learning. This can be done by setting up preconditions for learning and arranging the
training environment to ensure learning. Following this, the trainer should examine various
training methods and techniques to choose the combination most beneficial for accom-
plishment of the instructional objectives of the training program.
To design a training program in which learning will be facilitated, trainers should review
the basic principles of how individuals learn. Learning principles should be reviewed and
integrated into the design of the training program and materials. Also, issues of how to
maximize transfer of new behaviors back to the job should be addressed. Finally, trainers
should design their programs to meet the needs of adults as learners, which means under-
standing how adults best learn. For example, adult learners want to set their own goals
for training since they see themselves as capable of self-direction. In addition, they often
enjoy experiential learning techniques and self-directed learning more than conventional
informational techniques. They are problem-centered and are more receptive to training
that enables them to solve problems of particular interest to their situation. They want to
be able to apply the training they receive to their day-to-day work experiences and are less
interested in the program if they cannot see a direct application to their work situation. 38
Figure 8-5 illustrates how an instructional model can have training implications in order to
maximize learning and transfer back to the job.
Trainees must be ready to learn before they are placed in any training program. To ensure
this, trainers should determine whether trainees are trainable (i.e., whether they have the ability to learn and are motivated to learn). In addition, trainers should try to gain the sup-
port of trainees and their supervisors prior to actually implementing the program.
Before the learner can benefit from any formal training, he or she must be trainable or
ready to learn. This means the trainee must have both the ability and the motivation to
learn. To have the ability, the trainee must possess the skills and knowledge prerequisite to
mastering the material. One way to determine this is to give trainees a performance test or
work sample (i.e., an example of the types of skills to be performed on the job) and mea-
sure how quickly they are able to learn the material or how well they are able to perform
the skills. Assessing trainees’ ability to learn is of increasing concern to corporate America.
In view of the increasing technological knowledge required in most jobs, many Americans
are not being educated at a level compatible with the requirements of most entry-level jobs.
This situation appears to be getting worse in the United States since the entry-level jobs of
the future are being “up-skilled” while the pool of qualified workers is shrinking.
It has been estimated that over 30 million workers in the United States are functionally
illiterate, meaning that they cannot read or write well enough to perform their job duties.
Designing a Learning Environment for Training
Preconditions of Learning
Trainability
Ability and motivation to learn
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Figure 8-5 A Summary of Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction and Training Implications
Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction Training Implications
Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems
• Ensure that the problems addressed in the training correspond to real-world tasks in the organization
• Increase task complexity and diversity over multiple lessons to ensure that trainees have experienced an adequate sampling of task-based experience
Learning is promoted when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge
• Relate what trainees know about organizational mission and objectives to the training they will complete
• Relate the skill and knowledge trainees will master to what they already know about their jobs
• Inform trainees that the skills, knowledge, and thought processes they will build during training are like those that exemplary performers use to perform their jobs
Learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner
• Employ examples for concept learning, procedural demonstrations, process visualizations, and behavior modeling depicting what exemplary performers actually think and do on the job
• Draw attention to any mental models that support situational interpretations, decision making, or problem solving on the job
• Point out relevant similarities and differences across multiple demonstrations Learning is promoted when new knowledge is applied by the learner
• Provide enough authentic job-based practice to master the instructional objectives and exemplary performance on the job
• Provide coaching and immediate feedback during practice • Build trainees’ self-efficacy by letting them know that successful training performance
means they can feel confident they can perform the job tasks Learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world
• Provide opportunities for trainees to publicly demonstrate their new skills in ways that commit them to applying what they learned on the job
• Provide post training opportunities for trainees to continue discussing how they are apply- ing what they learned to their jobs and ways to improve
• Provide post training opportunities for managers to monitor and reinforce the application of learned skills on the job
Source: Modified from: Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50 (3), 43–59.
Sun Oil, Campbell Soup, and Digital Equipment work with state and local governments
in partnership programs to help address literacy issues among the workforce. 39 Research
clearly shows that employees with higher cognitive ability and basic math and reading
skills are more trainable. 40
It’s not enough that trainees have the ability to learn the skills; they must also have the
desire or motivation to learn. Research also finds that employees who are more conscien-
tious, more oriented toward learning, less anxious, and younger are more trainable. 41 One
way to assess motivation to learn is to examine how involved they are in their own jobs and
career planning. The assumption is that those individuals who are more highly involved
will have higher motivation to learn. 42 It is also important to assess the attitudes and expec-
tations of trainees regarding training since their views will most likely affect their reactions
to the program and the amount they learn. 43 For example, employees who choose to attend
training learn more than those who are required to attend. 44 Some companies link suc-
cessful completion of training programs and acquired skills with compensation. At Ford,
employees must select 40 hours of training from a list of options. An employee must fulfill
the 40 hours to qualify for merit pay.
Given the increasing use of distance learning formats, it is also important to assess learn-
ers’ readiness to participate in online learning. The readiness of learners to enter into dis-
tance learning environments may play a critical role in increasing their course- completion
and program-retention rates. Thus, a tool, the E-learning Readiness Self-Assessment , has been designed to provide a quick, yet comprehensive analysis of preparedness for
success in an online training program. It addresses questions about the learner’s access
to technology, online skills, motivation, online audio, Internet skills, and views about
training success. 45
If trainees do not see the value of training, they will be unlikely to learn new behaviors
or use them on their jobs. Trainees should be informed in advance about the benefits that
will result from training. If they see some incentives for training, it may strengthen their
Gaining the Support of Trainees and Others
Learning and individual characteristics
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motivation to learn the behaviors, practice them, and remember them. To gain the support
of trainees for the training program, the trainer must point out the intrinsic (e.g., personal
growth) and extrinsic (e.g., promotion) benefits of attending training.
In addition to garnering the support of trainees for training, the support of their supervi-
sors, co-workers, and subordinates should be sought. For example, if the trainees’ supervi-
sors are not supportive of training, then they may not facilitate the learning process (e.g.,
allow employees time off for training, reward them for using new skills). Likewise, if their
peers or subordinates ridicule them for attending training, they may not be motivated to
attend training programs or to learn. 46 Trainers can improve the likelihood of acquiring oth-
ers’ support for training by getting their opinions on the content of training, the location,
and the times. At Patapsco Valley Veterinary Hospital located in Ellicott City, Maryland,
staff members are consistently asked for their opinions on the most convenient times to
hold training sessions. In addition, the owners of the practice set a positive example by
attending the training sessions themselves and by rewarding employees for participating
in training and using their new skills on the job. At Grant Thornton, one of ASTD’s Best
firms, the CEO shows support for knowledge sharing by having a blog on the front page of
the firm’s knowledge sharing platform, “K-Source.”
After ensuring that the preconditions for learning are met, trainers should build a training
environment in which learning is maximized. To do this, trainers need to decide how to
best arrange the training environment by addressing the issues that follow.
Research has shown that when a complex task is to be learned, it should be broken down
into its parts if this can be done. Trainees should learn each part separately, starting with the
simplest and going on to the most difficult. However, part learning should be combined with whole learning; that is, trainees should be shown the whole performance so that they know what their final goal is. The training content should be broken down into integrated
parts, and each part should be learned until it can be performed accurately. Then a trainee
should be allowed to put all the parts together and practice the whole task. One method that
combines part and whole learning is called progressive part learning. In this approach, the
trainees learn one part, then learn and practice that first part along with a second part, then
learn and practice the first and second parts along with a third part, and so on. This might be
used if the topics to be taught are somewhat interdependent (e.g., a communications course
that involves sessions on active listening, being assertive, using nonverbals).
Practice is important for trainees to learn a new skill or behavior. Trainers can observe the
practice sessions and provide feedback to the trainees to correct their mistakes. Spaced practice (i.e., practicing the new behavior and taking rest periods in between) is more ef-
fective than massed practice (practicing the new behavior without breaks), especially for motor skills. For example, it would be easier for you to learn how to play golf by having a
lesson on putting and then going out to practice putting, rather than learning how to do all of
the possible golf shots (e.g., putting, chipping, pitching, driving, etc.) and then going out to
play. If a learner has to concentrate for long periods without some rest, learning and reten-
tion may suffer. It’s a little like cramming for an examination: rapid forgetting sets in very
soon. Consequently, spaced practice seems to be more productive for long-term retention
and for transfer of learning to the work setting. Of course, it takes longer for spaced practice
than for massed practice, so trainees may resist it (e.g., they may be less receptive to attend-
ing four half-day workshops than two full-day sessions). On the other hand, tasks that are
difficult and complex seem to be mastered and then performed better when massed practice
is provided first, followed by briefer (spaced) sessions with more frequent rest periods. 47
Overlearning (i.e., practicing far beyond the point of performing the task successfully) can be critical in both acquisition and transfer of knowledge and skills. Generally, overlearning
increases retention over time, makes the behavior or skill more automatic, increases the
quality of the performance during stress, and helps trainees transfer what they have learned
back to the job setting. 48 Overlearning is desirable in a program when the task to be learned
Conditions of the Learning Environment
Whole versus Part Learning
Massed versus Spaced Practice
Overlearning
Supervisory support is critical
Spaced practice is generally more effective
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is not likely to be immediately practiced in the work situation and when performance must
be maintained during periods of emergency and stress. For example, overlearning skills for
driving or flying may be important so that in a crisis situation the individual will be able
to quickly remember what actions should be taken. Pat Head Summitt, rated as the top
coach (most wins among both men and women coaches) in collegiate basketball, believes
in the importance of overlearning, which she calls “discipline.” She has had her nationally
ranked team, the Tennessee Lady Volunteers, practice their plays over and over again in
preparation for critical games. 49 This might be one reason why the Lady Vols have won
eight National Basketball Championships!
Goal setting can help employees improve their performance by directing their attention to specific behaviors that need to be changed. If employees set specific, challenging goals,
they can reach higher levels of performance. For example, research has shown that goal
setting has led to an average productivity increase of 19 percent. 50 Goal setting improves
performance because it affects four mechanisms: (a) it directs and focuses a person’s be-
havior, (b) it increases an individual’s effort toward attaining the goal, (c) it encourages an
individual to persist toward the goal or work harder and faster to attain it, and (d) it enables
an individual to set specific strategies for attaining the goal. 51 Training programs should
include specific, yet challenging goals so trainees can reach higher levels of performance
or greater mastery of the training material. Trainees should be encouraged to set public
goals and to record their accomplishments to ensure greater transfer of their training skills.
For trainees to improve performance, they need to receive timely and specific feedback or
knowledge of results. Feedback serves informational and motivational purposes. It shows trainees any gap between their performance and the desired performance and what particu-
lar skills or behaviors they need to correct. Also, it can motivate them to meet their per-
formance goals once they see that they are coming close to accomplishing them. Trainers
should build into the training environment opportunities for providing feedback to trainees.
For example, the trainer could give pop quizzes to trainees during the session and call out
the correct answers. Trainees could then quickly score their work to see how well they
are doing in the session and where they need additional learning or practice. Sometimes
trainees can provide feedback to one another (e.g., observers can be used in role-plays to
provide feedback to role-players).
Trainers should try to design training programs and materials to ensure that trainees devote
attention to them. They can do this by choosing a training environment that is comfortable
to trainees (e.g., that has good temperature, lighting, seats, plenty of room, snacks) and free
from distractions (phone calls, interruptions from colleagues). This is becoming increas-
ingly more critical and challenging as trainees bring more and more technology (Black-
Berry devices, cell phones, iPads, laptops) into the classroom. No matter how motivated
trainees are, if the environment is not comfortable to work in, trainees will have difficulty
learning. Trainers also should make sure that trainees are familiar with and have accepted
the learning objectives. They can do this by asking trainees to describe how accomplishing
the objectives will resolve problems on the job. If trainees are able to translate learning
objectives into relevant job issues, they may pay more attention to the training sessions.
The ability to retain what is learned is obviously relevant to the effectiveness of a training
program. Many factors have been found to increase retention. If the material presented is
meaningful to trainees, they should have an easier time understanding and remembering it.
Trainers can make the content meaningful by (1) presenting trainees with an overview of
what is to be learned so that they will be able to see the overall picture, (2) using examples,
concepts, and terms familiar to the trainees (e.g., use medical terms and examples when
training doctors and nurses), and (3) organizing the material from simple to complex (teach
someone how to serve the ball before you teach him/her strategies in tennis). Retention
also can be enhanced by rehearsal or requiring trainees to periodically recall what they
have learned through tests. The ideas listed in Figure 8-5 provide some good tips for how
to ensure retention.
Goal Setting
Knowledge of Results
Attention
Retention
Overlearning is recom- mended when the task will not be immediately practiced
19 percent increase in productivity
Attention to objectives
Rehearsal helps
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The learning principles described previously should be considered not only when design-
ing the training environment but also when developing training materials. Any materials
used with trainees should be able to stimulate them into learning and remembering the in-
formation. To ensure that this occurs, trainers need to make sure that the learning principles
are built into their training materials. For example, the materials should provide illustra-
tions and relevant examples to stimulate trainees. In addition, the objectives of the material
should be clearly stated and a summary should be provided. 52
The ultimate goal of a training program is that the learning that occurs during training be
transferred back to the job. Research strongly supports the view that the post-training climate
will affect whether training influences behaviors or results on the job. To maximize transfer,
the following suggestions have been offered. 53 These include ideas for before the training is
conducted, during the training session itself, and once the employee has returned to the job.
Before Training
1. Align the training program with the organization’s needs using competency modeling.
2. Involve supervisors and trainees in the project team.
3. Use sound instructional design theory.
4. Develop application-oriented objectives based on the competency.
During Training
1. Maximize the similarity between the training context and the job context. That is,
the training should resemble the job as closely as possible. At GE, for example,
the “action-learning” process focuses on real business problems.
2. Require practice of the new behaviors and overlearning in training.
3. Provide realistic work-related tasks.
4. Provide extra spaces in training books to note ideas during training.
5. Include a variety of stimulus situations in the practice so trainees will learn to
generalize their knowledge and skills. Many coaches set up grueling basketball
schedules with top-ranked teams so that their teams get to play in a variety of
situations and be ready for the NCAA playoffs each year.
6. Label or identify the important features of the content to be learned to distinguish
the major steps involved.
7. Develop, and have available on the job, job aids to remind employees of the key
action steps necessary on the job. For example, Alcoa uses job aids in many of
its manufacturing jobs.
8. Make sure that the general principles underlying the specific content are under-
stood in training.
9. Provide opportunity (time) to synthesize material or plan for application. At Lock-
heed Martin, trainers from the Robert H. Smith School of Business leading the
Executive Leadership Strategies Program give executives time at the end of each day to synthesize their learning for the day. They also have them present their
synthesis for the week-long training at the end of the week, along with an action
plan for how they will apply the skills.
10. Build the trainee’s self-efficacy for learning and using the new skills. Self-efficacy is a feeling of control and accomplishment, the sense that you can control your
own destiny. Self-efficacy is related to motivation to learn, which is subsequently
related to motivation to transfer the skills. Trainers can use verbal persuasion
as one tactic to convince trainees that they can learn the tasks. Self-efficacy has
been shown to be related to learning using a sample of Navy warfare officers
in midlevel managerial positions. In addition, encourage trainees to develop an
action plan including specific measurable goals. 54
Using Learning Principles to Develop Training Materials
Transfer of Training
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After Training
1. Encourage trainees to practice skills on their jobs in between training sessions.
For example, the executive education programs conducted by the Robert H.
Smith School of Business for some of its corporate clients (e.g., SAIC, Lockheed
Martin) often require “homework assignments” such as customer-value projects,
organizational systems projects, and individual leadership development plans in
between attendance at sessions. The assignments encourage trainees to apply their
new skills in the workplace, using an action learning model .
2. Ensure that there is a supportive climate for learning and for transferring new
behaviors. This can be done by building managerial support (emotional and finan-
cial) for training, providing trainees with the freedom to set personal performance
goals, and encouraging risk taking among trainees. One study used 505 supermar-
ket managers from 52 stores and found that the work environment, measured by
training climate and learning culture, was directly related to the transfer of trained
behaviors. 55 It is also important to encourage peer support since this type of sup-
port has been shown to influence transfer of training skills. 56
3. Have trainees present their new learning to co-workers once they return.
4. Once back on the job, employees should be given opportunities to demonstrate that
they can use the new skills. For example, one study of plane mechanics from the
Air Force found that after training they were given opportunities to perform only
about half of the tasks they learned in training. 57 Likewise, in a study of university
employees, it was found that situational constraints (e.g., adequate resources, time)
limited the amount that trainees could transfer new skills to the work environment. 58
5. Encourage continual learning by employees. They should realize that one-time
training in an area is not sufficient to maintain effective skills. Retraining also
may be needed to update skills.
Sometimes, despite trainers’ best efforts to get individuals to transfer what they have
learned back to the job, it is difficult for trainees to maintain new behaviors or skills over
a long period. They encounter high-risk situations and revert back to their old habits. Most
people experience relapses after learning new behaviors. Think about all the times you
or someone you know went on a diet or started an exercise program. Perhaps you were
quite successful sticking to the plan after attending a training program (e.g., online Weight
Watchers). Then, one weekend you go on a trip with friends. Next thing you know you
are eating lots of snacks and ignoring your exercise plan. This is a relapse. The same thing
often happens to employees after they have attended a training program. For example, a
manager learns how to control his temper in training, yet the first time returning back to the
job he encounters an irate employee and he screams at the person. Relapse prevention is needed to assist trainees. 59 This model emphasizes the learning of a set of self-control and
coping strategies when the trainee is faced with high-risk situations. 60
Employees should be made aware of the relapse process itself by informing them that
there are some situations that make it difficult for trainees to use their new behaviors. For
example, they may be faced with peers or supervisors who are not supportive of their new
skills. 61 They should learn to identify and anticipate high-risk situations they will face
when returning from training. They should be instructed on how to cope in these situations.
Teaching these issues should increase trainees’ self-efficacy so that they can effectively use their new training skills back on the job.
Training methods can be divided into two categories.
1. Methods that are primarily informational or transmittal in nature; that is, they use primarily one-way communication in which information is transmitted to the learners.
2. Methods that are experiential in nature; that is, the learner interacts with the in- structor, a computer/simulator, customers, or other trainees to practice the skill.
Relapse Prevention
Choosing Methods for the Training Program
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Some of the major methods, including their uses, benefits, and limitations, are described
next and in Figures 8-6 and 8-7 . Electronic learning, or e-learning, can be both an informa-
tional and an experiential method of training.
Most training programs utilize several training techniques since no one approach is best
suited for every purpose. According to the 2010 State of the Industry report by ASTD, most of the top 31 firms reported using a mix of various techniques to deliver training. There
has also been an increased interest in the use of blended training approaches in organiza-
tions. This often means the integration of classroom and e-learning training approaches. 62
For example, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu has an “Upstream Sales Boot Camp,” which uses
workshops, virtual learning, and coaching session, as well as a “Client Experience Lab,”
which is an immersive interactive one-day experience. 63 IBM’s international sales training
program includes both classroom and on-the-job training (OJT) , which is given over one year. AMC Theatres uses videotapes, detailed training manuals, and OJT programs to train
ushers and concession personnel. To determine which combination of methods to select for
a particular training program, a developer should first clearly define the purpose of and the
audience for the training. In addition, an assessment of the resources (e.g., staff, budget,
materials) available to conduct the training is necessary. It is also important to consider
whether the focus will be on skill acquisition, maintenance, or generalization of the skill
to other areas. One recent study found that trainees rated as more effective those methods
that involved them more. They also preferred more individualized training methods, like
one-on-one instruction, and technology-based methods such as computer simulations, mul-
timedia presentations, and computer-assisted programmed instruction. 64
At a minimum, the training methods selected should (1) motivate the trainee to learn
the new skill, (2) illustrate the desired skills to be learned, (3) be consistent with the
Figure 8-6 Informational Training Methods
Uses Benefits Limitations
LECTURE
Gaining new knowledge Equally good as programmed instruction and television
Learners are passive
To present introductory material Low cost Poor transfer Reaches a large audience at one time Depends on the lecturer’s ability Audience is often comfortable with it Is not tailored to individual trainees
AUDIOVISUALS
Gaining new knowledge Can reach a large audience at one time Is not tailored to individual trainees Gaining attention Allows for replays Must be updated Versatility Passive learners Can reduce trainer, travel, and facility costs
INDEPENDENT STUDY
Gaining new knowledge Allows trainees to go at their own pace Expensive to develop a library of materials Completing degree requirements Minimizes trainers’ time Materials must be designed to adjust to
varying reading levels Continuous education Minimizes costs of development Performance depends on trainee’s
motivation Is not applicable for all jobs
E-LEARNING
Gaining new knowledge Convenient Expensive to develop Pretraining preparation to ensure that all trainees have similar backgrounds
Allows trainees to go at their own pace Is not easily applicable for all tasks (e.g., cognitive tasks, verbal, psychomotor)
Can guarantee mastery at a specified level Does not lead to higher performance than lectures
Encourages active trainee involvement Provides immediate feedback to trainees
Experiential methods favored by trainees
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Figure 8-7 Experiential Training Methods
Uses Benefits Limitations
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
Learning job skills Good transfer Depends on the trainers’ skills and willingness
Apprenticeship training Limited trainer costs May be costly due to lost production and mistakes
Job rotation High trainee motivation May have frequent interruptions on the job Often is haphazardly done Trainees may learn bad habits
E-LEARNING
Gaining new knowledge Self-paced Trainees may have difficulties with computers
Drill and practice Standardization over time Limited interactions for trainees Individualized training Feedback given Less useful for training interpersonal skills
or psychomotor tasks Convenient Can reduce costs
EQUIPMENT SIMULATORS
To reproduce real-world conditions Effective for learning and transfer Costly to develop For physical and cognitive skills Can practice most of the job skills Requires good fidelity For team training
GAMES AND SIMULATIONS
Decision-making skills Resembles the job tasks Highly competitive Management training Provides feedback Time-consuming Interpersonal skills Presents realistic challenges May stifle creativity
CASE STUDY OR ANALYSIS
Decision-making skills Decision-making practice Must be updated Analytical skills Real-world training materials Trainers often dominate discussions Communication skills Active learning To illustrate diversity of solutions Problem-solving practice
ROLE-PLAYING
For changing attitudes Gains experience of other roles Initial resistance of trainees To practice skills Active learning May not take it seriously To analyze interpersonal problems Close to reality
BEHAVIORAL MODELING
To teach interpersonal skills Allows practice Time-consuming To teach cognitive skills Provides feedback May be costly to develop To teach training/teaching skills Retention is improved Strong research evidence
SENSITIVITY TRAINING
To enhance self-awareness Can improve self-concept May be threatening To allow trainees to see how others see them Can reduce prejudice May have limited generalizability Can change interpersonal behaviors
content (e.g., use an interactive approach to teach interpersonal skills), (4) allow for active
participation by the trainees to fit with the adult learning model, (5) provide opportuni-
ties for practice and overlearning, (6) provide feedback on performance during training,
(7) be structured from simple to complex, (8) encourage positive transfer from the train-
ing to the job, and (9) be cost effective. In many cases, trainers will use different tech-
niques. For example, teaching supervisors how to give performance feedback may first
begin with a lecture or overview of the performance appraisal process, followed by small-
group discussions or videotapes depicting effective coaching, and then role-plays to have
Use multiple methods
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supervisors practice their feedback skills. In addition to using multiple methods for training
employees, employers should also have numerous ways for employees to enhance their
learning. At ASTD’s BEST rated firms in 2010, the top 10 tools or approaches being used
consisted of: classroom instruction (97.1 percent), assessments (75.2 percent), in-person
coaching (71.9 percent), blended learning (e.g., combinations of synchronous and asyn-
chronous classroom and e-learning) (68.5 percent), in-person mentoring (66.3 percent),
learning management systems (63.5 percent), asynchronous learning systems such as on-
demand modules (63 percent), synchronous learning system (e.g., WebEx, Centra, Adobe
Acrobat Connect) (63 percent), courseware authoring tools (e.g., Toolbook Instructor,
Adobe Captivate, Trivantis Lectora) (56.5 percent), and rapid development tools (e.g.,
Articulate Presenter, Toolbook Assistant, PowerPoint conversion tools) (53.9 percent). 65
Informational methods are used primarily to teach factual material, skills, or attitudes.
Generally, they do not require the trainee to actually experience or practice the material
taught during the training session. Some of the more commonly used informational tech-
niques include lectures, audio and video media, and self-directed learning (SDL) methods.
E-learning is one of the most popular approaches today.
The lecture method is the most commonly used technique for training employees and
teaching students. As the 2010 ASTD State of the Industry report noted, classroom in- struction is not being replaced by emerging technologies and informal learning. In fact,
97 percent of respondents reported that their organizations currently use classroom instruc-
tion and less than 1 percent no longer use it. Instead, new technologies supplement class-
room instruction. 66 The method is often supplemented with group discussions, audiovisual
aids, motion pictures, or television. The approach can also vary in the degree to which dis-
cussion is permitted, since some lectures involve all one-way communication, while oth-
ers may allow trainees to participate by asking questions or providing comments. Despite
the criticism of this method, recent research shows that lecture-based training is quite an
effective way to facilitate the transfer of theories, concepts, procedures, and other factual
material. 67 In addition, a meta-analysis of the effects of lecture, modeling, and active par-
ticipation on the performance of older trainees found that all three methods had positive
effects on learning and skill measures. 68
A variety of audiovisuals are available to trainers, including films, videos, slides, over-
heads, audiotapes, flip charts, and chalkboards. Videoconferencing has gained in popu-
larity as costs have become more affordable for employers and different systems have
become more compatible. The staff of Greenberg Traurig, an international law firm, set up
a videoconference system that is used almost constantly to share information and multime-
dia presentations in the 375-attorney firm. 69 FedEx Kinko’s has videoconferencing facili-
ties available at over 150 U.S. locations,with costs of about $225 per hour. 70 Other firms
using videoconferencing include JCPenney, IBM, AT&T, and Texas Instruments. Many
firms also use webinars to make workshops available to employees. At Weichert Co., its
own university has integrated face-to-face learning with online discussions (webinars) to
help train real estate agents.
Podcasting is another popular method to reinforce and promote training to its target au- dience. It involves recording a portion of audio or video content that is useful and posting
it online or on the firm’s intranet site and providing a link to download the recording. The
use of podcasting has shown some benefits for the training function, including reduced train-
ing costs, increased participation, and greater learner engagement. One organization reported
being able to deliver its training for $30,000 instead of $125,000 since it reduced the number
of training sessions by 50 percent. Another firm was able to get 70 percent participation in-
stead of the usual 40 percent participation by using podcasts for training. Two helpful sites
for creating podcasts are: www.freeconference.com and www.audioacrobat.com. Use the
first website to get participants’ permission to be recorded and the second site to publish
your podcast. Audio Acrobat generates the appropriate HTML codes for the website, the e-mails, and the downloads. There are both audio and video podcasts that can be used.
Informational Methods
Lectures
Audio and Video Media
Two good websites for creating podcasts
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Podcasts will not replace live, in-person training, but they are making it easier for trainees
to engage in training on their own schedule, with some of the latest technology, and at a
reasonable price. 71
Several informational methods for training are considered to be SDL approaches because
the trainee takes responsibility for learning the necessary knowledge and skills at his or
her own pace. A wide range of decisions can be given to the trainee, including the topic of
study, objectives, resources, schedule, learning strategy, type and sequence of activities,
and media. In most cases, trainees work without direct supervision, set their own pace, and
are allowed to choose their own activities, resources, and learning environments. Gener-
ally, the training department’s role is to provide assistance by establishing learning centers
with available materials and by having trained facilitators on hand for questions. Larger
companies such as Motorola, Sunoco, and Office Depot have been successful in setting up
such centers and encouraging self-directed learning by employees. In these centers, train-
ees can be given self-assessment tools or instruments.
The advantages of SDL include (1) reduced training time, as compared to more con-
ventional methods (e.g., lecture); (2) more favorable attitudes by trainees compared to
conventional techniques; (3) more consistency with an adult learning approach; (4) mini-
mal reliance on instructors or trainers; (5) mobility (i.e., a variety of places can be used
for training); (6) flexibility (trainees can learn at their own pace); (7) consistency of the
information taught to all trainees; and (8) cost savings. There are also several disadvan-
tages, including (1) high developmental time for course materials and extensive planning
requirements, (2) difficulties in revising and updating materials, and (3) limited interac-
tions with peers and trainers.
Research indicates that employees with high levels of readiness for SDL as measured
by the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) were more likely to be higher- level managers, to be outstanding performers, 72 to possess greater creativity, 73 and to have
a higher degree of life satisfaction. 74 Also, employees who were outstanding performers
in jobs requiring high levels of creativity or problem solving or involving high levels of
change were more likely to have high SDLRS scores. In addition, employees with higher
SDLRS scores were successful in relatively unstructured learning situations in which more
responsibility rests on the learners. 75 A variety of SDL approaches are available. Two
of the more commonly used techniques include independent study and various forms of
e-learning. Independent study requires a trainee to read, synthesize, and remember the contents of written material, audio or videotapes, or other sources of information. The train-
ing or personnel department can develop a library of materials for trainees to use in teaching
themselves at their own pace various skills or knowledges. Companies such as Coors, Digi-
tal Equipment Corporation, Kraft, and U.S. Gypsum utilize extensive self-study materials
for their sales employees. Trainees can also design their own training curriculum by opting
for correspondence courses or enrolling in independent study courses at local schools or on
the web. Generally, in these programs, trainees are required to master the content on their
own without direct supervision. Sanofi-aventis is one of the largest pharmaceutical firms
and a winner of the 2007 ASTD BEST firms. In addition to classroom training, it has an
extensive self-directed learning program consisting of more than 700 courses offered via
CD-ROM, textbook, audio CD, DVD, and online. Every employee is encouraged to create
an individual development plan, and employees are required to earn continuing professional
education hours annually. Trainers have used Brainshark Rapid Learning, an asynchronous
development tool, to create online learning objects and to track learners’ progress. 76
E-learning is typically (although not always) an individualized learning method that allows for study of material online. With the proliferation of e-learning, podcasts,
and webinars, the control of learning is shifting from the trainer to the learner, although
e-learning typically includes both self-paced and instructor-led online learning. According
to the ASTD 2010 State of the Industry report, the use of e-learning is at its highest level yet, and in 2009, 27.7 percent of all formal learning hours were made available online.
Often, a tough economic climate favors the use of e-learning to improve efficiency since
trainees can access the material at any time or from any location. UBS uses an e-based
program to train new stockbrokers. Best Buy uses e-learning for technical training such as
Self-Directed Learning (SDL) Methods
Advantages of SDL
SDLRS and outcomes
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installing car stereos. Caterpillar has an extensive e-learning program. Intercontinental Ho-
tels Group offers “The Academy,” which enables employees to access in-depth e-learning
opportunities on key business topics such as finance, coaching, and branded customer
experience. ICICI Bank refreshes training by sending daily text-messages to employees’
mobile phones. 77
Most programs build in the important learning principles by (1) specifying what is to be
learned (i.e., the behavioral objectives); (2) breaking down the learning topic into small,
discrete steps; (3) presenting each step to the trainee and requiring him or her to respond to
each step of the learning process (by reading each part); (4) testing the trainees’ learning
at each step (by responding to questions); (5) providing immediate feedback to the trainee
on whether his or her response was correct or incorrect; and (6) testing the level of skill
or knowledge acquired at the end of the training module. E-learning has replaced “pro- grammed instruction” in training classification but is based on the same principles. One
recent study found that web-based instruction was more effective than classroom instruc-
tion for teaching declarative knowledge, and was equally effective in teaching procedural
knowledge, and trainees were equally satisfied with both methods.
ASTD’s 2011 State of the Industry reports indicated that social media technologies are gaining in use for work-related learning (in addition to personal usage). Some of the most
common types of social media technologies being used for learning include: shared work-
spaces (e.g., SharePoint, Google Docs), social networks (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn), Pod-
casts, Wikis, Blogs (e.g., Wordpress, LiveJournal), Shared Media (e.g., YouTube, Flickr),
Micro-blogs (e.g., Twitter, Yammer), Social bookmarking (e.g., Digg, reddit), Virtual
worlds (e.g., Second Life), and Augmented realities (e.g., Layar). They also revealed
generational differences in usage of these technologies for work. As expected, younger
generations such as Millennials were more likely to use the majority of technologies more
often than older generations (Baby Boomers) except for podcasts and virtual worlds. More
than 80 percent of respondents also indicated that they expected the use of social media
for learning in their organizations to increase over the next 3 years. This is important since
Millennials believe that social media are very useful for learning. Farmers Group, Inc., is
one firm that has been using social media for its training function. Through its “Agency
Insider” program, it allows the trainees to specify how they want to receive the learning,
via Twitter, Facebook, e-mail, or RSS feed. Genpact, a business unit within GE located in
India, uses a blended learning model including classroom instruction, e-learning course-
ware, webinars, knowledge portals, and blogs to help employees learn new knowledge
and skills. 78
Online courses rely on a self-directed learning approach and are gaining in popularity with the rise of podcasts, teleconferences, and instant messaging. Online training is a vi-
able alternative to classroom training and is used to teach almost everything. Despite the
numerous benefits of online courses, HR professionals should exercise caution when using
a web-based format to teach “soft skills.” Participants need opportunities to interact and
practice to truly learn them. If online courses will be used to teach softer skills, trainers
should use a variety of exercises, videos, audios, and graphics so that trainees enjoy the
training and are more likely to practice the skills. Trainers should also make sure that the
online courses are designed to show how learning will promote success on the job, use
peers to support the training, break the skills into concrete learning modules, provide feed-
back throughout the course, and create opportunities to practice the skills. Some e-learning
designers have been working on creating activities that are both interactive and effective
and “don’t leave learners stuck on autopilot.” 79
Experiential methods are often used to teach physical and cognitive skills and abilities. These techniques include OJT, computer-based training (CBT), equipment simulations,
games and other simulations, case analyses, role-playing, and behavior modeling. In addi-
tion, a variety of electronic training-delivery media and distance learning techniques have
become popular as instructional/experiential methods.
Social Media Technologies for Learning
Experiential Methods
More effective for training “declarative” knowledge
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Much industrial training is conducted on the job (e.g., at the work site and in the context
of the job). Often, it is informal, as when an experienced worker shows a trainee how to
perform the job tasks. The trainer may watch over the trainee to provide guidance during
practice or learning. For example, sales employees use coaching calls where a senior sales
person coaches a new sales employee. Five steps are utilized. 80
1. Observation of the new employee.
2. Feedback obtained by the new employee.
3. Consensus (i.e., the coach and the new employee arrive at an agreement as to the
strengths and weaknesses of the sales call).
4. Rehearsal of a new sales call.
5. Review of the employee’s performance.
In 2006, Ruby Tuesday’s restaurants introduced a “master’s” program. Company lead-
ers attended training and were certified as “burger masters.” They then went back to their
restaurants to teach their staff to ensure consistency among restaurants. They also opened
a culinary arts center, which is dedicated to building a hands-on training experience for all
employees from hourly to senior managers. Within the first year, they were able to retain
more highly trained staff and turnover was decreased by 20 percent from the previous year. 81
Although OJT is often associated with the development of new employees, it can also
be used to update or broaden the skills of existing employees when new procedures or
work methods are introduced. In some cases, the trainer may be a retired employee. For
instance, at Corning Glass Works, new employees are paired with retirees for a brief on-
the-job introduction regarding the company culture and market data. Following this, they
are exposed to formal classroom and field training. 82 Many companies combine OJT with
formal classroom training. At McDonald’s, after a 3-hour induction, new employees are
partnered with a buddy who is a member of the training squad. 83 Dow Chemical alternates
sales employees between classroom training at corporate headquarters and OJT experi-
ences in the field for a year. Similarly, Wang Laboratories spends up to 9 months alternat-
ing salespeople from company headquarters and field offices. Restaurant employees at the
Hard Rock Café are trained by OJT and the use of job aids (i.e., training materials). Work-
ers view this approach very favorably. 84
OJT is best used when one-on-one training is necessary, only a small number (usually
fewer than five) of employees need to be trained, classroom instruction is not appropriate,
work in progress cannot be interrupted, a certain level of proficiency on a task is needed
for certification, and equipment or safety restrictions make other training techniques inap-
propriate. The training should emphasize equipment or instruments that are to be used as
well as safety issues or dangerous processes.
Apprenticeship programs often are considered OJT programs because they involve a substantial amount of OJT, even though they do consist of some off-the-job training.
Typically, the trainee follows a prescribed order of coursework and hands-on experience.
The Department of Labor regulates apprenticeship programs, and many require a mini-
mum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year as well as OJT with a skilled em-
ployee. 85 Many professions (e.g., medicine) or trades require some type of apprenticeship
program that may last anywhere from 2 to 5 years. Some of the most common occupations
to offer apprenticeship programs include electricians, carpenters, plumbers, pipe fitters,
sheet-metal workers, machinists, tool-and-die makers, roofers, firefighters, bricklayers,
cooks, structural-steel workers, painters, operating engineers, correction officers, and me-
chanics. 86 In Europe, apprenticeships are still one of the most likely ways for individuals
to gain entry into skilled jobs, while in the United States only 2 percent of high school
graduates enter apprenticeship programs. 87 This is a problem for the U.S. workforce since
the pool of qualified skilled labor for future jobs has been shrinking. In France in one ap-
prenticeship program alone, there are currently 4,200 apprentices with the Association
des Compagnons du Devoir (elite artisans responsible for restoring historical sites such as
Notre Dame Cathedral and Arc de Triomphe). Restricted to men, they begin as young as
15 and undertake up to 9 years of lessons, community chores, and hands-on training with
6,500 companies that have contracts with them. They train for an additional 2 years and
On-the-Job Training
Conditions when OJT is best
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have to complete a personal building project. Only one in 10 typically survives the appren-
ticeship period and is allowed to join the ranks of Compagnons. 88
Another commonly used technique for OJT training is job rotation , which involves moving employees from one job to another to broaden their experience. Many U.S. compa-
nies are showing greater interest in having their employees be able to perform several job
functions so that their workforce is more flexible and interchangeable. For example, in the
automobile industry today, it is fairly common to see employees being trained on two or
more tasks (e.g., painting and welding). This might be done in order to relieve employees’
boredom as well as make the company less dependent on specialized workers. GE requires
all managerial trainees to participate in an extensive job rotation program in which the
trainees must perform all jobs they will eventually supervise. This helps managers develop
the broader background required for future managerial positions. At Lockheed Martin, a
leadership development program was established for new HR college recruits. They are
rotated to a variety of HR departments (recruiting, selection, compensation) to gain broader
experiences as HR professionals.
SHRM conducted a survey and found that when used effectively, e-learning has been able
to deliver training for large numbers of employees at reduced costs and that there was
an increased usage of e-learning during an economic downturn. 89 Another study found
that web-based instruction was more effective than classroom instruction for teaching
declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Interestingly, the researchers also noted
that trainees were more satisfied with web-based classes that had higher levels of human
interaction than lower levels. When trainees were not given the opportunity to interact
with others during web-based courses, they preferred classroom instruction. 90 One lead-
ing provider of CBT software, CBT Group, has training deals with Cisco Systems, IBM,
Informix, Microsoft, Netscape Communications, Novell, Oracle, PeopleSoft, SAP, and
Sybase, among others.
Effective computer skill training is vital to organizational productivity. One recent
study demonstrated that the behavior modeling approach to computer skill training could
be improved by incorporating symbolic mental rehearsal (SMR). SMR is a specific form of mental rehearsal that establishes a cognitive link between visual images and symbolic
memory codes. The authors recommend that practitioners use SMR for improving the
effectiveness of computer skill training. 91
Chunking refers to chopping computer-based training into its smallest parts and send- ing them through a network so that learners receive just the instruction they need when they
need it. Spring Corporation chunks CBT on the corporate intranet and is one of the leaders
in using training over an intranet. 92 The most popular processing software packages (e.g.,
Microsoft Word) use CBT to introduce learners to the use of the software. The U.S. Armed
Forces use CBT extensively for training many of their technicians. In fact, the military
and NASA have numerous advanced technologies such as intelligent tutoring systems and
virtual reality that are used for training purposes. 93 In some CBT programs, trainees interact
directly with computers to actually learn and practice new skills. This is done similarly
to the PI system and is called computer-assisted instruction (CAI). For example, Dialect
Interactive Lectures (DIALECT) are university lectures that have been converted into
multimedia-based digital learning material. DIALECT use animation, computer simula-
tions, and hyperlink facilities to guide students through lectures. 94 CBT has the advantage
of being self-paced, standardized, self-sufficient, easily available, and flexible. This is par-
ticularly important in today’s fast-paced environment, where organizations cannot afford
for employees to be away from the job for large amounts of time. In fact, many employees
view it as a proven way to save time and money while delivering consistent content.
Electronic training-delivery media involve some of the fastest-growing instructional methods. The latest round of CBT-oriented software offers revolutionary ways in which
interactive training is developed and delivered. Multimedia training programs often feature
text, graphics, sound, pictures, videos, simulations, and hyper-text links that enable train-
ees to structure their own learning experiences. 95 The Home Depot delivers training on its
more than 40,000 products to employees via the company’s web-based training model, a
video-driven e-learning experience that consists of 15 minutes of video and synchronized
Computer-Based Training (CBT)/E-Learning
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test, followed by an assessment. 96 Most CBT systems support links to the Internet and to
corporate intranets. Internet-based e-learning has emerged as a cost- and time-efficient way
to address many companies’ training needs. For example, B&W Pantex, a nuclear weapons
management site, replaced many of its classroom sessions with computer-based training
and quick stand-up meetings by frontline managers. Since 2007, it found that training ef-
ficiency improved by 49 percent. Many of ASTD’s BEST firms also use online learning in
combination with other techniques. 97
Online education is the fastest growing sector of the training market. Online learners have
gone from 3 million in 2001 to more than 6 million by 2006. 98 Many resources now exist
for designing and implementing distance learning programs. 99 In addition, a comprehen-
sive list of vendors is provided by the Distance Education Clearinghouse website ( http://
www.uwex.edu/disted ).
To incorporate a “green” perspective into its training, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd
converted its in-house conference to a virtual conference. Employees across 40 locations
around the world were able to connect using web-, video, or audio-conferencing facilities.
This led to a large increase in participation and a reduction in the conference’s carbon
footprint and expenses. 100 The Schwan Food Company expanded the educational opportu-
nities it offered to its employees. It contracted with three accredited institutions to create
7-week online modules that help students earn bachelor’s degrees in 3 years or less. It also
created an associate’s degree and an MBA. University Health Systems created an online
multicultural sensitivity series that included on-demand video presentations by subject
matter experts. 101
Research on the effectiveness of distance education programs has only begun. 102 In
general, offering training or educational programs over the Internet enables employees
to access high-quality education at their own pace. They have access to class material,
conduct research without traveling, and have dialogs with professors and classmates via
e-mail, bulletin boards, and chat rooms. Some programs use videoconferencing or transmit
lectures via satellite. In this regard, students may have an easier time juggling careers and
families. 103 Numerous organizations have successfully used distance learning programs
for their employees, including Ford, AT&T, EDS, MCI Communications, the U.S. De-
partment of Defense, the Tennessee Valley Authority, United Technologies Corporation,
Lockheed Martin, and Lucent Technologies. 104 Organizations have reported the following
benefits from distance learning programs. 105
■ A fast, effective way to train global employees.
■ Increased the impact and productivity of dollars invested in training and education
programs.
■ Reduced travel costs and made time formerly spent traveling available for more produc-
tive uses.
■ Allowed for the training of more people, more often, in sessions that are easier to sched-
ule and coordinate.
■ Offered the ability to add students and instructors as needed without incurring signifi-
cant additional expenses.
■ Delivered a consistent message that can be disseminated quickly companywide.
■ Provided real-time updates and just-in-time information access.
■ Delivered to both work and home sites that are convenient for trainees.
■ Offered live interactive programs delivered to multiple networked sites for group
learning.
■ Is learner-centered and enabled students to have more control over the pacing and
sequencing of the learning experience.
■ Offered easy access to learning resources.
One article provides a set of research-based principles for “learner control” train-
ing in the e-learning environment. “Learner control generally refers to ‘a mode of
Distance Learning Programs
Benefits of distance learning
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Figure 8-8 Guidelines for Learner Controlled Training in e-Learning
PREPARING TRAINEES FOR LEARNER-LED INSTRUCTION Guideline #1: Understanding Learner Control Is Half the Battle • Instruct employees about areas they can control and how this increased control can increase learning. • The perception of control can increase learning. Guideline #2: Give It Time • Typical learner-controlled training tasks last from 30 to 60 minutes. • “Provide trainees with enough time to learn how to use learner control and with suggested completion times for each section of the
training task.” • 10 or more separate training sessions are recommended as users become more familiar with the system as time progresses. Guideline #3: Calibrate Expectations Ensure trainees understand the training will be challenging. Adult users often perceive learning as an easy process and when confronted with the challenge of training they may become frustrated.
DESIGNING LEARNER-CONTROLLED TRAINING Guideline #4: Offer Help • Offer self-tests and feedback so trainees can self-regulate the number of examples to view and the amount of practice items to
complete. Guideline #5: What’s Good for One Trainee May Not Be Good for Another • “Trainees who are high in ability, prior experience, and motivation may benefit the most from learner control.” • “Create programs that provide trainees high in learning ability [also known as ’g’] and prior experience with more learner control
options than trainees low in ability and prior experience.” • Motivation: “When trainees are made aware of the organizational objectives of the training they are often more motivated to
successfully complete the training program.” Guideline #6: More Isn’t Necessarily Better • Match learner control to the amount of control needed for effective instruction and training objectives. • Structure training tasks based on trainees’ learning preferences. Guideline #7: “Skipping” Is Better than “Adding” For optional/additional training material, use the word “skip” additional instruction rather than “add” additional material. Guideline #8: Keep It Real Increase meaningfulness of training by using familiar contexts and examples. Guideline #9: Footprints Help (“You Are Here”) Provide trainees with a “map” to track their training progress. Guideline #10: Keep Each Instructional Segment Self-Contained • Each section should be short and concise. • Trainees should not have to revisit a previous section to complete the current section. Guideline #11: Share Design Control • Obtain user preferences from trainees prior to training; for instance, does the user prefer having multiple windows open during the
training session? • “Allow the trainees to stop, pause, or restart the program where they wish.” Guideline #12: Be Consistent • “Keep the font size and color as well as the background color consistent from one instructional segment to another.” Guideline #13: Create Smooth Transitions Have clear relationships between training segments.
CREATING WORKPLACE CONDITIONS THAT FACILITATE SUCCESSFUL LEARNER-LED INSTRUCTION Guideline #14: Promote It Supervisors can improve learner-controlled effectiveness by setting difficult but attainable goals regarding the level of skill mastery and encouraging the trainees to use their newly obtained skills on the job. Guideline #15: Make It Matter Ensure that trainees judge the goal of participating in training is not only attainable but also valuable. Guideline #16: Organizational Climate Matters Organizations with climates that encourage employee participation, empowerment, and autonomy may find it easier to implement learner-controlled training programs.
Source: Adapted from Renée E. DeRouin, Barbara A. Fritzsche, and Eduardo Salas, “Optimizing E-Learning: Research-Based Guidelines for Learner-Controlled Training,” Human Resource Management 43 (2004), pp. 147–162. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.
instruction in which one or more key instructional decisions are delegated to the
learner.’” Simply put, trainees have greater control over their training, such as pace,
materials covered, and sequence. 106 Figure 8-8 presents guidelines for such more
effective e-learning.
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Some training may involve machines or equipment designed to reproduce physiological
and psychological conditions of the real world that are necessary in order for learning and
transfer to occur. For example, driving simulators or flight simulators are often used to
train employees in driving or flying skills. Another example of a simulation is the Fire-
Arms Training System (FATS), which is used by more than 300 law enforcement agen-
cies in the United States. 107 In this simulation, officers are confronted with a number of
everyday work situations (e.g., fleeing felons) on a video screen. The military uses virtual
reality simulators for training involving war game demonstrations. One exercise, called the
Synthetic Theater of War, links tactics, techniques, and processes of modern systems to
illustrate battles. 108 Equipment simulators also are relied on in training for space missions
(astronaut training). While many of these simulations are extremely costly, some have
become more affordable. In addition, using simulators for training incurs only a fraction of
the cost of using the real equipment to train employees.
Some training programs rely on a variety of games, nonequipment simulations, or out-
door experiential programs. In fact, these instructional techniques appear to be gaining
in popularity with hundreds of different types of games available for teaching technical,
managerial, professional, and other business-related skills. CaridianBCT, a firm respon-
sible for enhancing blood quality, safety, and supply worldwide, modified its learning
function by adding worldwide simulation-based training programs on business acumen,
time management, and priority management. Scottrade, a retail brokerage firm, uses a
customer service simulation-training module. For example, trainees might communicate
with a “customer” who holds accounts with a competitor. Trainees from different de-
partments submit their “best customer call” for consideration into a competition among
departments. Memorial Health System in Springfield, Illinois, has a Clinical Simulation
Center to train internal and external health care personnel (e.g. Air National Guard) in
quasi-live environments. 109
Some of the more common games include in-baskets and business games. Most games
are used to teach skills such as decision making as well as analytical, strategic, or interper-
sonal skills. Business games typically require trainees to assume various roles in a com- pany (e.g., president, marketing vice president) where they are given several years’ worth
of information on the company’s products, technology, and human resources and asked to
deal with the information in a compressed period (several weeks or months). They make
decisions regarding production volumes, inventory levels, and prices in an environment
in which other trainees are running competitor companies. The most successful business
games keep the focus on specific corporate objectives or problems such as profits, cus-
tomer service, or labor costs.
At Wachovia, an initiative was developed for employees in the audit division. The
Welcome to the Jungle! program uses a visual learning map that combines metaphors, activities, games, hands-on skills practice, and participants’ own experiences to teach and
reinforce audit concepts. Department leaders team with participants to embark on a journey
“through the jungle” that includes games, quizzes, and role-plays in a highly interactive
learning experience. 110
One very popular cross-functional simulation is The Marketplace Business Simula- tion. Working in teams, trainees must assume various roles in the start-up of a firm in the microcomputer industry. The teams work over a compressed period to play 2 to 3 years in
the game. Performance is measured on a number of short- and long-term metrics (e.g., fi-
nancial, marketing, human resource) comprising a Balanced Scorecard. Numerous levels and variations of the game are available depending on the expertise and backgrounds of the
trainees. The simulation has been used all over the world as a capstone, integrative experi-
ence to an EMBA, MBA, or undergraduate program as well as by various companies. 111
In-baskets , as discussed in Chapter 6, are used to train managerial candidates in decision-making skills by requiring them to act on a variety of memos, reports, and other
correspondence that are typically found in a manager’s in-basket. Participants must priori-
tize items and respond to them in a limited time. In-baskets are often included in assessment
centers. For example, the method is used as one component of the week-long executive
development program at the Center for Creative Leadership.
Equipment Simulations
Games, Simulations, and Outdoor Experiential Programs
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Outdoor experiential programs have gained in popularity as training methods for
teams. 112 In Maryland, two popular firms are Terrapin Adventures and the University
of Maryland Challenge Course at the Campus Recreation Center. Both have developed
a variety of outdoor activities or challenge courses (canoeing and hiking trips courses,
climbing platforms and towers, zip lines, swings, mountain biking, canoeing trips, hiking
trips) that can be used to help employers build stronger teams. By placing a work unit in a
challenge course or physical activity, the coaches or counselors can observe how the unit
works together and can debrief them and provide feedback on issues of communication,
conflict, and trust. In the Executive Leadership Strategies Program conducted at Lockheed
Martin Corporation, senior leaders learn about their own personalities and issues of trust
and teamwork as they participate in a set of outdoor ropes challenges delivered by the
University of Maryland Campus Recreation Center. Similarly, in the EMBA and fulltime
MBA programs at the University of Maryland, students participate in the UM Challenge
course to build trust and bond with new teammates they will be working with.
Most business students are very familiar with Case Analysis, a training method often
used in management training to improve analytical skills. Trainees are asked to read
a case report that describes the organizational, social, and technical aspects of some
organizational problem (e.g., poor leadership, intergroup conflict). Each trainee pre-
pares a report in which he or she describes the problems and offers solutions (including
potential risks and benefits). Working in a group, trainees may then be asked to justify
the problems they have identified and their recommendations. The trainer’s role is to
facilitate the group’s learning and to help the trainees see the underlying management
concepts in the case. At Kelly Services, the learning staff created 30 hours of intense
training for sales personnel, which involved case studies, role-play exercises, and sce-
narios. Trainees then had to take a case study exam in teams and their results were used
to determine the scope of their subsequent sales responsibility. Results showed that
after completing the program participants increased sales opportunities by 63 percent
over a year. 113
In a role-playing exercise, trainees act out roles and attempt to perform the behaviors
required in those roles. Role-plays are commonly used in training to teach skills such
as oral communication, interpersonal styles, leadership styles, performance feedback
reviews, and interviewing techniques. In the popular MBA negotiations course, at the
University of Maryland’s Robert H. Smith School of Business, students participate in
role-plays every class period to enhance their negotiating skills across a variety of situa-
tions (e.g., receiving jobs, raises and promotions, international deals, ethical dilemmas).
Similarly, in the EMBA course “Leadership and Human Capital,” executives are often
video-taped while role-playing and given feedback on their skills. Checkfree Services,
Inc., uses role-plays to teach managers skills for setting expectations, handling conflict
situations, and using behavioral-based interviewing. ICICI Bank has a program called
“Skill Through Drill” to teach the firm’s customer service strategy to all employees. Us-
ing role-plays and video clips, it emphasizes practice, practice, and more practice. 114 At
the Chicago Tribune , trainees are assigned the role of a supervisor giving performance appraisal feedback to a subordinate, while other trainees play the role of the subordinate.
Xerox uses role-plays in some of its training programs to teach managers how to develop
a culturally diverse workforce.
Behavior modeling is a technique for training managers on interpersonal and supervisory
skills. Many large companies such as Exxon, Westinghouse, and Union Carbide use this
approach. Based on Bandura’s theory of social learning, 115 the method consists of four consecutive components: (1) attention (watching someone perform a behavior usually through videotapes), (2) retention (processes to help the trainee retain what was observed), (3) motor reproduction or behavioral rehearsal (using role-plays to practice new behav- iors), and (4) motivation or feedback/reinforcement (receiving feedback on the behaviors performed). The success of this approach to training is based on the notion that many of
us learn by observing others. For example, suppose you have just taken a job as a sales
Case Analysis
Role-Playing
Behavior Modeling
Bandura’s theory
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representative. You may spend some time watching the techniques used by other reps to
get ideas for how to perform the job. If you practice the behaviors you have observed and
get feedback from the “models” or others, your learning should be enhanced. Generally,
trainees should observe predominately positive examples of the behaviors if the goal is to
get them to reproduce the behaviors. At the U.S. Naval Construction Battalion at Gulfport,
Mississippi, the use of behavior modeling resulted in superior retention of knowledge,
transfer of learning, and end-user satisfaction. 116
Behavioral modeling is an excellent approach for training trainers and educators where
a “master” teacher can serve as the model for the future trainer or teacher or someone who
is having difficulties in the classroom. For example, many graduate programs assign a new
grad student to a “star” professor who is teaching a course that the grad student will teach
in the near future.
EVALUATION Evaluation involves the collection of information on whether trainees were satisfied with
the program, learned the material, and were able to apply the skills back on the job. It may
be important to determine whether trainees are capable of exhibiting the appropriate level
of a skill (e.g., do new supervisors know all of the organization’s policies and procedures?).
It may be important to know whether or not trainees have changed their behavior and if
the change was due to training (e.g., do supervisors complete the necessary paperwork for
disciplining an employee more after the training than before it was conducted?). Further,
it may be critical to know that if the organization places a new group of supervisors in the
same training program they will also improve their learning or behaviors. Evaluation ef-
forts can be designed to answer these various questions or address these issues. According
to the 2009 ASTD research report on evaluation, the most common actions taken based on
evaluations of training programs are as follows:
■ To help improve learning programs (52.9 percent).
■ To gather performance data about instructors (47.8 percent).
■ To make sure employees like the programs (47.4 percent).
■ To satisfy legal requirements in a regulated industry (46.9 percent).
■ To gauge whether or not employees are learning what’s required of them (39.1 percent).
■ To help meet performance goals of employees (36.2 percent).
■ To ensure that learning programs positively influence employees’ behaviors (33.1 percent).
■ To satisfy management that the training function is doing its job (32.6 percent).
■ To ultimately improve overall business results (31.4 percent).
■ To demonstrate to others the value of the learning function (27.8 percent). 117
Evaluation ensures that programs are accountable and are meeting the particular needs of
employees in a cost-effective manner. This is especially important today as organizations
attempt to cut costs and improve quality. Without evaluation, it is very difficult to show
that training was the reason for any improvements, and as a result management may reduce
training budgets or staffs in times of financial hardship. While most companies recognize
the importance of evaluation, few actually evaluate their training programs. In fact, in a
recent survey, 77 percent of respondents said their evaluation efforts fall short in providing
meaningful information for business planning. In fact, in another research report, it was
noted that only 11.4 percent of respondents say their firms hold managers accountable for
tracking pre- and posttraining performance to a high or very high extent. The proportion of
the learning budget in firms spent on evaluation is fairly consistent, regardless of company
size, although smaller firms (less than 100 employees) spend, on average, 6.5 percent of
their learning budgets on evaluations, while larger firms (more than 10,000 employees)
Barriers to Training Evaluation
Modeling very effective for educators
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spend about 4.4 percent on evaluation. The most common barriers listed to conducting
evaluations of training include
■ Too difficult to isolate training’s impact on results versus other factors’ influence
(51.7 percent see this as a barrier to a high or very high extent).
■ The firm’s learning management system does not have a useful evaluation function
(40.8 percent listed as a barrier to a high or very high extent).
■ Evaluation data are not standardized enough to compare across functions (listed by
38 percent).
■ It costs too much to conduct higher-level evaluations (listed by 32.2 percent).
■ Leaders don’t care about evaluation data (listed by 24.1 percent).
■ Evaluation data are too difficult to interpret for most people (listed by 18.9 percent).
■ Evaluations are not seen as credible (listed by 14.5 percent). 118 Many successful firms
that emphasize training do so almost as a matter of faith and because of their belief in
the connection between people and profits. 119
Some firms, such as GE, believe that new ways must be used to evaluate training pro-
grams. They use surveys to realign training as needed and examine returns in the form of
tangible and intangible business results, increased consumer satisfaction, and career devel-
opment for GE workers. 120 The BEST organizations (as rated by ASTD) incorporate a wide
variety of criteria to maximize the link between learning and performance. As a result, they
have been able to show a wide range of benefits from their learning programs such as fewer
work-related injuries, decreased errors, cost savings, improved productivity, larger market
share, and better collaboration among work groups. 121 As an example, Caterpillar makes
sure that every major program is graded by a performance scorecard and a reporting process
that examines business impact. Reaction, application, and ROI data are reviewed monthly
and reported to the board of governors quarterly. Over the past 6 years, the firm completed
11 studies to show how its corporate university program improved business performance. 122
In a survey of learning executives (e.g., HR executive, CEO, chief learning officers)
67 percent stated that their most pressing issue was establishing a link between learning
and organizational performance. A secondary concern reported by 49 percent was estab-
lishing ROI or value for learning. 123 Thus trainers should try to collect five types of data
when evaluating training programs based on the Kirkpatrick/Phillips model of learning.
These include: measures of trainees’ reactions (Level 1), learning (Level 2), behavior
change (Level 3), organizational results (Level 4), and return on investment (ROI) utility
(Level 5). The first four of these criteria are widely used to evaluate corporate training pro-
grams, and the last, ROI has been added as another important source of evaluation data. 124
Another technique used to evaluate training is the Brinkerhoff Success Case Method. This
involves identifying likely success cases and then interviewing those individuals to learn
how they used the training and what results were achieved. According to Brinkerhoff, this
method can be used to determine how many employees are using the training successfully,
what the business value of those successes are, and how much value from the training has
been unrealized. At least half of the respondents to the ASTD 2009 report on evaluation
said they used this method. 125
■ Reactions —trainees’ attitudes toward the training program, instructor, facilities, and so forth.
■ Learning —changes in knowledge by trainees or level of knowledge reached after training.
■ Behavior —changes in job performance or level of job performance reached after training.
■ Results —changes in organizational measures (e.g., productivity, turnover, absences) due to training.
■ ROI —monetary value of the results (benefits of training minus costs of training; expressed as a percentage).
Types of Criteria
Five types of data
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According to the 2010 ASTD State of the Industry report, 91.6 percent of respondents said their firm used reactions to evaluate the program, 80.8 percent used learning for evalu-
ation, 54.5 percent measured behaviors, 36.9 percent assessed results measures, and only
17.9 percent measured return on investment. Some question whether it is worthwhile to
even collect reaction measures, and suggest that collecting behaviors and results should be
the most important indicators to evaluate a program. There is, however, some good news.
In a comprehensive meta-analysis of 162 training evaluation studies, it was found that the
average or mean effect sizes for training interventions (across all topics and methods used)
were fairly large. This reveals that reactions, learning, behavior, and results criteria should
lead to meaningful positive changes in the organizations. 126
Organizations tend to spend the largest part of their evaluation budget on assessing train-
ees’ reactions to the training. Reaction measures are designed to assess trainees’ opinions
regarding the training program. Using a questionnaire, trainees are asked at the end of
training to indicate the degree to which they were satisfied with the trainer, subject mat-
ter and content, the materials (books, pamphlets, handouts), and the environment (room,
breaks, meals, temperature). It is important to assess trainees’ satisfaction with multiple
aspects of a training program and not just their overall satisfaction. 127 Also, they may be
asked to indicate the aspects of the program they considered to be most valuable and least
useful to them. You have probably been asked to complete a reaction form or course evalu-
ation instrument for some of your classes.
Despite relying on reaction measures to evaluate their programs, only 35.9 percent of
them said this criterion has high or very high value. Favorable reactions to a program do
not guarantee that learning has occurred or that appropriate behaviors have been adopted.
In fact, there is little correlation between reactions and other criteria . However, it is impor- tant to collect reaction data for several reasons: (1) to find out how satisfied trainees were
with the program, (2) to make any needed revisions in the program, and (3) to ensure that
other trainees will be receptive to attending the program. Trainees should be given ample
time at the end of the session to complete the reaction form. Also, trainers should assess
trainees’ reactions several months after the program to determine how relevant trainees felt
the training was to their jobs. An example of a reaction form is presented in Figure 8-9 .
Learning measures assess the degree to which trainees have mastered the concepts, knowl-
edge, and skills of the training. Typically, learning is measured by paper-and-pencil tests
(e.g., essay-type questions, multiple choice), performance tests, and simulation exercises.
These measures should be designed to sample the content of the training program. Trainees
should be tested on their level of understanding before and after training to determine the
effect of training on their knowledge. Figure 8-10 presents two examples of performance
tests used to assess learning. Figure 8-11 presents a more commonly used type of learning
measure. Regarding learning criteria, trainee learning appears to be a necessary but insuffi-
cient prerequisite for changes in behavior, improvements in actual on-the-job performance,
and “bottom-line” results. As noted earlier, many organizations use learning measures to
assess the effectiveness of their training programs, and 54.9 percent of them believe these
measures have high or very high value according to a 2009 ASTD report on evaluation.
Behavioral criteria are measures of actual on-the-job performance and can be used to identify the effects of training on actual work performance. Behavioral criteria are typi-
cally operationalized by using supervisor ratings. Behaviors of trainees before and after
training should be compared to assess the degree to which training has changed their
performance. This is important because one of the goals of training is to modify the on-
the-job behavior or performance of trainees. Behaviors can be measured by relying on the
performance evaluation system to collect ratings of trainees both before and after training.
For example, trainees of the Federal Aviation Administration must submit subordinate
evaluations of their supervisory behavior prior to attending the national training center in
Florida. Subordinates also submit evaluations of the same supervisors’ behavior 6 months
after the training. To determine whether or not the supervisors’ skills have improved due
to training, the performance evaluations they received from their subordinates before and
Reactions
Learning
Behaviors/Performance
Little correlation between reaction and other criteria
Learning and actual performance not highly correlated
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
MECHANICS “You have in front of you a gear reducer, a line shaft, bearings, and coupling. I want you to assemble and adjust the proper alignment so that the finished assembly is a right-hand (or left-hand) driven assembly. Set the coupling gap 1/8 inch apart. You do not have to put the grid member in place or fasten the coupling covers. After you are finished, I will ask you where and how the grid member should go in. You will have 45 minutes to complete this job.”
PAINTERS “I want you to boost yourself up about 10 feet off the floor using this boatsman chair, and then tie yourself off so that you don’t fall. After that, I would like you to hook this spraygun to the air supply, set the regulator to the correct pressure, and then spray this wall.”
Source: WEXLEY, KENNETH N.; LATHAM, GARY P., DEVELOPING AND TRAINING HUMAN RESOURCES IN ORGANIZATIONS, 2nd, © 1991. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Figure 8-10 Examples of Learning Performance Tests
SAMPLE ITEMS FROM A MGIC TEST TO EVALUATE SUPERVISOR KNOWLEDGE
1. T or F When preparing a truth-in-lending disclosure with a financed single premium, mortgage insurance should always be disclosed for the life of the loan.
2. T or F GE and MGIC have the same refund policy for refundable single premiums.
3. T or F MGIC, GE, and PMI are the only mortgage insurers offering a nonrefundable single premium.
4. _____ Which one of the following is not a category in the loan progress reports? (a). Loans approved (b). Loans-in-suspense (c). Loans denied (d). Loans received
5. _____ Which of the following do not affect the MGIC Plus buying decision? (a). Consumer (b). Realtor (c). MGIC underwriter (d). Secondary market manager (e). Servicing manager
6. _____ The new risk-based capital regulations for savings and loans have caused many of them to: (a). Convert whole loans into securities (b). Begin originating home equity loans (c). Put MI on their uninsured 90s
Source: Reprinted with permission of the publisher. From Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels. Copyright © 1996 by Kirkpatrick, Barrett-Koehler, Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved. www.bkconnection.com.
Figure 8-11 Sample Learning Measure
after completion of training are compared. A variety of performance appraisal measures
can be used to assess behavioral changes of trainees. These are described in detail in
Chapter 7. Figure 8-12 presents a sample behavioral measure. Some of the most effective
tools for measuring behaviors are using follow-up focus groups, monitoring performance
records, and follow-up surveys of trainees.
The 2009 ASTD research report on evaluation indicated that while only 54.5 percent
of firms measure behaviors as part of their evaluation efforts, the majority of them
(75 percent) believe these measures have high or very high value. In addition, they noted
that very few (39.3 percent) collect premeasures of behaviors. Most do not allow for much
time after training before collecting behavioral measures. In fact, 37.9 percent of firms
collect behavioral measures within the first 2 weeks after the training, while 55.8 percent
collect behaviors 2 weeks to 2 months after training and 51.7 percent collect behavioral
measures more than 2 months after training, Thus since so few firms collect pre- and
postmeasures, it will be difficult for them to assess behavioral change over time. In addi-
tion, most behavioral change is expected to take some time to really take effect, so by col-
lecting behavioral measures so quickly after training, they may not be able to fully realize
the effects of the training. 128
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The purpose of collecting organizational results is to examine the impact of training on the work group or entire company. Data may be collected before and after training on
criteria such as productivity, turnover, absenteeism, formal complaints/lawsuits, accidents,
grievances, quality improvements, scrap, sales, and customer satisfaction. The trainer will
try to show that the training program was responsible for any changes noted in these
criteria. This may be difficult to do without a careful design and data collection strategy,
since many other factors could explain the changes detected. For example, changes in
dollar sales could be due to a new pay system rather than to a sales training program. An
evaluation using a results measure (pharmacy sales) was conducted for a training program
designed for pharmacy technicians at 2,000 Walgreen stores. Sales for pharmacies where
technicians had received 20 hours of classroom training and 20 hours of OJT were $9,500
greater annually than those for pharmacies where technicians received only OJT. Results
criteria (e.g., productivity, sales, company profits) are the most distal and macro criteria
used to evaluate the effectiveness of training. According to the 2009 ASTD research re-
port on evaluation, only 36.9 percent of firms assess results to evaluate their programs,
despite the fact that 75 percent of them see results measures as having high or very high
value. The most frequently used metrics are customer service, which is used to a high or
very high extent by 38.9 percent of firms; employee satisfaction (used by 37 percent); and
learner/employee perceptions of impact (used by 36.3 percent). The least likely metrics
are business outcomes (used by 22.4 percent of firms) and turnover/promotion (used by
24.8 percent). The survey also reported that using actual business outcomes (e.g., revenue,
sales), proficiency/competency levels, and learner perceptions of impact were the results
measures most highly related to overall evaluation success. 129
A variety of methods can be used to assess the dollar value of training. According to the
2009 ASTD report on evaluation, only 17.9 percent of firms measured the ROI of training,
yet 59.4 percent said it had high or very high value. 130 No matter which approach is used,
costs and benefits associated with training must be estimated. Some costs that should be measured for a training program include (1) one-time costs such as needs assessment costs,
Instructions: The purpose of this questionnaire is to determine the extent to which those who attended the recent leadership program have applied the principles and techniques that they learned back on the job. The survey results will help us to assess the effectiveness of the program. Please circle the appropriate response for each question.
5 = Much more 4 = Some more 3 = The same 2 = Some less 1 = Much less
Time and Energy Spent after the Program Compared to Time and Energy Spent before the Program
Understanding and Motivating
1. Getting to know my employees 5 4 3 2 1
2. Listening to my subordinates 5 4 3 2 1
3. Praising good work 5 4 3 2 1
4. Talking with employees about their families and interests 5 4 3 2 1
5. Asking subordinates for their ideas 5 4 3 2 1
6. Managing by walking around 5 4 3 2 1
Orienting and Training
7. Asking new employees about their past experiences, etc. 5 4 3 2 1
8. Taking new employees on a tour of the department and facilities
5 4 3 2 1
9. Introducing new employees to their co-workers 5 4 3 2 1
10. Being patient with employees 5 4 3 2 1
Source: Reprinted with permission of the publisher. From Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels. Copyright © 1996 by Kirkpatrick, Barrett-Koehler, Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved. www.bkconnection.com.
Figure 8-12 Sample Survey Behavioral Measure
Organizational Results
Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Training
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salaries and benefits of training designers, purchase of equipment and media (computers,
videos, handouts, distance learning techniques), program development costs, evaluation
costs for the first offering of the program; (2) costs associated with each training session
such as trainers’ costs (salaries and benefits, travel, lodging, meals) and facilities rental;
and (3) costs associated with trainees including trainee wages during training, travel, lodg-
ing, meals for trainees during training, and nonreusable training materials.
It is important to compare the benefits of the training program with its costs. One benefit that should be estimated is the dollar payback associated with the improvement in
trainees’ performance after receiving training. This is often difficult to approximate. Since
the results of the experimental design will indicate any differences in behavior between
those trained versus those untrained, the trainer can then estimate for that particular group
of employees (e.g., managers, engineers) what this difference is worth in terms of the sala-
ries of those employees. Often, the amount gained per trainee per year is multiplied by the
number of persons trained. Another factor that should be considered when estimating the
benefits of training is the duration of the training’s impact, that is, the length of time dur-
ing which the improved performance will be maintained. While probably no programs will
show benefits forever, those that do produce longer-term improved performance will have
greater value to the organization.
Given the increasing amount of money that firms budget for training, it is imperative that
companies be able to estimate the return on investment (ROI) that training provides them. To do this, firms should assess the costs and benefits associated with their programs.
However, one study noted that ROI metrics were used by only 20 percent of respondents. This may be because a lot of training is targeted to leadership and other soft skills that
are difficult to track in terms of concrete measurements. A 2008 World atWork survey
of European HR leaders noted that ROI was rated high on the scale for importance, but it
was last on the list of HR’s ability to actually report those metrics. 131 In one study that did
examine ROI with several training programs at a pharmaceutical firm, it was found that the
managerial training programs had an average ROI of 45 percent, while the sales and tech- nical training programs had an average ROI of 156 percent. At Ford, all training programs are evaluated against the criterion of product line profitability. A tracking system shows
costs and revenue for training facilities and individual courses. 132 The basic ROI formula is as follows:
Net program benefits ROI (%) � � � 100
Program costs
For example, at an 18-week literacy program for entry-level electrical and mechanical
assemblers at Magnavox Electronics Systems Company, the results were impressive. The
benefits (productivity and quality) were $321,600 while the costs were only $38,233. Thus,
the ROI is calculated as 741 percent. This means that for each dollar invested, Magnavox received $7.41 over the cost of the program. 133
$321,600 � $38,233 ROI � � � 100 � 741%
$38,233
When making ROI calculations, it is important to use reliable and credible sources and to be conservative when estimating benefits and costs for training. It is also important to
involve management when deciding on what is an acceptable ROI as a target goal for the training. For example, British Airways has utilized training to become one of the most
profitable airlines in the world. Before training begins, a tangible value for the training
investment is set, reflecting how much improvement in customer satisfaction is to be
expected if training is successful. 134 Caterpillar has its own university, which delivers
competency courses to dealers via e-learning in eight different languages that address
specific needs that arise from a needs assessment. In 2007, it reported that 4,500 dealers
were engaged and that early performance metrics indicated nearly 400 percent return on
investment for dealers. 135
Return on Investment (ROI)
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Another approach that can be used when calculating the value of training is a utility model.
(See Chapter 6 for a review of utility.) This is difficult but may be important for show-
ing top management the value of training for the organization. Utility is a function of the
duration of a training program’s effect on employees, the number of employees trained,
the validity of the training program, the value of the job for which training was provided,
and the total cost of the program. Utility analysis measures the economic contribution of a program according to how effective it was in identifying and modifying behavior. 136 Be-
cause the calculations involved in a utility analysis are based on subjective estimations, this
model has not yet gained widespread acceptance by trainers as a practical tool for evaluat-
ing return on training investments. 137
After determining the criteria to use in evaluating the training program, the trainer should
choose an experimental design. The design is used to answer two primary questions:
(1) whether or not a change has occurred in the criteria (e.g., learning, behavior, organi-
zational results) and (2) whether or not the change can be attributed to the training pro-
gram. Designs employ two possible strategies to answer these questions. The first is to
compare the trainee’s performance before and after participation in training. This is done
to see what changes may have occurred in learning, behavior, or organizational results.
While this is important for answering the question of whether change has taken place, it
is deficient in answering the question of whether the change can be attributed to the train-
ing program since the criteria may have changed for a number of reasons. Answering the
second question requires a design comparing the changes that occurred in the trainees
with changes that occurred in another group of employees who did not receive the train-
ing (e.g., a control group ), yet are similar to the training group in important ways (e.g., similar job titles, rank, geographical location). The most effective experimental designs
use both strategies (i.e., before–after measures and a control group) and are better able to
answer both questions. Some of the more commonly used designs for training evaluation
are described next. 138
In many organizations, training is designed and conducted without prior thought given to
evaluation. For example, a plant manager may decide to put all the employees in a safety
training course. After the course is completed the manager decides to evaluate it. At this
point, the design would look like this one:
TRAINING ⎯⎯⎯→ MEASURE
Any of the four types of criteria (reactions, learning, behavior, organizational results)
could be used as the “after” measures. It would be difficult, however, to know what, if
any, changes occurred since no “before” measure (pretest) was made. In addition, be-
cause the results may not be compared with those of another group who did not receive
training, it would not be possible to say whether any change was due to the training. If,
however, the primary goal was to make sure that the trainees reached a certain mastery
level, then the design might still be appropriate (e.g., the trainees reached a 95 percent
safety goal).
Another design for evaluating the training group on the criteria is to measure the group
before and after the training. This design is as follows:
MEASURE ⎯→ TRAINING ⎯→ MEASURE
This design can assess whether a change has occurred for the training group in the criteria
(e.g., learning, behavior) that is useful. Unfortunately, it is not able to tell for sure whether
or not the change is due to training, since there is no control group. A change that is de-
tected could have been caused by the introduction of new equipment, a new manager, or
revised pay systems, or it could have occurred for a number of other reasons. If the trainer
is going to use this design, it is important to document other events that have occurred
during the measurement period to determine the most likely explanations for any detected
changes.
Utility Analysis
Designs for Evaluating Training
One-Shot Posttest-Only Design
One-Group Pretest– Posttest Design
Answers two primary questions
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A much stronger design for assessing the effectiveness of a training program is shown here:
GROUP 1: R: TRAINING ⎯⎯⎯→ MEASURE GROUP 2: R: NO TRAINING ⎯⎯⎯→ MEASURE
In this design, two groups are used and individuals are randomly assigned (R) to either group (i.e., an individual has an equal chance of being put in either group 1, the training
group, or group 2, the control group ). The use of random assignment helps to initially equalize the two groups. This is important to ensure that any differences between the two
groups after training are not simply caused by differences in ability, motivation, or experi-
ence. The posttest-only control group design is useful when it is difficult to collect cri- teria measures on individuals prior to offering them the training. For example, the trainer
may believe that giving individuals a pretest, such as a learning test, may overly influence
their scores on the posttest, which might be the same learning measure. Another trainer
may not have time to give premeasures. Individuals are randomly assigned to the two
groups, and their scores on the posttest are compared. Any differences on the posttest can
be attributed to the training program since we can assume that the two groups were some-
what equal before training. It would be beneficial to make sure that the employees from the
control group are placed in a training program later so that they have similar opportunities.
Another powerful design that is recommended for use in training evaluation is as follows:
GROUP 1: R: MEASURE ⎯⎯⎯→ TRAINING ⎯⎯⎯→ MEASURE GROUP 2: R: MEASURE ⎯⎯⎯→ NO TRAINING ⎯⎯⎯→ MEASURE
Individuals are randomly assigned to the two groups. Criteria measures are collected on
both groups before and after the training program is offered, yet only one group actually
receives the training (group 2 is the control group). Comparisons are made of the changes
detected in both groups. If the change in group 1 is significantly different from the change
in group 2, we can be somewhat certain that it was caused by the training. The two features
that make this a stronger design are the randomization of people into the groups and the use of a control group. These aspects enable us to determine (1) if a change occurred and (2) whether the change was due to training. Since many organizations will want all of the
employees in both groups to receive the training, the training can be offered to group 2 at
a later time.
Another design recommended for use in training evaluation is shown below:
GROUP 1: R: MEASURE → MEASURE → MEASURE → TRAINING → MEASURE → MEASURE → MEASURE GROUP 2: R: MEASURE → MEASURE → MEASURE → NO TRAINING → MEASURE → MEASURE → MEASURE
In this design, individuals are randomly assigned to either of two groups, and the criteria
measures (learning, behavior, results) are collected at several times before and after the
training has been offered. This design allows us to observe any changes between the two
groups over time or any trends in performance. If the effects of training held up over sev-
eral months, this design would offer stronger support for the program. Of course, this de-
sign might be more costly or difficult to implement since it requires taking measurements
of individuals multiple times.
To conduct a thorough evaluation of a training program, training departments can bench-
mark their practices against the best in the industry. They can compare their training depart-
ment to leading-edge companies in terms of (1) training activities (e.g., percent of payroll
spent on training, average training hours per employee, training dollars spent per employee,
percent of employees trained per year, training staff per 1,000 employees), (2) training
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Pretest–Posttest Control Group Design
Multiple Time-Series Design
Benchmarking Training Efforts
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One review on training concludes: “We must do a better job of linking training outcomes to
organizational and business outcomes, and do so while involving organizational decision
makers.” 139 Four guidelines are offered for training professionals on planning “collabora-
tive” interventions that are more likely to affect business objectives. Figure 8-13 presents
these guidelines.
results (e.g., average percent of positive trainee ratings per year, average percent of satis-
fied trainees, average percent gain in learning per course, average percent of improvement
in job performance, cost savings as a ratio of training expenses, revenues per employee per
year, profits per employee per year), and (3) training efficiency (e.g., training costs per stu-
dent hour, time on task). The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) provides conferences and sessions each year where HR and training professionals can learn
strategies from the ASTD BEST award winners. See www.astd.org for more information.
Guideline: Develop a theory of impact
Goal: Link evaluation and measurement to unique capabilities and/or strategic initiatives of the organization.
Strategies: • Identify business results that matter to the organization. • Link training outcomes to measures of organizational effectiveness. • Link measures of organizational effectiveness to job-level knowledge and skills.
Tools: • Scan internal and external environment to determine organization-level strategic initiatives.
• Develop logic models or causal models linking training to organizational impact. • Involve decision makers in long-term planning for training.
Guideline: Reframe the point of evaluation from proof to evidence
Goal: Establish reasonable expectations from decision makers about the type of evidence that will demonstrate training success.
Strategies: • Distinguish between proof and evidence in the minds of decision makers. • Identify required levels of evidence to show training success. • Frame expectations for evaluation outcomes in the minds of decision makers.
Tools: • Clarify the purpose for evaluation or intended use of information. • Clarify costs of evaluation as a function of evaluation rigor. • Involve decision makers in planning for training evaluation.
Guideline: Isolate the effects of training
Goal: Eliminate or reduce counterarguments to claims that training is effective. Strategies: • Demonstrate linkage between training and organizational effectiveness.
• Choose appropriate research designs. Tools: • Use control groups and pretests whenever possible.
• Use trend lines or staggered start dates for training when more sophisticated research designs are unavailable.
• Use the internal referencing strategy when other research designs are unavailable.
Guideline: Establish accountability for training
Goal: Improve the impact of training on individual and organizational effectiveness by involving all organizational members in the planning of training.
Strategies: • Increase motivation to train in trainees. • Increase support by peers and supervisors on the job. • Increase organizational support for training.
Tools: • Use evidence of past training success to enhance motivation of future trainees. • Clarify the relationship between training and organizational effectiveness and
train supervisors in posttraining support behaviors. • Involve decision makers in planning for training.
Source: K. Kraiger and W. J. Casper, “Collaborative Training for Training Impact,” Human Resource Management 43 (2004), p. 343. Reprinted with permission from John Wiley & Sons.
PLANNING FOR TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS IN ORGANIZATIONS
Figure 8-13 Collaborative Planning for Training
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Competition for talent is a worldwide phenomenon. Over the next decade, Baby Boomers
(those born between 1946 and 1964) will be retiring in larger numbers, and there are
not as many individuals in the following generation (X) to fill that void. There are only
43 million Gen Xers to fill the shoes of 76 million boomers. Thus a skills shortage will be
facing many employers, particularly in the financial and IT areas. Many CFOs and CIOs
note that finding talent is one of their biggest concerns. 140 Not only is the private sector in
U.S. firms facing a labor shortage, but the public sector is probably facing an even greater
workforce deficit. With nearly half of all supervisors and nearly 40 percent of current
federal employees expected to retire by 2016, federal agencies are racing against the clock
to find top talent. Chief Human Capital Officers (CHCOs) are charged with the job of
addressing generational transitions and leadership development issues. Agencies may also
receive help from the U.S. Congress. The Federal Supervisor Training Act was a bill in- troduced in 2007, which updates and improves mandatory supervisor training programs. 141
Some training has now been targeted toward Baby Boomers to retain them in the
workforce or to rehire them. Baby Boomers are the “institutional memory” of a firm.
Consequently, they should be valued and retained so that they maintain their loyalty to the
firm or they may take their market tips, trade secrets, and fellow employees to competi-
tors. To protect their investment, employers can use their experienced workers in a number
of ways: as subject matter experts for new hires; to write work manuals for older equip-
ment, processes, and business functions; to form innovative intergenerational teams; and to
launch phased retirement, age-related sabbaticals, and rehired-retiree programs. 142
In addition to focusing on training Baby Boomers, employers should also examine how
their training enhances the learning and performance of their other generations of work-
ers (Generation X and Y employees). Generation X and Y employees are currently in the
workforce and are already participating in many training programs in organizations. Some
firms have already discovered that they will need to provide a different type of training
for these newer employees. For example, after experiencing much higher than normal
turnover rates among Gen Y drivers, UPS had to change the way it viewed and delivered
training. Instead of lowering its standards and the expectations for drivers, it changed the
way it prepared them to hit the road. After 20 months of analysis and design, UPS opened
Integrad in 2007 in Landover, Maryland. The $5.5 million 11,500-square-foot learning
facility has revolutionalized how UPS trains its drivers. The Integrad learning lab offers
many different delivery methods including online learning, 3-D models, podcasts, vid-
eos, hands-on learning, and classroom methods. Aspiring UPS drivers must complete a
21-hour precourse before attending the 46-hour learning lab in Maryland. The program is
so successful in terms of quality, production, safety, and business development that UPS
has already had phone calls from other organizations that want to come and benchmark it. 143
In Europe, employers are also recognizing that they need to prepare the next generation
of workers for employment as well as try to keep some of the older workers from leaving.
Still, the latest research finds many organizations failing to prepare for the wave of depart-
ing workers and their less-experienced replacements. Lifelong learning initiatives such
as workplace training, technical skills transfer, and training outside the office were rated
as highest in Britain compared to France, Spain, Germany, and Italy. In India, “finishing
schools” are gaining in popularity as a way to help new college graduates learn workplace
fundamentals (e.g., arriving on time, dressing appropriately, learning listening skills). 144
Most firms provide some type of employee orientation where new employees are informed
about their roles and responsibilities (i.e., what is expected of them) in an effort to ease
their transition to the firm. The trend seems to be continuing as more firms have been plac-
ing their new employees in orientation programs to familiarize them with their supervisors
and co-workers, the company policies and procedures, the requirements of their jobs, and
the organizational culture. The intent is to increase an employee’s job satisfaction and to
reduce turnover. Unfortunately, most of these programs are not properly planned, imple-
mented, or evaluated. All too often new employees are given a brief introduction to the
SPECIAL TRAINING PROGRAMS Training for Generational Transitions
Employee Orientation Programs and Onboarding
Baby-boomer training
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company and are then left to learn the ropes by themselves. Often this leads to feelings
of confusion, frustration, stress, and uncertainty among new employees. In fact, job satis-
faction is often related to an employee’s orientation. If employee dissatisfaction leads to
turnover, this can be quite costly for the firm. For example, at Merck & Company, turnover
costs have been estimated to range from 1.5 to 2.5 times the annual salary paid for a job. 145
Generally, the objectives of an employee orientation program are threefold: (1) to assist
the new employee in adjusting to the organization and feeling comfortable and positive
about the new job; (2) to clarify the job requirements, demands, and performance expec-
tations; and (3) to get the employee to understand the organization’s culture and quickly
adopt the organization’s goals, values, and behaviors. A Realistic Orientation Program for
New Employee Stress (ROPES) has been suggested as the model. Employees would be
given realistic information about the job and the organization, general support and reassur-
ance from managers, and help in identifying and coping with the stresses of the job. This
should reduce turnover of new employees, resulting in savings for the company. 146
Most orientation programs consist of three stages: (1) a general introduction to the or-
ganization, often given by the HR department; (2) a specific orientation to the department
and the job typically given by the employee’s immediate supervisor; and (3) a follow-up
meeting to verify that the important issues have been addressed and employee questions
have been answered. This follow-up meeting usually takes place between a new employee
and his or her supervisor a week or so after the employee has begun working. A follow-up
meeting is very important because often new employees may feel uncomfortable seeking
out a supervisor regarding any questions they face. A supervisor or a human resources rep-
resentative should meet with the employee to be sure that he or she is effectively “learning
the ropes” of the organization. The orientation program used by the Disney Corporation for
employees of Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida, follows this multiple-stage format
in most respects. Individuals begin their employment by attending a one-day program,
“Disney Traditions II,” which describes the history of the organization and the values of
the culture. On this first day, employees are also taken on a tour of the facilities. On the
second day, they are provided with descriptions of the policies and procedures. The third
day, OJT begins with an assigned buddy who is an experienced co-worker. Buddies spend
anywhere from 2 days to 2 weeks showing new employees their job duties and providing
feedback as they attempt to perform the tasks. As a result of participating in the orientation
program, employees express less confusion with their new jobs. 147
The training department should be actively involved in planning, conducting, and eval-
uating orientation programs. It also should enlist the support of other employees to serve
as mentors to new employees. Also, supervisors should be called on to help orient new
employees to the workforce and should receive training on how to do this. In the follow-up
meeting, supervisors should be required to complete a checklist, indicating that they have
discussed with new employees the major issues of concern. Employees should sign the
checklist to confirm that they have received the orientation information. Evaluation of the
orientation program is the responsibility of the human resource department. 148 American
Express recently launched a number of initiatives to address attrition and to increase em-
ployees’ engagement in the firm. “Connections” is a program that educates new employees
about the firm’s values, vision, and customers. 149
Well-developed orientation programs are effective in preparing a new employee for a
firm, yet these are more the exception than the norm. With today’s “war for talent” faced
by employers, it is critical for firms not only to hire new employees, but to retain them.
Onboarding might be one answer to this concern. Onboarding is a systematic process to es- tablish a positive trajectory early in a person’s career. 150 It includes cultivating key relation-
ships and access to information, phased implementation, and defining multiple roles. Often
it is used for new managers. Onboarding provides information and tools to new managers
when they are ready to use them and is best implemented throughout a period of weeks or
months. Four phases are often commonly used (prearrival, orientation, assimilation, integra-
tion). For the prearrival of the new manager, it is important to make sure that direct reports and key constituents know about his/her start date and relevant background information.
During the orientation/introduction phase, provide the essential tools so the new manager can be effective (e.g., computer passwords, office equipment, knowledge of office layout,
Three objectives for orientation
Three stages
Well-developed orientation programs are rare
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administration codes, access to company e-mail and intranet). For the assimilation phase, deliver essential background information about the company strategy, expected contribu-
tion, short-term goals, and key working relationships. In the integration/contribution phase, define long-term results and make sure that early contributions by the person are visible. 151
More and more firms are recognizing that onboarding can be an important part of the
talent management process by ensuring that the early entry period is successful for new
managers. At Avon, the goal of onboarding is to help newcomers become educated about
the cultural norms and part of the family at Avon. With over 320,000 employees world-
wide, Citigroup recognizes the importance of newcomers feeling a sense of belonging
to the firm. Introducing its 37 networks (e.g., Hispanic, Pride, Working Parents affinity
groups) to new employees on the first day enables them to start to feel connected to the
firm. At Pepsi Bottling Group, onboarding is taken very seriously by investing a lot to give
new managers what they need to do the job effectively. InterContinental Hotels Group
has a “Room to be Yourself” onboarding program. It makes four promises to employees:
room to have a great start, room to be involved, room to grow, and room for you. United
Overseas Bank Limited rolled out a new onboarding program in 2009 so that all new
hires would have an engaging experience when joining the firm. Ryan, Inc. developed
the “onboarding learning plan,” which contains more than 20 company-specific recorded
training programs that new employees can access right away. 152
The differences between orientation programs and onboarding are primarily in terms of
timing, focus, delivery, and responsibility. While orientation is often a single event (day)
and focuses on HR policies and procedures, onboarding is usually a phased approach and
has a broader focus on success factors and company culture. Orientation is often classroom-
led while onboarding uses multiple approaches such as web-based and classroom methods
and CD-ROMs. Perhaps most important, orientation is often seen as the responsibility of
only the HR department, while the responsibility for onboarding is shared among HR, the
new boss, a peer coach, and the process owner. 153
Training techniques can be chosen for individual-level training or for training that is con-
ducted for work teams. With the increasing popularity of teams in organizations, 154 it is
common for employers to send their teams to training sessions. For example, Hewlett-
Packard started its team members on a 2-week training and orientation program to familiar-
ize everyone with the existing processes and the needs of the business. 155 Likewise, Allied
Signal sent its maintenance teams from the Garrett Engine Division to a 2-day course in
team building. Cummins Engine Company places improvement teams through a 5-day
training program that is based on an action learning model (classroom and OJT training). 156
GE sends entire teams to participate in business games, all of which deal with real GE
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis.
Team training often focuses on teaching members how to work more effectively or efficiently in teams. Some topics include team building, problem solving, running effec-
tive meetings, managing stress, managing productivity, appraising team members’ per-
formance, and managing conflict. Trust building is also an important component of the training. 157 Employers offer training in problem solving, meeting skills, communication
skills, handling conflict, roles and responsibilities, quality tools and concepts, and evalu-
ating team performance. 158 In general, trainers use a variety of training techniques when
conducting team training such as information-based, demonstration-based (videos), and
practice-based (role-plays) methods. 159 In some cases, “ropes” or challenge courses are
used to build stronger, more cohesive teams. 160 At Patapsco Valley Veterinary Hospital,
employees participate in team-building training sessions, including outdoor challenge ac-
tivities, to further enhance communication, trust, and collaboration among the team of
veterinarians, vet technicians, and receptionists. It also cross-trains its team of technicians
and receptionists to provide greater flexibility in staffing for the firm.
Often teams are formed with individuals from various functional areas (e.g., marketing,
finance, sales, production). These cross-functional teams may require training in other disciplines to help them understand what is involved in other functional areas (called multi-
skilling or cross-training). This has been used in the military, 161 in high-technology firms, 162
Training for Teams
Differences between orientation and onboarding
Building trust is important
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and in assembly plants. 163 Generally, job rotation may be used or individuals may receive
training from their peers on other disciplines. For example, peer trainers have been used
at T. J. Maxx, a national retail chain, and at Xerox. 164 In fact, sometimes unstructured or
informal learning from peers is more effective than structured classroom training. 165 Peers
are helpful in socializing new employees, reducing stress, and helping newcomers estab-
lish satisfying social relationships. 166 The benefits of cross-training are that it may provide
employees with more skill variety or interesting tasks, allow for more flexibility in getting
the work done when teammates are absent, and help workers to better understand the entire
work process. 167 It may be important to clarify expectations of cross-training during an
employee’s orientation to the firm in order to set a realistic preview of the job.
Managing diversity effectively is one of the greatest challenges for organizations over the
next century. 168 Many firms throughout the world face discrimination claims from immi-
grants, women, older workers, gays, lesbians, various racial and ethnic groups, those with
physical disabilities, and those of varying religious affiliations. In addition, different val-
ues, attitudes, and behaviors of generations (e.g., Baby Boomers, Generation Y) or types
of workers (blue collar vs. white collar) have implications for the management and training
necessary to use with these groups. 169 Some employers have been proactive about hiring
more diverse employees to mirror the population or have trained their employees to better
reach a diverse client base. BB&T has expanded its services to Spanish-speaking commu-
nities by training employees to interact with Spanish-speaking clients (using DVDs, CDs,
workbooks). Upon completion of the self-study guide, employees call into a telephone
testing service to measure their proficiency. 170
Other firms, however, have minimized diversity issues and subsequently have faced
discrimination suits (e.g., State Farm Insurance with gender bias; Denny’s Restaurant with
racial bias). 171 Research on diversity issues has increased. 172 In addition, training for in-
creasing awareness of the diverse workforce has become more prevalent in organizations,
and a variety of different programs exist. 173
Diversity awareness programs have been developed for a variety of reasons, including
improving the productivity and competitiveness of the firm, changing attitudes and ste-
reotypes, reducing conflict, improving communication and work relationships, enhancing
creativity, and improving the progress and satisfaction of women, minorities, and others into
upper management positions. 174 When Texaco settled a race discrimination lawsuit, it agreed
to put its 29,000 employees through a 2-day workshop on race, gender, and culture. Texaco
has tripled the number of workshops it offers each month and hired an additional 27 consul-
tants. The workshops focus on four broad areas: creating a diverse workforce, managing a
diverse workforce, creating an environment that values a diverse workforce, and leveraging
diversity into a competitive business advantage. 175 Deloitte and Touche USA employs more
than 40,000 people in 90 American cities. One of its most innovative learning initiatives is
the Cultural Navigator, a package of tools and resources that presents a wide range of easy-
to-use learning, consulting, and assessment solutions. It enables individuals to compare their
personal profiles with those of other cultures and identify areas of commonality and differ-
ences. A cultural simulator tests and reinforces awareness and learning by creating online
simulations around a variety of management topics pertaining to a specific country or re-
gion. 176 AT&T boasts one of the nation’s most progressive diversity programs. 177 Chase of-
fers a comprehensive diversity program for all its employees, including awareness training
and skill building. Similarly, ExxonMobil has a training program called Internal Resource
Education that is an intense team-based course conducted in three 1-week segments. 178
American Express created a program called Diversity Learning Labs for training. 179
To assist in the placement and advancement of employees with disabilities, the EEOC
has written material and a video on hiring and developing individuals with disabilities.
In recent years, researchers have offered suggestions for assisting employees with
disabilities to become more effectively socialized in organizations. 180 Sears became a
model by benchmarking the practices of other firms and then adopting them to its own
workplace. 181 Some firms (e.g., Xerox, American Express, Disney) have offered diversity
training programs to reduce discrimination due to disability.
Diversity Awareness Training
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Despite all the new training initiatives for diversity awareness, some recent studies
have found a number of flaws with the programs, including not addressing development or
advancement issues, not providing tools to reinforce the training, no metrics for evaluating
effectiveness of training, clear objectives not established, material too U.S. focused, con-
cerns of line managers not dealt with, trite content, little thought leadership shown, poor
facilitation skills, and employers’ policies and practices not addressed. 182 Diversity training
programs will only be successful if they have top management support and participation.
They also need the input of middle management and line managers to know the kinds of
issues faced by employees on a daily basis. 183
American Express formed a high-level diversity council to guide and drive the com-
pany’s diversity efforts. Likewise, at Hewlett-Packard, the diversity initiatives are driven
by the Diversity Leadership Council, which is comprised of senior executives. Along with
top managers, immediate supervisors and peers must support and reinforce diversity pro-
grams. In addition, trainees should be rewarded for positive changes in their behaviors. 184
Other factors determining whether or not a company adopts a diversity training program
include whether the firm is large, has a high strategic priority of diversity relative to other
competing objectives, has the presence of a diversity manager, and has in place a large
number of other diversity-supportive policies. 185 Other research has shown the perceived
success of diversity training programs to be related to mandatory attendance for all manag-
ers, long-term evaluation of training results, managerial rewards for increasing diversity,
and a broad definition of diversity in the organization. 186 Apple South’s president, S. Kirk
Kinsell, states that diversity management can be successful only when it is “integrated
fully—that is, made a part of all customer, vendor and employee programs.” 187 In addition,
as firms continue to become more global, it is important for their training programs to
address diversity issues around the world (not just in the United States).
Most large firms now offer training on sexual harassment issues. In California, training on
sexual harassment is mandatory for all supervisors. All different types of organizations have
been accused of sexual harassment, from manufacturing (e.g., Mitsubishi Motor Manufac-
turing of America) to pharmaceuticals (e.g., Astra Pharmaceuticals) to the military (Navy
Tailhook incident), where suits were filed, and managers were subsequently fired or reas-
signed. 188 Training on sexual harassment issues has increased dramatically. The Federal
Aviation Administration introduced a training program to respond to women’s complaints
of harassment. 189 Training has increased in organizations in part due to two 1998 Supreme
Court cases. As discussed in Chapter 3, these cases left employers even more vulnerable
to sexual harassment lawsuits, and the Court clarified what employers could do to protect
themselves against liability. In Faragher v. City of Boca Raton (1998), the Court sent a message to employers that they must be proactive about sexual harassment by developing
a policy and by training employees on it. The City of Boca Raton had a policy on sexual
harassment but did little to communicate it to employees. In Burlington Industries Inc. v. Ellerth (1998), the Supreme Court emphasized that employees with sexual harassment claims should communicate them through existing channels in the company before filing
suit. Kimberly Ellerth had not done this. This case pointed out the importance of training
employees on the sexual harassment policies and procedures that should be followed when
making claims. Most larger firms (over 100 employees) have policies on sexual harass-
ment, but they often do not clearly communicate to or train their employees regarding these
policies. Companies such as Texas Instruments and Motorola, however, have provided
sexual harassment training classes for a number of years. 190 Some firms have hired outside
consultants to conduct the training, while others rely on their own training staffs to develop
and deliver the courses.
Training on sexual harassment should include a description of the firm’s policy, including 191
■ A statement indicating the firm’s strong opposition to sexual harassment.
■ Definitions of sexual harassment, using examples relevant to employees’ jobs. Enough
detail should be given so employees understand what “quid-pro-quo” harassment is as
well as what constitutes a “hostile environment.”
Sexual Harassment Training
Flaws with diversity programs
Programs must be fully integrated
Description of policy critical
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■ The procedure for reporting harassment (e.g., reporting to the HR director, installing an
anonymous hot line).
■ The procedure that will be used to investigate claims and that protects whistleblowers.
■ Descriptions of punishments for offenders, regardless of their level in the organization.
Many organizations now use e-learning for their sexual harassment training.
According to the 2011 SHRM Workplace Forecast, one of the most important underlying
forces shaping workplace trends is globalization. As far as HR is concerned, this impacts
the growing importance of managing talent globally, increased multiculturalism within
organizations, increased use of virtual global teams, and a greater need for cross-cultural
understanding in business settings. With increasing globalization of business, cross-cul-
tural training should not be considered a one-shot program but rather a lifelong endeavor
to learn about other cultures. Companies will have to invest more heavily in such training
programs. 192 Tata Consultancy Services Limited, an information technology firm with over
93,000 employees based in India, invests heavily in cross-cultural and cultural diversity
training to help employees work in new areas. It constantly rotates people across roles and
geographies since it believes that the continuing globalization of learning is one of the big-
gest challenges for workplace learning. 193
As one expert stated, “The key to successfully competing in the global marketplace
may be staffing key expatriate positions with accomplished/skilled leaders.” 194 Thus firms
have realized that to be successful in their overseas projects, they need to better prepare
individuals to work in international assignments. Studies document the high rate of U.S.
expatriate failures ranging from 25 percent to 50 percent. 195 These early returns can be
costly for firms with respect to goodwill, reputation, and finances. In many cases, the dif-
ficulties encountered by expatriates have been blamed on inadequate training programs.
For example, Honeywell surveyed 347 managers who lived abroad or traveled regularly
and found that increased training was cited as critical for executives and employees as-
signed overseas. Cross-cultural training has been found to reduce the severity of culture shock and reduce the time necessary for managers to adjust to the culture, reach a level of
cultural proficiency, and become effective and productive in their assignments. 196 Training
and orientation for international assignments are more common today. It is estimated that
50 percent of companies that send employees overseas are conducting pretraining and ori-
entation. 197 Other countries such as Japan are more committed to the importance of training
for international assignments. This may explain the low (less than 10 percent) failure rate
cited for most of Japan’s multinational corporations. In Japanese firms, overseas training
is typically conducted over a 1-year period where international assignees are taught about
the culture, customs, and business techniques of the host country. 198
A growing number of U.S. firms have shown a strong commitment to international
training and orientation 199 although increasingly more companies are outsourcing expatri-
ate training. 200 Federal Express sends future expatriates and their families on “familiariza-
tion” trips, which also serve as “realistic job previews.” Over 70 percent of companies now
pay for similar trips. Gillette is a leader in this area with international assignments as a part
of its junior trainee program. The objective of the program is to build careers with a global
perspective. 201 American Express provides U.S. business school students summer jobs in
a foreign location. Colgate-Palmolive trains recent graduates for multiple overseas assign-
ments. Many large international companies have also established health care policies for
traveling executives. One new topic for discussion in recent training programs has been
safety issues due to increased violence experienced by businesspeople working in foreign
countries. 202
To design effective training programs to better prepare U.S. managers and employees for
assignments overseas, it is important to understand the kinds of skills they will need for
international assignments. As we discussed in Chapter 6, in addition to good technical
skills, individuals who will be working overseas need to be adaptable and have skills in
Cross-Cultural Training and Training for International Assignments
Skills Needed by International Assignees
Reduces severity of culture shock
Outsourcing expatriate training
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languages and an understanding of social customs, cultural values, codes of conduct, and
motivation and reward systems in the host country. 203 For Middle Eastern assignments, for
example, Bechtel places great emphasis on the importance of religion in the culture. Also,
expatriates need assistance in the practical aspects of foreign assignments (e.g., housing,
schools, currency, and health issues). Visits to the country can aid in reassuring employees
and their families about their home, hospitals, dentists, and schools. Training programs
should include expatriates and their families, particularly in cultures where women are
excluded culturally from doing a variety of things during the day. For instance, in Saudi
Arabia, women have many restrictions about dress and proper behaviors.
Cross-cultural training programs aim to heighten awareness and understanding along
several dimensions, including 204
1. Communication —Expatriates will need to understand and communicate directly and through nonverbal means in order to listen to the concerns and motives of
others.
2. Decision making —They will have to develop conclusions and take actions on the basis of inadequate, unreliable, and conflicting information, and to trust their feel-
ings, impressions, and facts.
3. Commitment —They will need to become involved in relationships and inspire confidence in others.
4. Ideals —They will have to value the causes and objectives of others from a radi- cally different social environment.
5. Problem solving —They will have to make decisions needed to achieve common goals.
Understanding cultural influences at the individual level is the key to understanding cul-
tural influences in the workplace. Cultural self-knowledge is critical for this understand- ing. 205 A three-level construct called “cultural intelligence” has been proposed where a
person’s self-efficacy through social interaction in cross-cultural settings plays a key role in
the subsequent effectiveness of such interactions. High self-efficacy results in the initiation
of cross-cultural interactions that persist in the face of early failures. In addition, individu-
als with high self-efficacy engage in problem solving in order to master required skills. 206
There are several examples of cross-cultural training programs used by organizations.
For instance, ARAMCO, a Saudi Arabian corporation, uses an extensive orientation pro-
gram for employees and their families. The program includes practical housekeeping in-
formation such as local transportation, shopping, day-to-day finances, and comparisons of
the beliefs and customs of the Saudi and American people. The International Development
Agency’s predeparture program for overseas volunteers has several objectives, including
the following: communicate respect, be nonjudgmental, display empathy, practice role
flexibility, and tolerate ambiguity. Research on cross-cultural training indicates expatriates
perform better and are more satisfied with their assignments after such training. 207
To teach and acquire the skills necessary to be successful in an international assignment,
a variety of training techniques can be used. Procter and Gamble uses several methods
to refine language skills and to improve intercultural awareness among international as-
signees. 208 Its “P&G College” for new and midlevel managers emphasizes globalization
issues. In any program developed, it is recommended that the international assignee and
his or her family be actively involved in the training to ease the transition and build a sup-
portive environment. It is further suggested that the training should be led by people who
have served in the specific country and that the training should begin a year before the
employee’s move to that country. This is often not done, however, as many companies try
to squeeze the training into the last 6 weeks. 209 To teach employees about area studies or the
host country’s environment (e.g., geography, climate, political system, customs, religion,
labor force, economy, etc.) and the company’s international operations, informational approaches such as lectures, reading material, videotapes, and movies can be effectively
used. One technique, the cultural assimilator , was designed as a programmed learning
Training Techniques
Five training dimensions
“Cultural intelligence”
Role of self-efficacy
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technique to test trainees’ knowledge of cultural differences and their understanding of
these issues for effective functioning in a foreign culture. 210 To teach trainees about the host
country’s norms, values, and interpersonal styles so that they will be able to effectively
understand and negotiate with host individuals, experiential approaches may be benefi- cial. These might include role-playing and simulations (simulations specific to the culture).
Using both a cognitive approach to training (e.g., cultural assimilator) and an experiential
approach (e.g., behavior modeling) together has been tried for cross-cultural training. With
U.S. government managers, it was discovered that using both techniques together resulted
in higher performance than using either technique alone. 211
Field experiences are recommended to provide a more in-depth view of the host coun- try’s customs, values, and behaviors. These experiences can take a variety of forms, includ-
ing (1) short family trips to the host country, (2) informal meetings with other American
families who have lived in the host country, (3) minicultures (i.e., the family visits a
multicultural environment in the United States such as an ethnic neighborhood), and (4) host-
family surrogates (i.e., a U.S. family from a background similar to the host country has the
expatriate family stay with them for a period so they can observe the customs). The value
of such experiences is to provide a realistic preview of what is to be expected in the over-
seas position. 212 Finally, language skill classes and cassettes are recommended for develop- ing the verbal skills crucial to the interpersonal communication and day-to-day dealings
of the family in the host country. In a 12-country study of 3,000 executives, respondents
from many countries viewed foreign language skills as critical to a firm’s competitive
advantage. 213 This should include not only verbal communication skills, but also nonverbal
messages and meanings.
In addition to providing training for expatriates, U.S. firms are increasingly providing
training for foreign nationals who are coming to the United States to work. For example,
SC Johnson Wax has been bringing employees into the United States for the past 10 years.
Eli Lilly and Company brings in about 20 people a year, typically in the fields of science,
finance, and marketing. The training needs are very similar to those of expatriates. To help
them adjust, the following tips are offered. 214
1. Make sure the spouse and children are content with the new location.
2. Make the necessary arrangements to process Social Security numbers in order to
help them get a driver’s license, a bank account, and credit cards.
3. Provide training with U.S. managers on dealing with people from the other
culture.
4. Help them establish credit in the new country.
5. Use relocation counselors to help them with real estate, schools, stores, commu-
nity activities, and whatever else may be needed to help them get settled.
6. Provide assistance to accompanying spouses (e.g., jobs, educational reimburse-
ments, career guidance, etc.).
7. Provide cross-cultural training to inpatriates and U.S. employees.
8. Offer competitive compensation.
9. Provide language training for employees and their spouses and children.
Training for Inpatriates
SUMMARY Over the years, training has become increasingly popular as a tool for increasing employee
and managerial performance in organizations. Most organizations and governmental agen-
cies provide some formal training and spend millions of dollars doing so. Successful train-
ing depends on a systematic approach involving a careful needs assessment, solid program
design, and thorough evaluation of results. Training programs should not be designed as
quick fixes for every organizational problem, nor should they rely on faddish techniques.
Instead, training should be designed to meet the particular needs of the organization and
Use experiential approaches
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its employees. It should be viewed as a continual learning endeavor by employees and managers to stay current and to anticipate future needs. As greater demands are placed on
organizations to remain competitive, firms must ensure that their workforces are motivated
and able to take on these challenges. An emphasis on continual training and development
is one way this can be done. Employees who receive training not only will be more valu-
able to their firms, but also will earn 30 percent more than those who don’t receive such
training. 215 Some employers have established their own corporate universities to conduct
their own employee continual learning and education. These firms’ educational endeavors
(e.g., Motorola University, Disney University, Intel University, BB&T University, Sprint’s
University of Excellence, Job Boss University, Sun Microsystems University) are based on
the “Corporate Quality University” model for conveying the corporate value of perpetual
learning. 216 This model is a guiding philosophy that argues for involving all employees as
well as primary customers and suppliers in continual learning to improve overall produc-
tivity. Other goals associated with this philosophy are to link training to the strategic direc-
tions of the company, to provide an infrastructure for the organization’s training initiatives
that minimizes duplication, and to form collaborative alliances with employees, suppliers,
customers, and academic institutions. 217 The virtual university created by Air Products
and Chemicals is another such example that is now available in 40 countries and connects
18,000 people. 218 Figure 8-14 illustrates how some of the training initiatives we have dis-
cussed in this chapter can be aligned with the organization’s strategy.
Most successful training programs are those that have strong support from top manage-
ment. Top-level executives (C-level) have been increasingly showing their support for
training in several ways (i.e., making public statements in support of learning, participating
Continual learning
Figure 8-14 Strategic Training and Development Initiatives and Their Implications
Strategic Training and Development Initiatives Implications
Diversify the Learning Portfolio Use new technology such as the Internet for training Facilitate informal learning Provide more personalized learning opportunities
Expand Who Is Trained Train customers, suppliers, and employees Offer more learning opportunities to nonmanagerial employees
Accelerate the Pace of Employee Learning Quickly identify needs and provide a high-quality learning solution Reduce the time to develop training programs Facilitate access to learning resources on an as-needed basis
Improve Customer Service Ensure that employees have product and service knowledge Ensure that employees have skills needed to interact with customers Ensure that employees understand their roles and decision-making authority
Provide Development Opportunities and Communicate to Employees
Ensure that employees have opportunities to develop Ensure that employees understand career opportunities and personal growth opportunities Ensure that training and development addresses employees’ needs in current job as well as growth opportunities
Capture and Share Knowledge Capture insight and information from knowledgeable employees Logically organize and store information Provide methods to make information available (e.g., resource guides, Web sites)
Align Training and Development with the Company’s Strategic Direction
Identify needed knowledge, skills, abilities, or competencies Ensure that current training and development programs support the company’s strategic needs
Ensure that the Work Environment Supports Learning and Transfer of Training
Remove constraints to learning, such as lack of time, resources, and equipment Dedicate physical space to encourage teamwork, collaboration, creativity, and knowledge sharing Ensure that employees understand the importance of learning Ensure that managers and peers are supportive of training, development, and learning
Source: Based on S. Tannenbaum, “A Strategic View of Organizational Training and Learning,” in Creating, Implementing and Managing Effective Training and Development , ed. K. Kraiger (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002), pp. 10–52.
Corporate universities
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as a speaker or instructor in sessions, including the learning objectives as part of individu-
als’ performance goals). For example, Bob Stevens, CEO and Chris Kubasik, President and
COO of Lockheed Martin, kick off many training programs for their managers by speaking
at their programs. Also, successful firms elevate the importance of the training function by
having it run by a senior-level officer of the firm. For example, 95 percent of the ASTD
BEST firms reported having a C-level officer responsible for learning. This was signifi-
cantly different from 3 years prior when 70 percent of BEST firms had a C-level person
responsible for learning. 219
Many of the most successful U.S. companies have also integrated their training pro-
grams with their employee career development programs. In the past, training programs
have emphasized employer needs for training in the context of the firm’s strategic plan. Ca-
reer development programs tend to emphasize the employee’s perspective. Ideally, train-
ing and career planning should be well integrated with a focus on the strategic plan of the
organization and customer requirements. Chapter 9 elaborates on these issues.
Discussion Questions 1. Why should a training (or HRD) department develop a mission and goals? Why
should these goals be tied to the organization’s strategic objectives? How would
you ensure that this occurs?
2. Why is e-learning so popular today? What is the future of social media techniques
for training? How can we ensure that everyone in the firm is comfortable using
these types of techniques?
3. How would you set up a study to evaluate the effects of an online training
program versus a lecture-based approach?
4. Why is it important to understand a systems model of training (needs assessment,
development, evaluation)? Which aspects are employers most likely to skip when
developing training programs? Why is this a problem?
5. Suppose you are instructed to determine whether a training curriculum is needed
to address literacy issues in the workplace. How would you conduct the needs
assessment? Be specific about the techniques you would use to conduct an
organizational, task, and person analysis.
6. You have been contracted to deliver a training program for employees on
generational differences in the workplace. You ask the CEO for the results of the
needs assessment indicating that this training is needed. You are informed that no
needs assessment was performed. How would you respond to this? If you decide
to convince the CEO that a needs assessment must be performed, what would you
say? If you decide to design the training program, how would you proceed?
7. Results from a preliminary company needs assessment indicate that managers
have a negative opinion of the training offered by the firm, think the training is a
waste of time, and are resistant to attending future training by the training staff.
What additional information would you want to collect from the managers before
sending them to a training program? What methods would you use to collect the
information? What recommendations would you offer to the firm to ensure that
managers still receive future training?
8. Some people say that employees already understand racial and sexual harassment
and that we no longer need training for managers. What do you think? Why is
this training needed or not needed? Defend your view. If you were to design a
program, what would be the major features of a training program designed to
make employees and managers aware of racial and sexual harassment issues in
the workplace? Whom would you select to attend such a training program and
how would you evaluate the effects of the training? Would such training be
effective? Explain your answer.
Integrate training with career development programs
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9. Suppose you were going to design a training program for newly hired sales
associates for a retail chain. Results from the needs assessment indicate that
they would need training on company policies and procedures, selling clothing
to customers, and handling customer complaints and returns. What learning
principles would you build into the program? What training methods would you
choose for your training program? Explain your choices.
10. A group of 60 consultants in a large firm has just completed SAP and PeopleSoft
training. You have been called in to evaluate the training. What might you do
to evaluate the effectiveness of the training at this point (you were not able to
collect any pre-measures with this group)? You did hear that another group of
60 consultants will be attending the same training in 2 months.
11. Describe a number of ideas for building the motivation of trainees before and during a program. What suggestions would you offer for ensuring that trainees are motivated to transfer their skills after they leave the training and are back at their jobs?
12. Why is it important that trainees receive support from others for attending training
and applying their training skills? Do you think they often receive the necessary
support? Why or why not?
13. Distance learning is becoming the fastest-growing technique for training
employees and students. Describe the benefits and drawbacks for distance learning
for employees in the workforce. What would be the advantages and disadvantages
of a distance education graduate degree program in human resource management
or an MBA?
14. What ideas do you have for training employees who are going on an international
assignment? What about for those employees coming back to an organization
after an international assignment? What issues would you discuss and what
techniques would you recommend for both programs?
15. Why is it important to assess the costs and benefits of training?
16. Why is it important to collect multiple criteria to assess the effectiveness of a
training program? What if a company insisted that only reactions needed to be
collected? How might you convince them of the importance of also collecting
learning, behavioral, and results measures?
17. What do you see as the future trends for the field of training?
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OVERVIEW The workplace has changed. The traditional psychological contract in which an employee
entered a firm, worked hard, performed well, was loyal and committed, and thus received
ever-greater rewards and job security has been replaced by a new contract based on con-
tinual learning and identity change. As Warshaw mentions in a recent article on the new
career, people will need to change their professional identify frequently. In fact, it is esti-
mated that Generation Y employees will have 15 to 25 jobs over their lifetime. In short,
the organizational career is dead, while the protean career or boundaryless career is alive
and flourishing. 1
Not that long ago, individuals believed that there was only one occupation for which each person was best suited, that the best career decision would be made when a person
was young, and that once a field was chosen, the choice was irreversible. They also be- lieved that interests were more important in determining career choices than were skills
O B J E C T I V E S
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Describe the new changes taking place in the workplace and what
implications these have for individuals and organizations.
2. Define organizational career development and the reasons for understanding
career development.
3. Understand the importance of integrating career development programs with
other organizational systems (e.g., training, selection, recruitment).
4. Identify the steps in designing career development systems.
5. Describe the components of career development systems.
6. Understand how to design career programs for various target groups of
employees such as fast-track employees, entrenched employees, supervisors,
executives, women, minorities, employed spouses and parents, repatriates,
and others.
Career Development
Chapter
9
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and aptitudes, and that individuals who were successful in a career only moved upward . 2 Today, fewer people subscribe to these assumptions about careers. The career as we once
knew it—as a series of upward moves, with steadily increasing income, power, status,
and security—has died. Nevertheless, people will always have work lives that unfold over
time, offering challenge, growth, and learning. So if we think of the career as a series of
lifelong work-related experiences and personal learnings, it will never die. Warshaw says,
“you can’t become bulletproof, but you can reinvent yourself, no matter what your age or
skill set.” 3 The career of the future is measured by continual learning and identity changes
rather than by chronological age and life stages. Jack Welch, former CEO of General Elec-
tric, said there is a 1-day contract between employer and employee, in which all that counts
is the current value that each party contributes to the relationship. Of course, Jack Welch
also strongly believed in providing opportunities at GE for developing and challenging
employees. 4 Today, the nature of American jobs has changed from the typical full-time job
with benefits to part-time employment with project-based work. As Robert Reich, former
secretary of labor under President Clinton mentioned, “It’s a spot auction market; what
you’re paid is what you’re worth at the time.” 5
To cope in today’s turbulent times, it has become increasingly important for both or-
ganizations and employees to better address career needs. This chapter describes some
current career-related issues of relevance to practicing managers. We begin by describing
what individuals and organizations can do to address some of the changing career forces.
We then define some of the key career concepts and models, and describe some of the is-
sues involved in designing career development systems in organizations. We describe the
various components of career systems and how career systems can be coordinated with
other programs in organizations. Finally, we review career issues for a number of targeted
groups of employees.
DEFINITIONS While most people think that the term career means “advancement” in an organization, a broader view of career defines it as an “individually perceived sequence of attitudes and
behaviors associated with work-related activities and experiences over the span of a per-
son’s life.” 6 In other words, the term career has an internal focus and refers to the way an individual views his or her career and has an external or objective focus and refers to the actual series of job positions held by the individual. 7 Understanding career development in
an organization requires an examination of two processes: how individuals plan and imple-
ment their own career goals (career planning) and how organizations design and implement
their career development programs (career management). These processes are illustrated in
Figure 9-1 . As noted, career planning is a deliberate attempt by an individual to become more aware of his or her own skills, interests, values, opportunities, constraints, choices,
and consequences. It involves identifying career-related goals and establishing plans for
achieving those goals. 8
Career management is the organizational process of preparing, implementing, and monitoring career plans undertaken by individuals alone or within the organization’s ca-
reer systems. 9
A career development system is a formal, organized, planned effort to achieve a bal- ance between individual career needs and organizational workforce requirements. 10 For
example, the organization has certain needs for staffing, and employees have needs to ef-
fectively utilize their personal skills. A development system is a mechanism for meeting
the present and future human resource needs of the organization. Aligning an employee’s
career development plan with the organization’s strategic goals will help the firm achieve
its goals. A career planning system coordinated with an organization’s staffing system will
foster a well-integrated system and will have an impact on the firm by improving morale,
career satisfaction, motivation, productivity, and responsiveness in meeting the company’s
objectives. 11
Career means more than just advancement
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Career development practices have been shown to enhance the career satisfaction of employees and to improve organizational effectiveness. 12 It may be difficult, how-
ever, to completely integrate individual and organizational career efforts because the
rate at which an individual grows and develops may not parallel an organization’s
needs. For example, many of the employees in the workforce are interested in advanc-
ing in their present positions, yet are finding those positions to be scarce given the
thinning out of management jobs in organizations due to downsizings. For example,
the youngest Baby Boomers (those born from 1957 to 1964) held an average of 11 jobs
from age 18 to age 44. 13 With all the recent changes in organizations (downsizings,
mergers), it has become even more important to try to integrate the needs of employers
with those of employees.
This chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding career development in
organizations by examining the interaction of individual and organizational career pro-
cesses. Of particular value is an understanding of the role that HR managers must
play to design career development systems. Just observing the focus of the Society of
Human Resource Management over time illustrates the growing importance that career
development has had. One model focuses on a dynamic interaction of the individual
and the organization over time through a “matching” process. If the matching process works well, the organization and the individual will benefit. The organization may
experience increased productivity, higher organizational commitment, and long-range
effectiveness, and the employee may have greater satisfaction, security, and personal
development. 14
Figure 9-1 A Model of Organizational Career Development
Individual Institutional
Subprocesses
--Recruitment and selection --Human resource allocation --Appraisal and evaluation --Training and development
Subprocesses
--Occupational choice --Organizational choice --Choice of job assignment --Career self-development
Organizational career
development
Career planning
Career management
Career: The sequence of a person’s work-related activities and behaviors and associated attitudes, values, and aspirations over the span of one’s life. Organizational career development: The outcomes emanating from the interaction of individual career planning and institutional career management processes. Career planning: A deliberate process for (1) becoming aware of self, opportunities, constraints, choices, and consequences; (2) identifying career-related goals; and (3) programming of work, education, and related developmental experiences to provide the direction, timing, and sequence of steps to attain a specific career goal. Career management: An ongoing process of preparing, implementing, and monitoring career plans undertaken by the individual alone or in concert with the organization’s career system.
Source: T. G. Gutteridge, “Organizational Career Development Systems: The State of the Practice,” in Career Development in Organizations, D. T. Hall and associates. Copyright © John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1986. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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The “matching” process
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Given the changing views of careers in organizations, what should individuals do to be
prepared for future jobs, and why is this important? A recent issue of Fortune magazine highlighted individuals who had made a “career makeover.” It discovered that the factors
that enabled people to reinvent themselves were: (1) learning social media and being able
to navigate technology; (2) embracing starting over from scratch; (3) learning by doing
(i.e., recognizing that it doesn’t have to be done perfectly the first time; (4) sharing what you
learn with others; (5) getting fit financially; and (6) prioritizing your passions. Assuming
that salary is a good measure of career advancement, another review provides some helpful
guidelines for predicting future success. 15 In terms of what an individual can control, the
most important predictors of future salary are (in order of importance): (1) education level;
(2) political knowledge and skills; (3) work experience; (4) hours worked; and (5) sponsor-
ship by a colleague. The following tips are offered for individuals regarding their careers.
■ The focus today should be on an individual’s employability. Individuals should not worry about holding on to a specific job, but rather should make sure they have de-
veloped the competitive skills needed in the marketplace. They need to have portable competencies . 16 This is especially important given fluctuations in the economy.
■ Employees need to take more control of their careers than they ever have before and look out for their own best career interests. Not all employees, however, have typically
done this, especially those outside the United States. For example, in Iceland individu-
als generally do not engage in career self-management to any great extent. 17
■ Employees must develop new and better personal skills of self-assessment and career planning, especially because organizations do not have the resources to completely plan individuals’ careers. 18 Pursuing a new career model requires a high level of self-
awareness and personal responsibility.
■ Individuals need to set career goals and clearly define what they are interested in (e.g., talents, preferences).
■ Especially during the early career period, employees need to maintain a technical spe- cialty. They must also be careful not to become obsolete or too narrow in their func- tional expertise.
■ Individuals must invest in reputation building or image enhancement to illustrate suc- cess and suitability for jobs. 19
■ Individuals will need to develop their collaboration skills because the use of project teams in organizations will continue to increase. 20
■ Employees will need to develop multiple networking and peer learning relationships. This will also help them find new jobs during difficult economic times.
■ The new career will be a continual learning process and necessitate that the individual
develop self-knowledge, adaptability, and flexibility. Individuals will need to be adapt- able to changing job requirements. 21
■ Employees will need to periodically solicit feedback to appraise how they are doing relative to their career goals.
■ Individuals now need to commit to lifelong learning to keep their skills relevant, whether by additional schooling or taking on new assignments. They can use sites such as
LinkedIn, Twitter, Meetup, and YouTube to learn new things and explore their interests
and passions.
Organizations likewise need to become more active in implementing career development
programs. Companies are designing career programs in an effort to decrease employee
turnover, prevent job burnout and obsolescence, and improve the quality of employees’
What Should Individuals Do?
What Should Organizations Do?
IMPLICATIONS OF WORKPLACE CHANGES FOR INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS
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work lives. Childcare, concierge services, and other employee support programs will
increase as employers compete to attract and keep qualified employees. Some of the con-
cerns among employees today are: burnout, lack of career growth, feeling disconnected
from the firm, and a general distrust or lack of confidence in leadership’s ability to drive
the organization forward. 22 A number of organizations such as Chevron, CIGNA, Sears
Information Services, Texaco, Turner Broadcasting, the Internal Revenue Service, and
Marriott International participated in a conference specifically to share their strategies
for creating a career-resilient workforce. 23 A few recommendations for organizations are
provided next. 24
■ It is the employee’s responsibility to manage his or her own career, yet it is the employ-
er’s responsibility to provide employees with the tools and opportunities to enhance their skills. Make sure to place the focus on employees for their own career develop-
ment by providing them with information about the firm and its vision. The end result
should be a career-resilient workforce, one that has self-reliant workers who are capable
of reinventing themselves to keep up with the fast pace of organizational changes. 25
■ Create an environment for continual learning by supporting and rewarding employee development and learning (e.g., professional associations, training, schooling). Some
organizations such as Motorola, Ford, and Intel are especially effective at this. 26
■ Provide opportunities for self-assessment. Have career counselors and career resource centers available.
■ Provide opportunities for additional training, including orientation, core training, and computer-based training.
■ Have managers trained as coaches and mentors to assist employees. A recent article in Training and Development Journal offers great tips for the specific roles that managers can play as coaches. 27
■ Encourage employees to create individual development plans that meet their personal
career needs and the firm’s strategic goals. Employees at Checkfree Services, Inc.,
create and implement their Individual Development Plans after attending an intense
week-long training program called the Customer Solutions University. 28 Similarly, all
bank employees at BB&T have a personal development plan that outlines objectives,
strengths, and opportunities for growth. 29
■ Assist employees with striking balances between their work and nonwork lives (e.g., childcare, elder care, flexible work arrangements leisure pursuits).
■ Use reward systems that support the organization’s career development strategy.
■ Make sure that the career programs are integrated with other human resource programs (e.g., training, performance appraisal, selection).
■ Before outsourcing employees try to redeploy the current workforce to teach them the new skills needed.
IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING CAREER DEVELOPMENT Today’s competitive business environment has forced organizations to restructure and
downsize, resulting in fewer hierarchical levels and traditional promotional opportuni-
ties for employees. At the same time, there is increased pressure to improve productivity
or risk falling prey to larger corporations. The creation of new technologies has required
that individuals update their skills or else become outdated. A number of organizational
change initiatives could have unintended and undesired consequences for individuals.
These include the following:
■ Downsizing —jobs are cut from the organization.
■ Delayering —jobs are reclassified more broadly, yet old reporting lines exist to main- tain managerial control.
Initiatives that could have undesired consequences
Recommendations for creating a career-resilient workforce
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■ Decentralizing —responsibilities are reassigned from the corporate centralized function to functions in each location or at lower levels.
■ Reorganization —companies may be refocusing around core competencies.
■ Cost-reduction strategies —the same work is done with fewer resources.
■ IT innovations —how the work is done is altered due to advances in information tech- nology.
■ Competency remeasurement —skill sets required of employees are redefined or mea- sured in different ways.
■ Performance-related pay —pay is linked to performance and used as a motivator.
Figure 9-2 depicts some of the organizational change initiatives, their effects on jobs
and careers, their psychological impact on individuals, and the necessary strategies to rem-
edy or mitigate the negative effects.
Understanding career development is also important today due to the changing workforce.
Current labor force changes have included a greater proportion of working mothers and mem-
bers of multiple generations (e.g., Traditionalists, Baby Boomers, Gen X, Gen Y) who are
competing for a limited number of jobs. In addition, employees have changed their values
such that now they want more self-fulfillment in work and to be in charge of managing their
own career planning. They want opportunities for growth in their careers and to expand their
knowledge and skills. They also demand well-balanced lives in which comparable value is
placed on work, family, and leisure. Generation X employees seem less interested in climb-
ing the corporate ladder, acquiring fancy titles, or spending their careers in one type of work
or job. Rather, they want to explore and do different kinds of jobs where they can express
their own individual values. 30 Similarly, Generation Y employees have their own perspec-
tives and views about work (i.e., they want to engage in meaningful work that will have an
impact on society).
Social and generational changes are increasing societal pressures on organizations to
be more creative and responsible. Corporations are now more likely to offer childcare
programs, flexible work scheduling, and parental leave time. As discussed in Chapter 3,
increased litigation as a consequence of new laws such as the Age Discrimination in Em-
ployment Act, the Americans with Disabilities Act, the Civil Rights Act, and the Equal Pay
Act is forcing companies to take care to avoid discrimination in their career development
programs.
A greater emphasis will be placed on designing and implementing relevant career development systems in organizations. Organizations will have to find more creative ways
Organizational Change Form
Effects on Jobs and Careers
Psychological Impact on Individuals
Remedial and Mitigating Strategies
Downsizing Job security Anxiety Openness and involvement
Delayering Plateauing Lowered self-esteem Delegation and self-management
Decentralization Segmentation and fragmentation
Competitive behaviors Team building and mobility
Reorganization Displacement Frustration Self-appraisal and pathfinding
Cost-reduction Work intensification Stress Time and task management
IT innovation Deskilling Lowered self-efficacy Reskilling Competency remeasurement
Obsolescence Self-defense Coaching and mentoring
Performance-related pay
Individualism and politics
Low trust behaviors Team-based objectives and feedback
Source: Academy of Management Executive by N. Nicholson. Copyright 1996 by Academy of Management (NY). Reproduced with permission of Academy of Management (NY) in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center.
Figure 9-2 Organizational Change Initiatives and Their Effects on Careers and Individuals
EEO law and career development programs
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to help people develop since employees will not be able to rely on organizational growth
to provide them new career opportunities and promotions. Line managers will need to pro-
vide career counseling to employees, and HR managers must offer training for managers in
career coaching skills. 31 For example, the Coca-Cola and Ford career systems require train-
ing for all managers in how to conduct career development discussions with employees in
the context of performance appraisal. The intention is to make managers more accountable
for the development of their employees. 32
DESIGNING CAREER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS An effective career development system integrates individual career planning endeavors and organizational career management activities. Today, corporations’ career develop- ment programs (Lincoln Electric, Wal-Mart, IBM, Bell Atlantic, Xerox) involve career
assessment by employees with the manager serving as a facilitator and the organization
providing a supportive environment. HR specialists can help organizations determine if
their firm has a culture that supports career development by administering the Career
Development Culture Index shown in Figure 9-3 . Low scores reflect ineffective (or non-
existent) career development systems. High scores reflect an effective system likely to
correlate with lower voluntary turnover rates.
Figure 9-3 Twenty Questions: A Career Development Culture Index
Instructions: If your answer is yes to a question, make a check mark in the space to the left of the number of that item. See the scoring instructions at the end of the exercise. ________ 1. Does senior management use work assignments and work relationships to develop employees? ________ 2. Do they do it consciously or intentionally for developing people (as opposed to doing it only for business purposes)? ________ 3. Are these career development activities part of the business plan for the employee’s unit? ________ 4. Is the organization’s purpose expressed in human terms with which employees can identify? ________ 5. Does top management value employee development? ________ 6. Is career development owned by senior line management (as opposed to being seen as owned by HR)? ________ 7. Is diversity actively promoted by senior line management? ________ 8. Is employee development done by senior line management for the explicit purpose of supporting the business strategy? ________ 9. Are new forms of employee mobility being used (such as cross-functional, cross-business teams)? ________ 10. Is personal development or self-knowledge (for example, 360-degree feedback) promoted? ________ 11. Is career development part of the overall corporate strategy? ________ 12. Is there a strong succession planning process, which puts emphasis on development as well as identification? ________ 13. Do employees have significant input to plans for their future development and assignments? ________ 14. Does career development include opportunities for risk and learning (adaptability)? ________ 15. Does career development include personal (identity) learning as well as task learning? ________ 16. Do most people believe that career development should also take family and personal balance needs into account? ________ 17. Is there general agreement in management about whether historical career development approaches are appropriate for
the future? ________ 18. Is it relatively easy for employees to access information about other job opportunities in the company? ________ 19. Are employees encouraged to be empowered and self-directed in their careers? ________ 20. (The acid test): Are individual employees aware of your organization’s career development activities?
Scoring: Add up the number of checks (symbolizing “yes” to the item). Key: 17 or more checks . . . . . . . . . . . . Outstanding 10–16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Good 6–9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fair <5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Work needed!
Source: Z. B. Leibowitz, C. Farren, and B. L. Kaye, Designing Career Development Systems. Copyright © John Wiley & Sons 1986. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Figure 9-4 Benefits of a Career Development System Managers/Supervisors Employees Organization Increased skill in managing own careers Helpful assistance with career decisions Better use of employee skills Greater retention of valued employees Enrichment of present job and increased
job satisfaction Dissemination of information at all organization levels
Better communication between manager and employee
Better communication between employee and manager
Better communication within organization as a whole
More realistic staff and development planning
More realistic goals and expectations Greater retention of valued employees
Productive performance-appraisal discussions Better feedback on performance Expanded public image as a people developer
Greater understanding of the organization Current information on the firm and the future
Increased effectiveness of personnel systems
Enhanced reputation as a people developer Greater personal responsibility for career Clarification of goals of the organization
Source: Z. B. Leibowitz, C. Farren, and B. L. Kaye, Designing Career Development Systems. Copyright © John Wiley & Sons 1986. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Some of the benefits of a career development system for employees, managers, and
the organization are presented in Figure 9-4 . Managers can benefit from career devel-
opment programs by being better able to communicate with and develop their staff.
Employees may benefit from a career development system by acquiring a deepened
appreciation of their own skills and career possibilities and assuming a greater re-
sponsibility for managing their own careers. The organization may gain from a ca-
reer development system by increased employee loyalty, improved communication
throughout the organization, lower turnover rates, and strengthened human resource
systems. For example, the Federal National Mortgage Association reduced turnover of
its sales force by 50 percent after instituting a supervisory training program on career
planning.
To maintain the career development program, it is essential to integrate it into the or-
ganization’s ongoing employee training and development strategy. The program should
be evaluated as needed to determine revisions and to keep the continued support of top
management. Figure 9-5 shows some of the criteria that may be used to evaluate the pro-
gram that may indicate success. Success can be measured by individual and organizational
goal attainment, the actions that are completed (e.g., use of career tools), and changes in
performance measures and attitudes.
Research on the effectiveness of career development programs is sparse, yet promis-
ing. One study found that 44 percent of administrators of career development programs
for Fortune 500 companies regarded them as “very helpful.” 33 IBM evaluated the effec-
tiveness of its career development workshop and found improvements in the participants’
abilities and responsibilities for their own career planning. IBM also discovered that
employee perceptions of better job opportunities (defined as opportunities to use new and
different skills) had increased substantially. 34 Pratt & Whitney reported that its turnover
rate for new engineers had decreased by 25 percent after instituting a career development
program.
Of course, measures of program success may vary depending on whom you are
asking in the organization. Employees, managers, organizations, and the HR staff may
differ in the specific factors they view as indicative of program success. For example,
employees may say that a career program is effective if it organizes a way for them
to plan and manage their career interests or offers them opportunities to discuss their
career decisions with their supervisors. Managers may view a career program as suc-
cessful if it offers them staffing flexibility or helps them to identify pools of qualified
employees to meet forecasted openings. Organizations may find a program to be useful
if it increases the attractiveness of the organization to potential employees (recruits) or
raises the motivation and productivity of current employees or enhances retention of
employees. Finally, the HR staff may determine that a program is successful if it has
credibility or enhances the reputation of the career or training department with line
managers. 35
Benefits of Career Development Systems
Limited research for the effects of career development programs
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Figure 9-5 Indicators of Career Program Effectiveness
GOAL ATTAINMENT Achievement of pre-specified individual and organizational objectives on qualitative as well as quantitative dimensions
Individual Organizational
Exercise greater self-determination Improve career communications between employees and supervisors Achieve greater self-awareness Improve individual/organizational career match Acquire necessary organizational career information Enhance organization’s image Enhance personal growth and development Respond to EEO and affirmative action pressures Improve goal-setting capability Identify pool of management talent
ACTIONS OR EVENTS COMPLETED 1. Employee use of career tools (participation in career workshops, enrollment in training courses) 2. Career decisions conducted 3. Employee career plans implemented 4. Career actions taken (promotions, cross-functional moves) 5. Management successors identified
CHANGES IN PERFORMANCE INDEXES 1. Reduced turnover rates 2. Lower employee absenteeism 3. Improved employee morale 4. Improved employee performance ratings 5. Reduced time to fill job openings 6. Increased promotion from within
ATTITUDES/PERCEPTIONS 1. Evaluation of career tools and practices (participant’s reaction to career workshop, supervisor’s evaluation of job-posting system) 2. Perceived benefits of career system 3. Employees’ expression of career feelings (responses to career attitude survey) 4. Evaluation of employee career planning skills 5. Adequacy of organizational career information
Source: T. G. Gutteridge, “Organizational Career Development Systems: The State of the Practice,” in Career Development in Organizations , D. T. Hall and associates. Copyright © John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1986. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
COMPONENTS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS A variety of career development components (i.e., activities and tools) exist for use in
organizations. HR managers should be familiar with these components, since they often
serve as internal or external consultants responsible for designing the career development
system. Some of the activities and tools are for individual career planning, and others are commonly used for organizational career management. 36 The most effective career devel- opment programs use both types.
Some of the more popular career development activities are listed in Figure 9-6 . These
programs were cited as having the greatest positive impact on employees’ job satisfaction,
communication, retention, work motivation, views or image of the firm, and commitment
to the firm. 37 No matter which tools are used for career development, what is important is
that employees develop their own individualized career development plans. Raychem, for
example, requires every employee to have a learning or development plan. 38
Career development (CD) programs are effective retention tools and are quickly becom- ing an employee expectation. Larger corporations began to develop CD programs in the
late 1980s and early 1990s, and they are beginning to appear in smaller firms. Organiza-
tions recognize that they can link their career programs to specific business objectives
while developing their employees to meet their goals. At the same time, employees are
kept abreast of changing technology and are developing career-related skills. Career devel-
opment programs tell employees that the organization values and respects them by invest-
ing in their future career growth. 39
Most effective programs use both individual planning and organization career management
Development programs are retention tools
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Self-assessments are usually among the first techniques implemented by organizations in their career development efforts. Thus, it is important for managers to become familiar
with the different self-assessment and career exploration instruments available. Typically,
individuals completing self-assessment exercises for career planning purposes go through
a process where they think through their life roles, interests, skills, and work attitudes and
preferences. They try to plan their short- and long-term goals, develop action plans to meet
those goals, and identify any obstacles and opportunities that might be associated with
them. 40 Hewlett-Packard employees at the Colorado Springs Division complete a variety
of self-assessment exercises, including a written self-assessment, vocational interest tests
(e.g., Strong Interest Inventory), and 24-hour diaries before meeting with their managers
for career counseling. 41 Six months after the course, 40 percent of the participants had
planned internal career moves and 37 percent had already advanced to new positions in
the firm. Of those, 74 percent stated that the career development program played a critical
part in their job change. Two tools often used to assist individuals in their self-assessments
include career planning workshops and career workbooks. The National Career Develop-
ment Association has numerous resources for anyone looking for self-assessments or any
type of career tools and resources.
After individuals complete their self-assessments, they may share their findings with other
individuals in career workshops. For example, General Electric provides career training
to its engineering staff followed by periodic meetings to share results. 42 In general, most
workshops use experiential exercises in a structured, participative group format to educate
individuals on how to prepare and follow through on their career strategies. A group for-
mat allows participants to receive feedback from others so they can check the reality of
Figure 9-6 Types of Organizational Career Development Interventions
Self-assessment tools Career planning workshops Career workbooks Individual counseling Information services Job-posting systems Skills inventories Career ladders and paths Career resource centers Organizational assessment programs Assessment centers Psychological assessment Promotability forecasts Succession planning Developmental programs Assessment centers Job rotation programs Tuition refund plans Internal training programs External training seminars Formal mentoring programs Career programs for special target groups Fast-track or high-potential employees Outplacement programs Supervisors and managers Executive coaching Programs for women, minorities, and employees with disabilities Onboarding programs for new employees Programs for late career and retirement Programs to improve work-family balance (e.g, work–family programs, part-time work, job-sharing programs, flexible work arrangements, paid maternity/paternity leave, childcare services, adoption benefits)
Career Planning Workshops
Self-Assessment Tools
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their plans and consider other alternatives. In addition, workshops are beneficial in helping
employees gain greater self-awareness and insight and learn more about career opportuni-
ties in the organization. TVA offered career planning workshops to many of its employ-
ees, and employees found them to be helpful in better understanding their career needs
and insights. 43 At NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, career awareness workshops are
conducted to educate employees about alternative career paths and to provide counseling
to them. Eli Lilly and Company in Indianapolis uses workshops with executives and man-
agers to give them feedback on their own career concepts and motives as well as advice
on how to provide career counseling to their subordinates. 44 Of course, today, employees
can participate in career workshops either face-to-face or via webinars and other virtual
methods.
Career workbooks consist of questions and exercises designed to guide individuals to
figure out their strengths and weaknesses, job and career opportunities, and necessary
steps for reaching their goals. One popular example of a generic career workbook is the
annual book “What Color Is Your Parachute?” 45 Individuals use this manual to learn about
their career possibilities since it provides suggestions for job hunting and making career
changes. Many workbooks are tailor-made for a particular company and can be completed
in several sessions. If “homegrown” workbooks are used, they should contain a statement
of the organization’s career policy, a description of the career options in the organization,
and the strategies available for obtaining career information. The workbooks should also
illustrate the organization’s structure, career paths, and job qualifications for jobs along
the career ladders. 46 Check out the self-assessment tool available through O*NET. In Chapter 4, we discussed the model that was the basis for the O*NET development (go to www.onetcenter.org ). There are also other Internet-based career services available for free,
often through university and corporate career centers (e.g., Career Leader, College Grad
Job Hunter, Monster.com ). These are useful for finding jobs, posting résumés, networking,
and learning about careers. IMDiversity is a career and self-development site devoted to
serving the cultural and career-related needs of all minorities, and WomensJobList.com
provides career advancement information for professional women. In addition, the Talent Alliance is an Internet-based resource cosponsored by member companies that provides support for the self-initiated, self-paced career exploration. Personal inventory tools prompt
self-discovery of leadership style, motivation, technical skills, and work context. 47
One common career development activity is career counseling. Individual career counsel-
ing helps employees understand their career goals in one-on-one counseling sessions using
workbooks and other self-assessment exercises 48 and through discussions of the employ-
ees’ interests, goals, current job activities and performance, and career objectives. Because
the counseling sessions often are conducted on a one-on-one basis, they may be very time
consuming and not as cost effective as other career development methods.
Generally career counseling is provided by the human resource, training, or career
department, although some organizations hire professional counselors and others use line
managers as career counselors. PricewaterhouseCoopers assigns all employees, including
partners, coaches to assist them in job-related and career concerns.
If supervisors are used in career-counseling sessions, they should be given clearly de-
fined roles and training in career issues, performance evaluation, and listening and com-
munication skills. In addition, they should be required to meet with their subordinates on
a consistent basis to review career goals and plans and to assist employees in developing
their career objectives. Supervisors should be told that part of their job is to help employees
develop. They should be rewarded for their efforts as career coaches to encourage them
to devote the necessary time to this role. For example, at Federal National Mortgage As-
sociation and at Baxter Health Care Corporation, managers’ bonuses are directly linked to
the career development programs for women and minorities. Both companies identify key
females and minorities early in their careers and develop specific plans for them for acquir-
ing the necessary skills in advancement. In general, supervisors can be valuable sources
of career information for employees. Managers need to be able to play the roles of an
Individual Counseling
Career Workbooks
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organizational translator, a performance consultant, a developmental assessor, a cognitive
mentor, and a brand advisor. Some tips for helping managers be more effective as coaches
include 49
■ Build trust by practicing active listening and paraphrasing to make sure you truly under-
stand what the employee is saying.
■ Support the employee’s learning by asking him or her about the actions he or she has
taken and how successful they were.
■ Help the employee work on easier career goals first, then more difficult ones.
■ Help the employee write out scripts and role-play possible scenarios (e.g., interviewing
for jobs).
■ Provide positive feedback as employees take relevant career actions (e.g., attending
career workshops).
■ Model effective leadership behaviors.
Internal communication systems are often used by organizations to alert employees to
employment opportunities at all levels, including upward, downward, and lateral moves.
They may also be used to keep ongoing records of employees’ skills, knowledge, and work
experiences and preferences. These records are valuable for pointing out possible candi-
dates for job openings in the company. Several systems commonly used for compiling and
communicating career-related information include job-posting systems, skills inventories,
career ladders and paths, and career resource centers.
While they serve an informational purpose, postings also may be useful as a motivational
tool. They imply that the organization is more interested in selecting employees from
within the company than from outside the organization. This is a sound strategy since one
of the “High-Performance Work Characteristics” is a policy of promoting managers from within the organization. Guidelines for effective job-posting systems include
■ Posting all permanent promotion and transfer opportunities for at least 1 week before
recruiting outside the organization.
■ Outlining minimum requirements for the position (including specific training courses).
■ Describing decision rules that will be used.
■ Making application forms available.
■ Informing all applicants how and when the job was filled.
It is also important that all employees have access to the job postings. At Ford, a training
matrix is available for each job family in which specific courses are linked as optional or rec-
ommended for a particular job classification. Raychem has created an internal network, called
the Internal Information Interview Network, of more than 360 people within the firm who
are willing to talk with any employees who want to learn more about their jobs. 50 Company
intranets can be useful for ensuring all employees have access to job postings. Employees can
simply log in to the site, view positions by job title and location, and apply for the position
immediately. The use of an intranet can be particularly useful when a collective bargaining
agreement requires job openings be made available to employees before hiring outside the
organization. If the firm’s website is used to list jobs, it is important that employees can find
those jobs on the website and that the application process is easy to use. Jobster is a compre-
hensive job search site that allows users to search job postings on its site as well as other job
boards. Individuals create professional profiles and tags (to highlight one’s skills or experi-
ence), video profiles or resumes, and use social networking to increase their hiring potential.
Skills inventories are company files of data on employees’ skills, abilities, experiences, and education that are often computerized. They may contain comprehensive records of employees’
work histories, qualifications, education degrees and major fields of study, accomplishments,
Information Services
Job-Posting Systems
Skills Inventories
Promoting from within is a HPWC
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training completed, skill and knowledge ratings, career objectives, geographical preferences,
and anticipated retirement dates. 51 Skills inventories are created to help organizations know
the characteristics of their workforce so they can effectively utilize employees’ skills. They
also reveal shortages of critical skills, which is useful for indicating training needs. AT&T has
a department, Resource Link, that operates as an internal temporary services unit to meet the
variable workforce needs of the company’s business units and divisions. 52
Organizations usually map out steps (job positions) that employees might follow over time.
These steps are used to document possible patterns of job movement, including vertical or
upward moves and lateral or cross-functional moves. Illustrations of career paths and lad-
ders are helpful for answering employees’ questions about career progression and future
job opportunities in the organization. For example, General Motors groups jobs by job
families such as HR, engineering, clerical, systems professional, and so forth, to show em-
ployees the career possibilities in each of the various job fields. ARCO (Atlantic Richfield
Company) has a lot of lateral movement for positions. It makes special arrangements for
employees who want to shift career paths. 53
Typically, the description of a career path or ladder illustrates a career plan complete
with the final goal, intermediate steps, and timetables for reaching the goal. In addition, the
qualifications necessary to proceed to the next position are specified, as is any minimum
time required prior to advancing. For example, in an academic position, the path may look
like Instructor → Assistant Professor → Associate Professor → Professor. At a consult- ing firm, the path may look like Consultant → Senior Consultant → Manager → Partner. An employee may be required to spend a minimum amount of time in each level and gain
increasing responsibilities before moving to the next higher level.
Common in many organizations is the development of career paths for “fast-track”
employees that outline the series of career moves that will prepare them for upper manage-
ment. In recent years, many companies have developed multiple or dual-career paths. 54
This is becoming more common in firms hiring professional employees (e.g., scientists, en-
gineers). Previously, if an engineer wanted to advance in a firm, he or she had to eventually
move into a management position to move up the corporate ladder. Today many organiza-
tions (e.g., National Security Agency, Eli Lilly, Pfizer, Merck, Union Carbide, Phillips Pe-
troleum, Air Products & Chemicals, Rohm and Haas, DuPont) offer dual-career ladders so
that technical employees and professionals can advance through either a management track
or a scientist track. This enables them to remain in a technical, professional field yet still be
able to advance in the firm to a higher status and higher-paying position. In the chemical
and pharmaceutical industries, career ladders have been around for 15 to 20 years, and the
approach has evolved and gathered support with time. Many employers initially created
ladders for technical or research employees, and some still use them only in this area. Many
companies have put ladders in other functions, such as the engineering, manufacturing,
finance, human resources, legal, and marketing areas. Although the exact details vary from
company to company, career ladders have some common features. The first, say company
managers, is the opportunity for employees to be in salary grades or on “rungs” equivalent
to their colleagues on another ladder. Companies also offer similar reward possibilities
such as stock options, bonuses, and profit-sharing incentives. Organizations that wish to
implement a dual-career ladder program should consider doing the following: 55
1. Determine the factors being used to evaluate a technical position—for example, knowledge and skills, technical expertise, decision-making ability, and innovation.
2. Determine the degrees for each factor being considered—for example, under the innovation factor, determine the degree of skill that is needed to get from entry
level to expert.
3. Develop job descriptions for each career level and include the steps required to get to the next level.
4. Develop salary ranges for each position. Use market data to benchmark salary midpoint. Also consider the length of time employees are expected to remain in
each level—the longer the time at a career level, the wider the range of pay.
Career Ladders and Career Paths
“Fast-track” employees
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5. Ensure that there is internal equity between management and alternate career track employees. For example, if you have an employee who is promoted to a manage-
ment position and moves to a higher salary grade with additional benefits, then an
employee who is promoted to a higher salary grade in a professional, technical, or
scientific track should receive a similar raise and increase in benefits.
6. When you roll out the program and communicate to staff about a dual-career lad- der program, make it clear that employees are free to move about the career path
of their choosing since their goals may change at any time during their careers.
A well-managed and well-executed dual-career ladder program can be a positive asset
to an organization struggling with the loss of experienced technical employees and search-
ing for ways to attract, retain, and develop these critical employees.
One of the least expensive approaches for providing career information is setting up a
career resource center. A center consists of a small library set up to distribute career devel-
opment materials such as reference books, learning guides, videos, and self-study tapes.
Universities are well known for having career centers where students can obtain company
brochures and videos and career books and gain access to computers to research firms on
the Internet. Kodak has three internal career services, “Kodak Career Services,” which
consist of a career library of tapes, books, and career counselors. 56 Other methods for com-
municating organizational career information and programs may include the use of flyers,
brochures, newsletters, manuals, and online chats about careers (see the Washington Post). Today, with the increasing use of computers, many firms are placing career resource infor-
mation on their company’s intranet. The program at PricewaterhouseCoopers, called MYC
or Managing Your Career, enables employees to directly ask questions about career issues.
It gives news of interest to young professionals, including job market trends, job-hunting
tips, careers columnists, and more. In it, they will discover strategies for navigating the
downturn—and the recovery—plus slide shows and other features for Gen Y job-seekers.
Sun Microsystems, Apple Computer, and Raychem have centers set up with career special-
ists where employees can work on self-assessments, receive counseling, check on internal
and external job openings, and attend seminars on networking or interviewing. Their cen-
ters are highly visible and easily accessible, which conveys to employees that the firms
want their career centers to be used. Other companies have formed partnerships to enable
their employees to receive career assistance.
Assessment programs consist of methods for evaluating employees’ potential for growth
and development in the organization. For example, Johnson & Johnson has used career
assessment to facilitate the staffing and development of special “tiger teams,” which are
formed to speed up the development of high-priority new products. 57 Some of the more pop-
ular assessment programs include assessment centers, psychological testing, 360- degree
appraisal (described in Chapter 7), promotability forecasts, and succession planning.
In addition to their use as decision-making tools, assessment centers are popular as
developmental tools. One survey found that 43 percent of surveyed firms used assess-
ment centers as part of their career development programs. 58 AT&T, JCPenney, Sears
Roebuck & Co., IBM, GE, Lockheed Martin, TVA, Bendix, and Pratt & Whitney are
among the companies using assessment centers for development as well as employee
decision making. 59 Assessment centers are particularly predictive of advancement cri-
teria such as career progress, salary advancement, long-term promotion, and potential
development. As described in Chapter 6, participants in an assessment center engage
in a variety of situational exercises, including tests, interviews, in-baskets, leaderless
group discussions, and business games. Their performance on these exercises is evalu-
ated by a panel of trained raters (usually middle- to upper-level managers), and they
are given in-depth developmental feedback on their strengths and weaknesses. This
feedback is often very useful for improving their own insights about their skills and for
helping them outline realistic future career goals and plans.
Career Resource Center and Other Communication Formats
Organizational Assessment Programs
Assessment Centers
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Diagnostic tests and other inventories may be used for self-assessment or with career
counseling. They consist of written tests and questionnaires that help individuals deter-
mine their vocational interests, personality types, work attitudes, and other personal char-
acteristics that may reveal their career needs and preferences. In addition to O*NET Online, useful tools are the Strong Vocational Interest Inventory, the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator, various measures of the Big-Five personality factors, and the Kuder Preference
Schedule, which assesses preferences for certain jobs and job characteristics. A great
resource for students is the National Career Development Association’s website, which
contains resources on numerous self-assessments, occupational information, employment
trends, job banks, and salary information.
Forecasts are used by the organization to make early identifications of individuals with
exceptionally high career potential. Once individuals are identified, they are given relevant
developmental experiences (e.g., attending conferences, training) to groom them for higher
positions. Several companies now have such programs for women and minorities in an
effort to get greater female and minority representation at higher managerial levels. Oth-
ers, such as AT&T, track the progress of high-potential managers and provide them with
developmental assignments. 60 It is important that promotability forecasts do not exclude
employees based on factors protected under Title VII, such as age, sex, or race. HR must
be diligent in ensuring that all employees are treated fairly and equally. The 80 percent
rule discussed in Chapter 3 is a good internal auditing measure for assessing potential legal
trouble with forecasting.
Succession planning involves having senior executives periodically review their top execu-
tives and those in the next-lower level to determine several backups for each senior posi-
tion. This is important because it often takes years of grooming to develop effective senior
managers and there is a critical shortage in companies of middle and top leaders for the
next 5 years, especially as Baby Boomers retire. Organizations will need to create pools of
candidates with high leadership potential. According to a recent poll by SHRM, 23 percent
of organizations indicated having a formal succession plan in place, whereas 38 percent in-
dicated having an informal succession plan, and the majority of these are found in larger or-
ganizations (over 2,500 employees). A number of firms are concerned and proactive about
developing their “talent pipeline.” For example, Lockheed Martin Google, and Microsoft
are recruiting top talent and aggressively promoting “high-potential” employees; matching
leaders with positions; providing challenging cross-function experiences; and rewarding
employees who bring the greatest value to the organization. Caterpillar has partnered with
Stanford University to provide advanced training for middle- to senior-level managers who
have the potential to become top executives. 61
In addition to executive level succession planning, organizations can use succession
planning for mid- to upper-level management positions. Management succession can
create a career ladder for employees and can be a planning reprieve for the anticipated
brain drain as the Baby Boomers retire. According to a recent Stanford University survey,
54 percent of companies are grooming internal executives to one day be a CEO successor. 62
Succession planning can be informal or formal. For informal succession planning,
the individual manager identifies and grooms his or her own replacement. This is more
prevalent in smaller firms. In fact, one survey of 800 small business owners found that
only 25 percent have a succession plan and that only 50 percent of them have even writ-
ten it down. 63 Succession planning for family businesses seems to be especially important
for the firm to remain successful. 64 Formal succession planning involves an examination
of strategic (long-range) plans and HR forecasts and a review of the data on all potential
candidates. The objective is to identify employees with potential and increase managerial
depth as well as to promote from within the company. In addition, it includes determin-
ing and clarifying the requirements of the managerial position and developing plans for
how future managerial requirements will be met. It involves behavioral profile matching
between the individual managers’ skills, behavioral flexibility, and adaptability and the
organization’s future needs as depicted by the organization’s strategic plan. 65 In one study of
Fortune 500 firms with succession plans, components used in the plans included identification
Psychological Assessment
Promotability Forecasts
Succession Planning
Audit for possible EEO problems
Succession planning critical for small business
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
of high-potential employees, updated lists of possible replacements, performance appraisals
of all employees, and individual development plans and management development pro-
grams. The factors rated as most important in selecting specific candidates for grooming
included past job performance, past positions or prior employment, perceived credibility,
area of expertise and career path, and values and attitudes. 66
There are many benefits of having a formal succession planning system. In a survey of
Fortune 500 firms, succession planning programs were perceived to have a positive impact
on an organization’s profitability, organizational culture, and organizational efficiency. 67
Organizations also benefit from increased employee commitment, increased retention,
and higher corporate performance. Some of the general benefits of a succession planning
program are listed in Figure 9-7 .
Regardless of what type of succession planning program is used (formal or informal),
most successful programs obtain the support and commitment of top managers. 68 For ex-
ample, Schwan Foods, one of the previous recipients of ASTD’s BEST Awards, credits
its success in building future leaders to the CEO, who expresses a strong commitment to
employee training and leadership development. 69 Usually, committees of top managers
work together to identify high-potential candidates and then outline developmental activi-
ties for them. They may include a formal assessment of the performance and potential of
candidates and written individual developmental plans for candidates. Of course, with the
current turbulent times in organizations (i.e., with downsizings, layoffs, mergers), some
argue that it is foolish to spend a lot of time on succession planning efforts or identifying
candidates for jobs that may not even exist in the future. 70 In addition, the firm’s strategic
goals may change, making some candidates, previously groomed for top positions, no
longer the right choice. 71 For example, AT&T and IBM relied on succession planning
procedures that resulted in having the right kinds of leaders for the wrong times. 72 The indi-
vidual’s own aspirations for moving into senior management positions have only recently
been considered when making succession plans, despite the obvious importance of this. 73
It is clear that each organization has to weigh the pros and cons of providing a succession
planning system. In general, in most organizations, a succession planning system seems to
be highly beneficial. 74
• Provides a specific connection to business and strategic planning. • Provides a more systematic basis to judge the risks of making particular succession and
development moves. • Assists in developing systematized succession plans that fit with a distinct trend to codify, wherever
possible, more general and comprehensive corporate planning actions. • Reduces randomness of managerial development movements. • Helps to anticipate problems before they get started—and thereby avoids awkward or
dysfunctional situations. • Increases managerial depth, which can be called on as needed. • Provides a logical approach for locking succession planning into the process of human resource
planning—connecting formats (data, timing) with process (judgments, discussions, analyses). • Facilitates integration of the many components of human resource planning after having done
many of these separately in the past. • Improves the identification of high-potential and future leaders. • Exploits the use of computer power or capabilities to improve succession planning formats and
processes further. • Broadens the use of cross-functional development techniques to improve competencies and
quality of decision making. • Stimulates inquiry into the fit of succession planning with the philosophy of the organization. • Improves internal promotion opportunities. • Overcomes the limitations of reactive management approaches and goes to planned management
of managerial positions. • Establishes a logical basis for choices among qualified candidates. • Improves fulfillment of EEO objectives. • Makes informal but critical criteria (e.g., “fit”) more explicit.
Source: E. H. Burack, Creative Human Resource Planning and Applications: A Strategic Approach, 1988, p. 167. Reprinted with permission.
Figure 9-7 Benefits of Formal Succession Planning
Programs needs top management support
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Developmental programs consist of skills assessment and training programs that organizations may use to develop their employees for future positions. Development
programs can be internal and run by the human resource staff, or be offered externally in
the form of class seminars, workshops, and webinars. DuPont offers in-house seminars
on various job functions and hands out a list of employee contacts with whom individu-
als can follow up to find out more about various job functions. 75 Other corporations
have 3- to 4-year training programs at lower levels to groom employees for subsequent
managerial positions. 76 One survey of 12 leading companies found that they agreed on
the criteria for a successful executive development process: (1) extensive CEO involve-
ment, (2) a clearly stated development policy, (3) CEO development linked to the busi-
ness strategy, (4) an annual succession planning process and on-the-job developmental
assignments, and (5) line management responsibility for the program. 77
Some commonly used programs for development include assessment centers, job rota-
tion programs, in-house training programs, and tuition-refund or assistance plans. Xerox,
Wegmans, and 3M use many of these programs to develop their employees. 78 In some
cases, organizations (e.g., Pacific Bell) provide college credit to an employee when he or
she has completed courses offered by the firm (e.g., training or human resource courses). 79
In addition to assessment centers, discussed earlier, 360-degree feedback systems are use-
ful for helping employees better understand their strengths and weaknesses for managerial
jobs. Many companies (e.g., GE, Johnson & Johnson, Lockheed Martin, Raytheon) also
use job rotation programs that enable employees to develop a broader base of skills (cross- functional training) as part of the managerial training program. Other firms provide stretch assignments to help employees revitalize stagnant careers or to advance their careers. Stretch assignments provide real, high-stakes work experience in a safe environment. The
global chief learning officer at Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu in Amsterdam says that “stretch
assignments can help people leverage their talents to develop new skills or connect with
new stakeholders.” 80 For stretch assignments to work, employees should have mentors to
help them develop learning goals, and they should be engaged in assignments that are chal-
lenging and will bring them some exposure. Managers can help employees “stretch” by
assessing their current assignments to build in developmental opportunities (e.g., dealing
with ambiguity or difficult employees) and create an active learning environment for them.
It is also important that they provide quality performance feedback to help them grow. The
Professional Development Institute at Duke University and Health System has embraced
stretch assignments for their supervisors. The supervisor and his/her manager design the
stretch assignment to be a learning opportunity in a function beyond the person’s current
role. Yum! Brands also uses stretch assignments to help associates grow and develop. 81
Apple Computer lets people sample jobs by filling in for employees who are on sab-
baticals. Some firms, such as Xerox, American Express, and Wells Fargo & Co., use
sabbaticals to enable employees to get paid while working for charitable organizations. In
this way, employees come back to their jobs refreshed and possessing new skills. 82 Most
Fortune 500 companies cover expenses for job-related and career-oriented courses taken
at colleges. They also offer internal programs on a variety of topics, including technical
training and interpersonal skills. For example, Highmark, an independent licensee of the
Blue Cross Blue Shield Association, encourages all 11,000 employees to take advantage
of a variety of learning opportunities (e.g., on-the-job learning sessions, job aids, formal
courses, online courses, tuition reimbursement programs). 83
Another developmental program that organizations are continuing to invest in is mentor-
ing. Many firms see mentoring as important for sharing knowledge and effective for reten-
tion and building talent. In fact, research with senior executives has shown that having a
mentor is more important than ever before. 84 Mentoring consists of establishing formal re-
lationships between junior and senior colleagues or peers. 85 These relationships contribute
to career functions (e.g., sponsorship, coaching, and protection of the colleague; exposure
to important contacts and resources; assignment of challenging work) and to psychosocial
functions (e.g., role modeling, counseling, acceptance and confirmation of the colleague,
friendship). Employees who receive mentoring feel they are getting social support, which
is then related to their job satisfaction. 86
Developmental Programs
Mentoring
Common programs
Job sampling
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Some recent meta-analyses of the effects of mentoring on objective (e.g., promotions,
compensation) and subjective (career satisfaction) outcomes have supported claims asso-
ciated with the benefits of mentoring, particularly for career satisfaction. The researchers
also found that objective career success indicators, such as compensation and promotion,
were more highly related to career mentoring than to psychosocial mentoring. Career men-
toring behaviors such as sponsorship, exposure and visibility, coaching, and protection are
more related to the enhancement of the task-based elements of work that are more strongly
related to promotions and salary. 87
In addition to benefits for protégés, mentoring also has positive outcomes for mentors.
In a recent review of research in this area, it was found that serving as a mentor was related
to the mentor’s salary, promotion rate, and subjective career success. Those with experi-
ence as mentors reported greater job satisfaction, greater affective organizational commit-
ment, and fewer intentions to change jobs than did those with no experience as mentors.
Serving as a mentor has been shown to help prevent career plateauing. In addition, mentors
are viewed as good organizational citizens and as better performers by their bosses. 88
Formal mentoring programs began in the United States in the late 1980s and early
1990s. Some of the companies with formal mentoring programs include Federal Express,
Merrill Lynch, Agilent Technologies, Yum! Brands, and McDonald’s. For example, Agi-
lent has a strong mentoring culture to support learning and development and performance
improvements for individuals. Yum! matches associates across geographies, disciplines,
and generations to share knowledge and to more fully engage and grow associates. Mc-
Donald’s has a long history of using formal and informal mentoring to identify and nurture
future leaders. Bank of America’s program uses “quad squads” that consist of a mentor
and three new hires (a male, a female, and a racial minority group member). Wyndham
Exchange & Rentals uses mentoring, job rotation programs, and coaching to help develop-
ment talent and engagement with its employees. 89 Infosys Technologies Limited, a global
IT and consulting services provider, provides employees with personalized coaching
and mentoring. Some organizations institutionalize like-to-like mentoring relationships (e.g., Hispanic mentors with Hispanic protégés) to better assist individuals in assimilating
to the organization’s culture. Others, like McKinsey & Company, informally encourage
employees to look for subordinates, peers, and senior leaders with whom they have a good
rapport to establish mentoring relationships. 90 In addition to creating their own mentoring
programs there are firms that now specialize in assisting organizations in setting up their
mentoring programs. For example, MENTTIUM Corporation was founded in 1990 by
Gayle Holmes to help women reach senior-level positions in Fortune-ranked companies.
The firm provides three primary mentoring programs: MENTTIUM 100, which helps pair
up high-potential midlevel women from client organizations with senior executives from
other organizations; MENTTOR, which matches a protégé and mentor in the same orga-
nization; and circles, which is a group mentoring model that matches senior leaders with multiple protégés within a given firm. 91
Mentoring traditionally occurs in face-to-face meetings. However, with the advent of tech-
nology, increasingly more mentoring is being provided in electronic forms. E-mentoring
has also been called online mentoring, virtual mentoring, or telementoring. Generally
e-mentoring refers to a mutually beneficial relationship between a mentor and protégé that
occurs primarily through electronic means (e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, social
networking spaces). It can occur as part of a formal mentoring program or informally. One
example is MentorNet, which is an e-mentoring program that pairs graduate and under- graduate students in technical fields with industry professionals. Some firms have found
that using nontraditional mentoring might work better for other generations, particularly
Gen X and Yers, who are used to sharing knowledge via technology. 92
Firms such as Dow Chemical have used a web-based mentoring program called “open
mentoring” to initially pair up protégés and mentors over the Internet. Similarly, at IBM,
since employees are geographically dispersed, much mentoring is done by electronic
means. The U.S Office of Personnel Management also uses e-mentoring to pair up federal
workers with subject matter experts in their fields. Since 2006, McDonald’s has offered
an internal, online, virtual mentoring program that employees can use at their own pace
E-mentoring
Meta-analyses results support mentoring
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9 / Career Development
to make relationship connections and build their skill sets. In some firms, such as Disney/
ABC, mentoring is done using both face-to-face methods and e-mentoring. 93
E-mentoring has numerous advantages, including: (1) greater access to mentors;
(2) reduced costs of administering the mentoring program, conducting training, and repro-
ducing materials; (3) equalization of the status of the mentor and protégé or at least fewer
status differences apparent; (4) decreased emphasis on demographics (race, age, physical
characteristics); (5) a record of interactions; (6) helps some less assertive (or more shy)
protégés feel more comfortable getting mentoring; and (7) enhances networking through-
out the organization. Of course, there are also potential problems with e-mentoring such
as: (1) increased likelihood of miscommunication; (2) slower development of relationships
compared to face-to-face mentoring; (3) reliance on varying degrees of competency in
technical communication skills; (4) computer problems; and (5) increased concerns over
privacy and confidentiality. 94
Recently, researchers have been examining the relative effectiveness of face-to-face vs.
electronic mentoring. There has been some evidence that those engaged in e-mentoring
relationships receive many of the same benefits as those in face-to-face mentoring rela-
tionships (support, guidance, professional friendships, career development, new perspec-
tives, networking skills, and personal development). Another study, however, found that
electronic chat resulted in less psychosocial and career support for those with male peer
mentors than female peer mentors. This was due to the fact that male mentors condensed
their language to a greater extent than did female mentors. 95 Obviously, as technology
continues to advance, more research on the use of e-mentoring will be needed. Organiza-
tions will also want to examine whether e-mentoring continues to serve as an efficient and
cost-effective way of orienting and socializing new employees and developing their talent
pipeline. 96
CAREER PROGRAMS FOR SPECIAL TARGET GROUPS Career development programs are often put into effect to meet the unique needs of par-
ticular employees. Although many different groups and issues may be targeted for career
development, some of the more common programs are those that focus on fast-track em-
ployees, outplacement issues, entrenched employees, supervisors, executives, women and
minorities, new employees, late-career employees, and employed spouses and parents.
Organizations often identify “stars,” or individuals with high career potential, and place
them on a fast track for upward moves in the company. AT&T, for example, uses assess-
ment centers for the early identification of managerial talent. These specially recruited
and selected employees are given rapid and intensive developmental opportunities in the
company. 97 The identification and development of these employees requires organizations
to exert extra recruitment efforts and to monitor the career progress of these employees
frequently. Organizations must provide considerable feedback, training, and counseling as
well as offer quicker job changes and more challenging job assignments, particularly dur-
ing the employees’ first few years on the job. Managers who are responsible for identify-
ing and developing fast-track employees should be recognized for their efforts if they are
to take their responsibilities seriously. For example, Baxter Health Care links managers’
bonuses to the early identification and development of promising female employees. At Eli
Lilly, managers assess their employees and make decisions about their career potential and
offer them opportunities for development. Northern Telecom has a program that identifies
fast trackers and helps them to develop a variety of skills that go beyond their own techni-
cal expertise. 98
Outplacement programs assist terminated employees in making the transition to new employment. Generally outplacement programs involve individual counseling sessions
with external or internal counselors where individuals are able to share their feelings about
Fast-Track Employees
Outplacement Programs
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Assessment centers for early identification of “stars”
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
being let go. The programs may also contain financial counseling. Workshops may be used
to show individuals how to become successful job seekers by teaching them how to iden-
tify their skills and abilities, develop résumés, and interview with prospective employers.
Outplacement programs stressing the importance of self-confidence and individual career
planning may be particularly beneficial for middle- or late-career employees who have
been laid off. This is because many older people have been forced into involuntary retire-
ment, often with insufficient skills and financial assets. 99 The programs should help laid-off
employees deal with their anger, depression, stress, grief, or loss of self-esteem associated
with the job loss. During economic downtimes (e.g., financial crisis in 2008), outplacement
programs are especially important. Many terminated employees suffer changes in their
mental health. The programs also should encourage them to develop support networks. If
an organization is going to use downsizing, the following recommendations can make it
less traumatic and fairer. 100
■ Be fair in implementing layoffs; spread them throughout the organizational ranks, not
just among lower-level employees.
■ Allow employees to leave with dignity; if possible, allow them to leave of their own
accord.
■ Help those displaced find new jobs.
■ Avoid belittling laid-off employees.
■ Be cautious when hiring outside executives; educate them on the internal morale.
■ Keep employees informed about the company’s goals and expectations.
■ Set realistic expectations.
■ Use ceremonies to reduce anger and confusion and convey to employees what is going on.
Outplacement programs have been shown to benefit employees by helping them cope
with the shock and stress associated with losing a job and by helping them find jobs faster
than they could on their own. This also may lower the likelihood that they will take legal
action against the firm for laying them off. A firm that offers outplacement programs may
be viewed more positively by the “survivors,” which may help maintain their morale and reduce job insecurity. In some cases, employees are given the option of “job sharing” or
reduced workweeks, enabling them to keep their jobs, although with fewer hours and less
pay. The organization also benefits since it helps reduce labor costs and overtime while
retaining valuable expertise and knowledge about the company. AT&T developed an inno-
vative program, called Resource Link, that consists of an internal contingent of displaced
managers and professionals who can be assigned to temporary projects of 3 to 12 months’
duration. This gives project managers the assistance they need without hiring permanent
staff. The program has been so popular that some employees have volunteered to be as-
signed to the unit to gain exposure to different parts of the business. One study looked at
almost 2,000 managers and executives using an outplacement company. Controlling for
past salary, severance, and demographics, results demonstrated that displaced managers
and executives participating in programs that demonstrated higher levels of outplacement
support had a greater likelihood of reemployment and had higher salaries in new jobs than
individuals participating in programs with lower levels of outplacement support. 101
It is important to provide some assistance to survivors. Their attitudes will be influenced
in large part by how fairly they thought the layoffs were conducted. Often the morale of
those remaining hits an all-time low, confidence is shaken, and communication and trust
are fragmented. In many cases, survivors will have increased workloads and job respon-
sibilities due to the loss of personnel. They may experience work overload and stress and
could benefit from counseling and realistic information about the firm’s future and their
future role with the company. 102 It is critical that a firm address the needs of the remaining
employees if it is to be competitive.
A number of recommendations have been offered for fostering the successful redeploy-
ment of displaced workers due to restructurings and downsizings. Figure 9-8 lists some of
these suggestions.
Recommendations for downsizing
Provide assistance for “survivors”
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Due to the large number of organizational restructurings and downsizings, many employ-
ees stay with their organization to keep their jobs but do not stay as committed or attached
to them as their employers would like. In fact, Gallup reported that one of every three
workers would choose a different career if given the chance to start over. These employees
have become entrenched in their careers. They stay in the job because of their investments,
psychological preservation, and a perception that there are few career opportunities. To
eliminate the potentially adverse consequences of entrenchment, organizations can take some of the following steps. 103
■ Offer generous severance pay packages to fund employees’ explorations into new ca-
reers.
■ Encourage portability of benefits such as pension funds and accrued time off.
■ Provide ongoing career counseling and outplacement assistance to attend classes while
still employed.
■ Offer tuition reimbursement and time off for employees to attend classes.
■ Implement staged retirement programs.
■ Give employees time to rotate to other positions in the organization to explore other
career options.
■ Allow employees to phase out of jobs and not automatically eliminate them.
■ Emphasize the importance of learning and development throughout the organization.
■ Encourage employees to think about career planning issues.
■ Extend portability of medical coverage and other insurances for 18–24 months.
TO BUILD CAREER RESILIENCE • Enhance and maintain value of current employees (continuous learning environment). • Foster a culture of entrepreneurship internal to the organization by rewarding creative new ideas
and self-management. • Assign people to teams and work processes rather than to single, unifunctional jobs. • Adopt continuous improvement programs based on employee participation. • Partner with regional universities and colleges and government and community agencies to
develop support systems for displaced workers. • Train people in areas that create or add value through problem solving and support. • Form new initiatives and joint ventures.
TO BUILD CAREER INSIGHT • Offer assessment and feedback processes to help people better understand their strengths and
weaknesses. • Provide problem-focused (in addition to symptom-focused) training to teach the unemployed job
search skills, entrepreneurship, and realistic expectations. • Conduct human resource forecasting to inform and direct organizational initiatives. This entails
conducting job analyses for positions that do not yet exist and communicating the results as input to individual and organizational planning. Moreover, scenarios of likely environmental trends and organizational strategies can be constructed as ways to envision different sorts of change and its implications.
• Assist federal and state programs for reemployment and coping that recognize individual (e.g., age, profession, malleability) and regional economic factors.
TO BUILD CAREER IDENTITY • Fund and implement outside redeployment efforts stemming from restructuring (outplacement). • Support the professional development of all functional specialities; develop job families and career
paths within speciality areas. • Train employees in multiple skills and use these different skills in role assignments. • Join with other organizations and agencies in the community to create new economic opportuni-
ties (e.g., participate in job fairs).
Source: Academy of Management Executive by M. London. Copyright 1996 by Academy of Management (NY). Reproduced with permission of Academy of Management (NY) in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center.
Figure 9-8 Roles for Executives and Managers to Foster the Successful Redeployment of Displaced Workers
Entrenched Employees
Steps to eliminate the effects of entrenchment
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Supervisors are increasingly being called upon to play a greater role in managing the career
progress of their employees. To assist their employees, they may serve in a variety of roles,
including organizational translator, performance consultant, developmental assessor, men-
tor, and advisor, yet are often not given much training to prepare them for these roles. 104
To be effective in these roles, they should be trained as career coaches and mentors to help
subordinates develop and implement their career plans in one-on-one counseling sessions.
Further, they should be instructed on how to integrate counseling into their performance
appraisal and selection activities. AT&T has one such program in place for training su-
pervisors in career counseling, performance-appraisal skills, and mutual goal setting with
subordinates. American Express created an initiative called Coaching to Extraordinary
Customer Care, which focused on developing the coaching skills of frontline supervisors
to help them offer better instruction to employees and thus improve customer satisfaction.
Those leaders are now better equipped to review employees’ performance, talk about their
aspirations, and coach them to excel. Since beginning the program, American Express has
achieved a 7 percent increase in customer satisfaction scores. 105
Executive coaching has increasingly become a popular method for career and leadership development of managers. In fact, it has become so popular that the two largest coach-
ing organizations, International Coach Federation (ICF) and the European Mentoring and
Coaching Council (EMCC), recently filed with the European Union a common Code of
Conduct as the benchmark standard for the coaching and mentoring industries in order to
lay the ground rules, establish markers of good practice, and move to self-regulate. 106
Executive coaching is described as a practical, goal-focused form of personal one-to-
one learning for executives. 107 An executive meets with a coach who may be an internal
career counselor or an external consultant. In the coaching session, the coach and executive
typically discuss the results of a 360-degree assessment of the executive (see Chapter 7)
or some other performance review, which describes his or her strengths and areas for im-
provement. The coach works individually with the leader to improve performance, develop
or refine behaviors, and devise strategies for enhancing his or her career and preventing
derailment. Meetings are held to establish career development plans and to follow up and
assist executives on their career progress.
Coaching has become popular because it provides individualized, targeted, flexible,
just-in-time development for executives. In addition, because executives may change jobs,
a coach can help them in better managing their careers. 108 At the Robert H. Smith School
of Business at the University of Maryland, an executive coaching program was created by
one of your authors to help Executive MBA students refine their leadership, interpersonal,
and negotiation skills. Over the course of their 19 months in the EMBA program, each
executive meets with a highly trained coach multiple times to review various leadership
assessment tools they have completed (e.g., personality tests, assessment center data, peer
feedback, organizational 360-degree feedback) and to develop and measure progress on
an Individual Leadership Development Plan. Executives have found the program to be
particularly beneficial in enabling them to advance to higher-level jobs. 109
Texas Commerce Bank uses coaches for its senior 25 executives. Deloitte & Touche
USA implemented an organizationwide coaching initiative that offers every employee
the opportunity to coach and be coached and strives to make informal two-way coaching
an everyday occurrence. It offers numerous workshops to teach coaching. In addition, its
Coaching for Critical Talent services provide confidential individual coaching to support
the acceleration of professional development for managers and executives. 110
Since executive coaching is so new, few studies evaluating its effectiveness currently
exist. One study revealed that participants in an executive coaching program viewed it as
very valuable and that they had changed their behaviors. In another study, most executives
rated their executive coaching experience as very satisfactory. Most leaders like coaching
because they receive direct one-on-one assistance from a respected person, they don’t have
to leave their offices, it fits within their time frames, and they can see fast results if they
are dedicated to it. 111 Novations, a Boston-based consulting firm, noted that 48 percent of
firms are relying on coaching at the same rate as in the past, 19 percent are increasingly
Supervisors and Career Counseling
Executive Coaching
Use of 360-degree appraisal
Limited research but quite positive
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relying on coaching, and 33 percent of U.S. firms are relying less on coaching than they
have in the past. The decrease in reliance may be due to what they call “commodity coach-
ing” whereby a coaching firm provides so many days of coaching to multiple leaders in the
organization, which is really just training hours, not executive-level coaching. 112
With the increasing numbers of women, immigrants, minorities, and people with disabili-
ties entering the workplace, employers have recognized the importance of assisting these
employees with their career needs. The primary issues facing employers are recruiting and
selecting diverse employees, promoting them, and retaining them in the organization. To
adhere to EEO or affirmative action guidelines, some organizations are supporting minor-
ity recruitment, selection, and training efforts (see Chapter 5). They are also providing ad-
ditional feedback, educational opportunities, counseling, and career management seminars
to meet the unique needs of these groups. 113 These practices are designed to help these
employees compete for management positions. For example, top managers at Xerox, Ko-
dak, and Cisco encourage the development of networks and support groups for women and
minority groups (e.g., African Americans, Hispanics). Working Mother magazine rates the Best Companies for Multicultural Women. It notes that it takes more than having strong di-
versity programs in place to be a Best Company. A firm also has to have resources and top-
level commitment—and perhaps most important, accountability on the part of managers
for the advancement of multicultural women. Those top 23 firms that met these criteria in
2011 included: Allstate, American Express, CA Technologies, Chubb Group of Insurance
Companies, Cisco, Citi, Colgate-Palmolive, Deloitte, General Mills, Goldman Sachs, IBM,
JP Morgan Chase, KPMG, Macy’s, McDonald’s USA, New York Life Insurance, Pepsico,
PricewaterhouseCoopers, Procter and Gamble, Sodexo, State Farm Insurance, Verizon
Communications, and Wal-Mart. 114
Tenneco established a women’s advisory council to help identify the barriers that kept
women from advancing into management. As a result, more women were able to move into
Tenneco’s upper management ranks. Other companies, including Dow Chemical Com-
pany, Honeywell, Polaroid, Deloitte, Goldman Sachs, New York Life Insurance, and GE
Silicone, also have solicited assistance and advice from women’s groups in the recruit-
ment, mentoring, and advancement of women. Pepsico has a powerful ally in its Women of Color Multicultural Alliance , a group that serves as an advocate for those advancing, while State Farm Insurance maintains an online talent profile or dossier of her professional
experience to quickly locate those with the experience needed for various jobs. 115
Catalyst is one of the most prominent nonprofit organizations called upon to assist firms in their efforts to capitalize on the talents of their female employees and maximize
opportunities for women in management positions. This is critical because women often
see many barriers to senior-level management positions. 116 Catalyst published a book on
creating women’s networks in organizations. In it, Catalyst documented the successful
networking efforts by companies such as Dow Chemical, Bausch & Lomb, Kodak, and
Kimberly-Clark. Networks are an effective system for assisting employees with career
issues and addressing their unique concerns (e.g., social isolation, discrimination, glass
ceiling). The benefits of these networks include serving as advisors to senior management
and human resource staff regarding issues for the particular population, such as women
and minorities, providing support, providing career development assistance, and helping
the organization to change.
In 2011, for the first time, Working Mother magazine rated the Best Companies for Women’s Advancement. It listed 10 companies, which included American Express, Bank
of America, Deloitte, Ernst & Young, General Electric, General Mills, IBM, KPMG, Mar-
riott International, and Procter & Gamble. The magazine noted that in those firms, women
represented 39 percent of all managers and above. It also pointed out that some of the key
practices used to help advance women at those firms included career counseling, affinity
groups, formal mentoring, management training, sponsorship programs, succession plan-
ning, and executive coaching. Also, at 90 percent of these firms, manager compensation is
tied to the number of women who advance. This means managers are expected to receive
training on the following: how to hire, advance, or manage women; work-life concerns;
Programs for Women, Minorities, and Employees with Disabilities
Best companies for multicultural women
Catalyst research
Best companies for women’s advancement
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implementing and managing flexible work arrangements; and programs to identify and
resolve wage-gap grievances. 117
The so-called opt-out revolution is receiving a great deal of media attention. This is a term that describes the trend of highly trained and educated women, mostly mothers,
choosing to drop out of the job market to devote more attention to the family. A review
examines this trend and presents a “kaleidoscope” career model that fits concerns for life
balance and challenge with the demands of parenting. “Like a kaleidoscope that produces
changing patterns when the tube is rotated and its glass chips fall into new arrangements,
women shift the pattern of their careers by rotating different aspects in their lives to arrange
their roles and relationships in new ways.” 118 The review also presents guidelines on how
women can increase career success and how organizations can improve the workplace so
as to attract and retain valuable women. Similarly, other researchers note that the term opt- ing out may be inappropriate and argue instead that women are enacting an updated “we are self-employed” model to reflect the new types of activities they are engaged in. 119
When an employee begins working in a company, he or she generally has been exposed to some
type of recruitment effort and company orientation or onboarding. Onboarding is an organized
process by a company to socialize new employees so that they can acquire the necessary knowl- edge, skills, and behaviors to become effective employees in the specific firm. 120 Companies
will use a variety of methods including formal meetings, lectures, videos, printed materials,
or computer-based orientations to introduce newcomers to their new jobs. Programs also are
often used to educate employees about any career programs, career paths, and opportunities for
advancement. For example, Texas Instruments has developed an orientation program to address
the unique concerns of new employees regarding career options. 121 This program includes a re-
alistic job preview, an introduction to the formal mentoring program, a bibliography of readings
relevant to career planning, and a guideline for career planning based on a study of Texas Instru-
ment employees. The American Express Learning Network, a team of learning and development
professionals, launched Connections, an orientation program that educates new employees about
the firm’s values, vision, and customers. A specially trained facilitator developed a customized
curriculum for each group of new employees based on their prehire screening assessments. At
Wakemed Health & Hospitals, a private health care system based in Raleigh, North Carolina,
nursing fellows attend orientations and ongoing educational programs throughout the year, and
during their first months on the job they participate in a personalized clinical orientation on their
units. This training and support enhances their patient-care skills and professional development. 122
Research has shown that onboarding programs help to socialize new employees, which
leads to positive outcomes for them, such as higher job satisfaction, better job performance,
greater organizational commitment, reduction in stress, and intent to quit. 123 This is really
important to companies trying to retain a competitive advantage in an increasingly mobile
and globalized workforce. Zappos believes in making sure they get the right people in their
firm, and even offers money to newcomers to leave if they feel like it is not a good fit.
In the United States, up to 25 percent of workers are organizational newcomers engaged
in an onboarding process. As an example, PricewaterhouseCoopers hosts an onboarding
program for new African American hires and is rated as one of best companies for multi-
cultural women. 124
Executive onboarding is the application of onboarding principles to help new executives
become effective members of an organization. 125 This is very important, especially during the
first full year of the executive’s job, since a study of 20,000 searches revealed that 40 percent
of executives hired at the senior level are pushed out, fail, or quit within 18 months. 126 Research
has shown that the effective onboarding of new executives can improve productivity and execu-
tive retention and build shared corporate culture. It has also been demonstrated to be effective
for executives promoted into new roles or transferred from one business unit to another. 127
In recent years, the number of older workers has increased because of the aging of the Baby-
Boom generation. With increasing corporate restructurings, and economic difficulties,
some firms have opted to use early retirement for their older employees rather than
Programs for New Employees (Early- Career Issues)
Programs for Late Career and Retirement
Onboarding
Executive onboarding
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retraining and redeploying them. And more employees have been choosing to retire
early. 128 As a result, late-career and retirement issues have become increasingly important
to organizations. 129
Some organizations offer programs to help managers increase their awareness of
issues facing late-career employees. It is critical that employers handle retirement
issues effectively since they affect not only the retirees, but also the morale of the
remaining staff. Generally managers are instructed on the changing demographics
of the workforce, laws regarding older employees, stereotypes and realities of the
aging process, and strategies for dealing with the loss of older employees who retire
(i.e., the loss in their departments of expertise and skills). Managers also may be taught
to develop action plans for enhancing the performance of their older workers. These
plans involve giving older workers more concrete feedback, allowing them to serve
as mentors, and providing them with training and cross-training opportunities. It is
important that managers help employees deal with career plateaus so they can con-
tinue to be challenged and productive. In some cases, providing ongoing coaching and
opportunities for personal and professional development is needed. This will be particu-
larly important for those older workers who take on intraorganizational job changes or
international assignments. 130
It is critical that older employees are aided in their transition to retirement. To do this,
many companies have instituted retirement planning programs. The focus of preretirement
workshops is to help preretirees understand the life and career concerns they may face as
they prepare for retirement. Topics that may be discussed include health, finances, making
the transition from work to retirement status, safety, housing and location, legal affairs,
time utilization, Social Security, second careers, use of leisure time, and problems of aging.
Often, individual counseling and group workshops are used, and efforts are made to tailor
the programs to the needs of the participants and their spouses. Another type of assistance
given to preretirees may be for education such as the Retirement Education Assistance Plan
available to potential retirees at IBM.
It is also important to offer flexible work schedules for late-career employees.
Some do not want to quit their jobs but want to cut back the number of hours they
work so they can enjoy their hobbies, go back to school, travel, or spend more time
with their families. Polaroid gave its older employees the option to share jobs rather
than be laid off. Many companies, such as McDonald’s, Home Shopping Network,
Aetna, Prudential, GEICO, Wal-Mart, and Monsanto, have hired older employees
to work part-time or for temporary jobs. This has been beneficial due to the critical
shortage of young people to hire. In fact, a study by the Society for Human Resource
Management found that over 80 percent of firms that aggressively recruited and hired
older employees found them to be more amenable than younger individuals to work-
ing part-time. 131 As employees age, it is going to be imperative for organizations in
the United States, and in other parts of the world, to make good use of the expertise
and talent residing in their older employees if they are to remain competitive. To do
this, firms will need to make sure that their older workers feel valued in the work-
place. Ageism and indulging in stereotypes toward older workers can reduce the ef-
fectiveness of all employees. 132
Society has seen increasing numbers of working mothers and two-income households.
Recent reports have indicated that 90 percent of working adults expressed a concern about
not spending enough time with their family. In addition the total number of hours worked
by employees has increased continuously over the last 20 years. 133 In recent years, orga-
nizations have been much more interested in developing family-responsive policies and
programs designed to alleviate individuals’ conflicts between work and family. Several
such organizational trends in these practices include
■ Increasing use of flexible work schedules and training for managers in implementing
the schedules.
■ More openings of on-site childcare centers.
Programs to Improve Work–Family Balance
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Flexible work schedules
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■ A greater number of companies (e.g., Xerox, Motorola) setting aside monies employees
can use for paying childcare costs or buying a first home.
■ Greater use of paid leaves for fathers and adoptive parents.
■ More programs that set goals for advancing women into senior management positions
and increasing numbers of companies holding managers accountable for meeting these
goals.
■ Continued support and funding for American Business Collaboration for Quality De-
pendent Care, which has funded over $136 million since 1992 to improve and expand
childcare, backup care, and elder care in communities. Major champion companies
include: Deloitte, ExxonMobil, IBM, Johnson & Johnson, and Texas Instruments
(see www.abcdependentcare.com ).
For the past 25 years, Working Mother magazine has rated the best companies for working mothers. In 2010, it rated the best 100 companies that offer programs to help
all employees with their challenges to gain work-life balance. Of these, it found that
93 percent offered programs to identify and resolve work-life grievances. Some of the top
100 companies highlighted key practices for advancing women (e.g., Accenture, Bain &
Company, Bon Secours Richmond Health System); mentoring and leadership programs
(e.g., Boston Consulting Group, Citi, Dell, Grant Thornton, KPMG); tuition reimburse-
ment or sabbaticals (e.g., Carlson, Colgate-Palmolive, Deloitte); childcare or adoption
assistance (e.g., DuPont, Genentech, Procter & Gamble); telecommuting (e.g., Ernst &
Young); diversity councils, networks, and programs (e.g., First Horison National, Marriott
International, Morgan Stanley); and wellness programs (e.g., General Electric, Kellogg’s,
Turner Broadcasting System). 134
Many employees, particularly members of dual-career couples, have expressed less will- ingness to accept relocation offers from their employers. In a large-scale study of U.S.
firms, spouse willingness to relocate was shown to be the most important factor related to
employee willingness to relocate. 135 It is not surprising then that some organizations have
begun offering relocation assistance to the spouses of their employees. Companies vary in
the amount and type of assistance provided to employees and spouses considering reloca-
tions. Assistance ranges from none at all to locating jobs for spouses. One study found that
50 percent of U.S. firms provide job-related assistance to a “trailing spouse.” Unisys pays up to $500 to a spouse to help with résumé writing and job hunting. 136 Motorola provides
assistance to dual-career couples by finding jobs for spouses of employees who take in-
ternational assignments. Both the spouse and the expatriate were found to view the policy
positively. 137 Johnson & Johnson offers personal counseling and job search information to
relocating families. Some companies (ConAgra, Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway)
have hired relocation consultants and firms to assist them in planning the relocation of large
numbers of employees. They also involved employees throughout the planning process. 138
Some firms have altered their policy on “nepotism” to allow hiring both spouses. They may still keep the rule that an employee cannot work under the direct supervision of his or
her spouse. There are a number of benefits to hiring both spouses, including lower recruit-
ing and relocation costs for the employer, and the practice encourages employees to remain
with the firm or to accept intraorganizational moves or transfers. It also helps employers
who are trying to hire for branches in remote geographical areas. Of course, one downside
is that if one of the spouses wants to leave the firm, the other may also leave.
Organizations are becoming more involved in designing programs to help employees
manage their work–family role conflict by providing a place and procedure for discuss-
ing conflicts and coping strategies. 139 For example, KPMG launched web-based training
for employees and managers to help them have more productive conversations about
career development and introduced an interactive website to help staffers identify steps
for building satisfying careers. Organizations are changing their practices for recruitment,
travel, transfers, promotions, scheduling hours, and benefits to meet the needs of the larger
numbers of dual-career couples. General Electric and Procter and Gamble require fewer
Policies on Hiring Couples and Relocation Assistance
Work–Family Programs
Best companies for working mothers
Assistance for “trailing spouse”
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geographic moves in order to advance. Booz Allen Hamilton has created new part-time
career models. DuPont has been very active in providing assistance to its more than 3,500
dual-career couples and has developed more flexible employment plans to accommodate
the family demands of both male and female employees. DuPont also trains its supervisors
to be more sensitive to family issues, allows longer parental leave for fathers and mothers,
and has instituted adjustable work schedules. Mobil Oil provides flexible work schedules,
a part-time option, childbirth and other leaves, and a national network of childcare in-
formation. General Mills created new time-off options to help staffers maintain balance,
including flex vacation and sabbaticals. IBM offers a range of programs from flexible
work schedules and meeting-free Fridays to online resources that identify job and learning
opportunities.
Employers have been adopting a number of flexible work arrangements in order to as-
sist employees. Some of these include flextime, job sharing, part-time work, compressed
workweeks, temporary work, and work at home (telecommuting). These programs enable
employees to address their work and family concerns and reduce their potential stress or
conflict between their various life roles. Of the 100 firms rated the best for working moth-
ers, many have flexible work arrangements (e.g., Abbott, Allstate Insurance, American
Express, Bank of America, Cisco).
Telecommuting is growing in popularity. According to SHRM’s 2010 Employee Ben- efits survey 55 percent of employers offer telecommuting. Of these, 44 percent offer it on an ad hoc basis, 34 percent offer it on a part-time basis, and 17 percent offer it on a
full-time basis. Of the 100 employers listed on Fortune’s 2011 list of the 100 best com- panies to work for, 82 offer telecommuting options to their employees. In addition, five
(e.g., Deloitte, Cisco, Intel, Accenture, Teach for America) have 80 percent or more of
their employees who telecommute regularly. Companies across Europe and in Australia
cited “increasing employee productivity” as the key driver behind the adoption of a flex-
ible work arrangement. American firms cited “employee retention” as their top reason for
using telecommuting. 140
In another survey, a third of U.S. companies surveyed offered employees the option of
working at home, and many gave them computers linking them to the office. Home-based
work is found primarily in firms in industries such as education, professional services,
consulting, small business, repair, and social-service occupations. Gandalf Technologies,
a computer networking company, allows employees to telecommute from home several
days a week. Deloitte LLP offers most of its 45,000 employees nationwide the option to
telecommute as many as 5 days of the week and has done this for the past 15 years. In fact,
86 percent of Deloitte’s workers telecommute for at least 20 percent of the workweek.
AT&T lets many of its employees telecommute at least part of the week from home via
computer. Many U.S. companies now have call-center operations that are handled by part-
time employees working at home. 141
Some difficulties with telecommuting are communication problems with other employ-
ees, limited access to necessary supplies and equipment, and family interruptions. Another
issue is how to supervise such workers and how to make sure they quickly get oriented to
the firm.
There are a number of benefits to telecommuting. IBM and Deloitte have saved consid-
erable money on office space by going mobile through telecommuting, “hoteling” (being
assigned to a desk via a reservations system), and “hot desking” (several people using the
same desk at different times). In fact, Deloitte LLP was able to reduce office space and
energy costs by 30 percent and saved $30 million in 2008 after redesigning facilities to
accommodate mobile workers who don’t need permanent desks. Delta Air Lines allows
reservation agents to volunteer to work at home and as of 2011, more than 570 of the 5,000
agents worked from home full-time. This enabled them to reduce facility expenses by
$1 million in 2011. Many studies show that people’s strategic planning skills go up when
they telecommute since they have uninterrupted time to think clearly. In fact, it has been
estimated that people who work at home are 5 to 20 percent more productive because they
have fewer distractions. 142 It may be important to provide orientation or training to educate
employees and managers on the rules of telecommuting.
Flexible Work Arrangements and Telecommuting
Telecommuting growing in popularity in U.S.
Many benefits for telecommuting
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With the passage in 1993 of the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), employers with more than 50 employees are required to allow 12 weeks of unpaid leave from work for
either parent following the birth, adoption, or severe illness of a child. By 1996, more com-
panies were offering financial aid for adoption. Two-thirds of the top-rated 100 companies
for working mothers provided this benefit (e.g., Eli Lilly offers up to $10,000). Credit
Suisse offers a Maternity Coaching program that prepares women for maternity leave by
establishing the steps they need to take to ensure a smooth transition. At Discovery Com-
munications, new moms can take 9 fully paid weeks off while dads can also take off 3 fully
paid weeks. Fannie Mae provides all new parents at least 4 fully paid weeks off after a birth
or adoption. The McGraw-Hill Companies provides a Maternity Management program,
which helps with doctor’s appointments and nursing consultations. 143
Despite these advances, some unresolved issues and obstacles facing pregnant em-
ployees still exist. With pressures at work, they may be rushed by their bosses through
maternity leave or denied comparable jobs or promotions when they return to their jobs. 144
The workplace culture may emphasize overtime work to such a degree that employees are
discouraged from taking advantage of maternity or paternity leave policies. Employees
may be reluctant to take time off out of fear of losing their jobs in this era of downsizings.
Mothers, in particular, may be concerned about being passed over for promotions, which
researchers have found does happen. 145
Job pressures are related to increased risks for pregnant women. One study found that
women lawyers who worked more than 45 hours a week were three times more likely
to experience a miscarriage in the first trimester of pregnancy than were women who
worked less than 35 hours a week. Pregnant employees may face stereotypes among their
colleagues who believe they will lose interest in their jobs or quit. A study of 140 bank
employees found that their performance actually increased during pregnancy. In addition,
it was noted that 80 percent of women return to work after maternity leave. Cigna Health-
Care in Hartford, Connecticut, developed a training program to debunk stereotypes about
pregnant women and to help managers be supportive in dealing with pregnant employees.
A few tips follow. 146
■ Discuss and reach agreement with a pregnant employee on how her work will be cov-
ered during her leave.
■ Discuss with co-workers worries they have about covering for a woman on leave. Make
sure the work is distributed fairly.
■ Be patient with new mothers’ efforts to balance their expanded responsibilities.
■ Weigh short-term scheduling hassles against the long-term benefits of retaining an
employee.
Today employees must concern themselves with both childcare and elder care. Elder care
may be of great concern to employees, particularly if their parents suffer from health
problems. Firms providing elder care as a benefit to employees include Gannett Co., First
Union Corporation, General Motors Corporation, Eddie Bauer, The DuPont Merck Phar-
maceutical Company, Corning, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Baptist Health South Flor-
ida, and Deloitte & Touche LLP. 147
Generally employers find it beneficial to provide childcare assistance to employees,
which results in higher morale, easier recruitment of parents as employees, lower turnover,
and tax savings. When employers assisted employees with childcare or elder care con-
cerns, it was found that these employees did not have to use company time to make phone
calls, visit doctors, and so on. DuPont reported savings of $6.78 for every dollar spent on
resource and referral, and Aetna reported $3.59 in savings per dollar spent. 148 Marriott
reported savings in reduced turnover with its “Associate Resource Line,” a toll-free hot
line with bilingual social workers who provide advice on childcare and elder care issues,
among other things.
Some employers (e.g., Bankers Trust New York Corporation, Merrill Lynch & Co.,
Microsoft) have opened backup centers to help employees who run into problems with
their childcare arrangements or with sick children. First Tennessee Bank opened a
Maternity and Paternity Leave
ChildCare and Elder Care Services
Unresolved issues for pregnant women
Very positive effects for childcare services
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center for mildly sick children to cut down on employee absences when parents had to stay
home with sick children. The center has saved the company considerable money. Working Mother magazine reported the 2010 Best 100 Companies that offer full-time, part-time, or backup childcare (e.g., Bristol-Myers Squibb, Covington & Burling, Prudential Financial, Yale
University). It also noted the firms that provided a resource and referral service to help families
locate childcare services (e.g., Diageo North America, Merck) as well as other companies that
provide special services. For example, MasterCard Worldwide helps families with autistic chil-
dren with payment for visits to speech, physical, and outpatient behavior therapists. 149
Businesses that offer flexible schedules, part-time or alternative work options, work–family
conflict seminars, and telecommuting are not just being nice to their employees. These programs
have an impact on the bottom line. They have been shown to increase employees’ loyalty,
thereby reducing turnover and absenteeism and increasing productivity. One organizational
survey of 2,376 pregnant women in 80 communities across the United States found that those
in the most accommodating companies in terms of health insurance, sick days, job- protected
leave, flexible scheduling, and supervisor understanding were more satisfied with their jobs,
took fewer sick days, worked more on their own time, worked later into their pregnancies,
and were more likely to return to work. 150
One survey of 75 large corporations with these programs found increased commitment
to the job, higher morale, higher productivity, superior job performance, and reduced ab-
senteeism. 151 Flextime, job sharing, and part-time work seem to be the most effective and
least costly programs in terms of keeping employees and increasing productivity. Neuville
Industries, a 575-employee sock manufacturer in North Carolina, found that with its work–
family programs (on-site day care center, flextime, emergency backup childcare) turnover
was half (45 percent a year) the industry average (80 to 100 percent at other plants). At
Aetna Health Plans, telecommuting has increased productivity of claims processed by
29 percent. The firm is also saving $12,000 per year in office space. Deloitte & Touche
allowed reduced hours for partners, provided the opportunity for employees to be made
partner while working part-time, and made more women partners, decreasing turnover
8 percent between 1993 and 1995.
One recent article on the “boundaryless” trend examined the perceived impact of an in- ternational assignment on career advancement and the effectiveness of expatriate career
management systems. The majority of expatriates viewed their international assignment as
an opportunity for professional development and career advancement yet expressed skepti-
cism that the assignment would be helpful for advancement within their own companies.
In fact, individuals and organizations have different views on why employees take inter-
national assignments in the first place. Employers often underestimate the importance of
career, work–life balance, and development considerations and overestimate the financial
reasons for why individuals take the assignments. 152
As we discussed in Chapter 8, more organizations have been offering training for expatri-
ates to prepare them for overseas assignments. While this is important, it is also critical to
offer some developmental opportunities for repatriates to prepare them for their return back
to the firm after an overseas assignment. It has been estimated that 15 to 40 percent of repa- triates leave the company within 12 to 18 months of their return from overseas assignments. Many organizations find themselves losing valuable, highly skilled employees simply be-
cause the repatriation process was handled poorly. 153 Commonplace in Japanese and Euro-
pean firms, repatriation programs often do not exist in U.S. firms. One survey revealed that
only 30 percent of U.S. companies reported any type of repatriation program for managers
reentering the domestic organization. This may explain why U.S. managers who are repatri-
ates have more difficulties adjusting than do their Japanese and European counterparts. 154
Often the difficulties associated with reentry are not anticipated by an employee, his or
her family, or the organization. Most U.S. repatriates experience considerable adjustment
problems and “reentry shock” upon their return to their firm. They report having difficulty
getting back to high levels of productivity. If they have been abroad for a long time, they
may be technologically obsolete. 155 Problems often occur because the organization does
Effectiveness of Programs
Repatriates
Higher job satisfaction and fewer sick days are positive effects
High turnover rates for repatriates
Adjustment problems for repatriates
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
not realize that the repatriate needs assistance in readapting to work-related and non-work-
related routines. Because the person is coming “home,” issues such as reverse culture
shock often are not addressed. 156 Yet foreign experience may have changed the employee’s
attitudes and beliefs in a profound way. The changes may have occurred so subtly that
the employee does not initially recognize these internal changes. Repatriates often are not
given enough time to become reacclimated to life in the United States. Some experts state
that it may take as long as 18 months for them to readjust. Repatriates often report feeling
disoriented in their communities and among co-workers.
Repatriates report frustration with their organizations’ limited attempts to place them
back in permanent assignments. Many complain that they are penalized for taking interna-
tional assignments because they are placed in lower-level positions than their peers when
they return. They may find that they have been passed over for promotion opportunities. In
one survey of 56 U.S.-based multinational firms, 56 percent said a foreign assignment was
detrimental or immaterial in one’s career, 47 percent said the repatriates are not guaranteed
jobs with the organization upon completion of the assignment, and 65 percent reported
that the foreign assignment was not integrated into their overall career planning. In addi-
tion, only 20 percent considered the organization’s repatriation policies adequate to meet
repatriates’ needs. 156 In a more recent survey, expatriates reported low satisfaction with
and serious concerns about their company’s repatriation program and policies. They expe-
rienced major setbacks in their careers upon their return home. This is not surprising since
most organizations do not fully utilize the new skills and experiences that repatriates bring
back to their firms. Managers often are not sure how to establish career paths or ladders for
those who have taken an international assignment. 157
The following is a list of problems repatriates may face within their companies. 158
■ Feeling out of place in the corporate culture of the home office.
■ Receiving little, if any, guidance regarding the career opportunities available upon their
return.
■ Being passed over for promotions that go to co-workers who did not go abroad.
■ Receiving lower salaries than while they were on the international assignment.
■ Not being able to effectively utilize the new skills that were acquired while abroad; not
receiving support for using those skills.
■ Not receiving recognition for the work that was completed during the international as-
signment.
■ Losing the social status as a key employee at the foreign office.
For a repatriation program to be effective, it must be part of an overall organizational
philosophy that values continued productive employment of international employees. The
organization must be committed to addressing all phases of international assessments,
beginning with a pretraining program to prepare employees before they leave on their
assignments to a reentry program when they return. The career or training staff must be
willing to take on the role of a “repatriation advocate.” They should track international assignments and reasons employees leave assignments early or leave the company early.
Many companies have set up permanent offices in other countries. Career staff should col-
lect information that addresses cultural, communication, and job-related issues faced by
most employees assigned to regions of the world. Linkages between the region or foreign
country, the type of assignment held, and the difficulties experienced with returning to the
home office should be documented. By using this information, the career staff can more
accurately determine the specific career needs of repatriates and advocate for them.
For repatriates’ transitions to be successful, several career development practices are
recommended. 159
■ A year before they return they should begin a repatriation program.
■ Once back to the firm, retraining and reorientation should be provided to help them
learn of any new changes in their job, department, corporate culture, or organization.
Problems for repatriates
Organization should have repatriation “advocates”
Recommended practices should reduce stress
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■ Repatriates should be given opportunities to use the experiences and skills they gained
from their international assignments.
■ They should be given definite assignments, and these assignments should be clearly
linked to their career paths.
■ Mentors should be provided to repatriates to help them cope with their transition.
■ Ongoing career management should be provided to them.
■ Assistance in housing and compensation should be provided to ease their transition.
Taken together, these practices should reduce the stress and disorientation experienced
by repatriates as well as improve their performance. As a result, repatriates may become
more committed to the firm and opt to remain there.
SUMMARY Career development programs must be integrated with and supported by the existing HR
programs in the organization if they are to be successful. Career programs and HR pro-
grams need to be linked to meet individuals’ growth needs and the organization’s staffing
needs. 3M has established a career resources department to better integrate its career pro-
grams, performance appraisal process, and HR planning systems. Boeing’s development
program called CAREERS is linked with its other HR programs. 160
Individuals should have access to performance appraisal information and maps of or-
ganizational career paths to help them in career planning. This information may help
employees evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in order to set goals based on possible
career alternatives. Supervisors should be able to use performance appraisal data to assist
employees in developing realistic career plans. In Coca-Cola’s career program, managers
are given training to provide such guidance. 161
Career or job changes by employees should be based on an overall understanding of or-
ganizations’ job descriptions, job posting systems, and selection policies. The continued de-
velopment of employees and rewards for their performance should be founded on strategic
organizational training and development systems and compensation plans. Organizational
career information and planning systems should be developed to be consistent with the
organization’s strategic plans and existing forecasting systems, skills inventories, and suc-
cession plans. Coordinated, integrated efforts of the career staff, managers, and employees
themselves are the key to success in an organization’s career development program.
Career development programs must be concerned with organizational and individual
effectiveness over the short and long run. It is the responsibility of the career staff to work
with management to ensure that career programs are integrated with the HR functions and
are routinely evaluated. It is, however, the responsibility of management to view career de-
velopment as necessary to an effective HR system. Managers must be willing to work with
career professionals to formulate new strategies for career development and to provide sup-
port to them as they design and implement new career development programs. 162 Finally, it
is the responsibility of the individual to create his or her own career opportunities.
Discussion Questions 1. Should organizations adopt formal career development policies and programs?
How do these programs affect their ability to be flexible in terms of staffing?
How do they influence their ability to recruit employees?
2. What would you say to those who argue that establishing attractive career programs for employees will only enhance their own marketability and enable
them to leave the firm faster?
3. What is the role of EEO in career development? What is the role of the training or career staff in designing and implementing career development programs? C
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Career programs should be integrated with other HR programs
Focus should be on organizational and individual effectiveness
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3 / Developing Human Resource Capability
4. Recently, the role of managers has changed and today more are being called to be career “coaches” for their employees. What suggestions would you give to
managers about what that new role involves? What if they say they don’t have
time to be a career coach? How would you convince them that this role is critical
today for retaining today’s workers, especially Gen Y workers?
5. Describe several career development programs that would be useful for individuals planning on making a career or job change. Suppose they have
worked in one field for 7–10 years (e.g., engineering) and have decided to switch
jobs (e.g., to consulting). How should they prepare for this change?
6. What is the value of self-assessment for individual career planning and organizational career management? Why should employees seek feedback from
others regarding their job performance and career plans? How could performance
appraisal information (360-degree appraisal) be used to assist individuals in career
development?
7. Why is it important to integrate career development programs with other programs in organizations (e.g., performance appraisal, training, selection,
compensation)? Offer some suggestions for how this can be done.
8. Should organizations make special efforts to deal with career–family issues through part-time work, job sharing, flextime, relocation assistance, and other
programs? Should they also have special programs in place for employees who
are not married nor parents?
9. With the increasing number of organizations experiencing downsizings and layoffs, it has become critical that they have career programs in place to assist
outplaced employees. What suggestions would you offer for the types of
assistance that are needed in outplacement programs?
10. Companies are increasingly expecting their employees to take international assignments, and yet they are not providing much career development for them
while they are away and when they return. Why is this important to do? What
recommendations would you offer?
11. How can companies use career programs to retain their most talented employees? How might these differ for the various generations at the workplace (e.g., Gen Y,
Gen X, Baby Boomers, Traditionalists)? What career programs would keep you
employed at a particular firm?
12. During troubled economic times (e.g., financial crisis), what advice would you give to today’s workers so that they could continue to thrive in their careers?
352
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735
Name Group
FORM 9.2.1 CAREER SELF-ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT
PART A: VALUES AND EXPERIENCES
1. Describe the roles in your life that are important to you. Examples might include your work or career, family life, leisure, religious life, community life, and volunteer activities. Explain why these roles are important to you.
Indicate how important each role is to your total life satisfaction. Assign a percent to each role (0 to 100 percent)
so that the total adds up to 100 percent.
2. Describe your background and experiences, including
a. Education. List the names of technical schools or colleges you have attended. List degrees earned or to be earned and your major or minor.
b. Work experience. List any jobs you have held, including part- and full-time jobs, voluntary jobs, internships, cooperative education (co-ops).
c. Skills. Describe any skills that you possess that you feel would be valued in the workplace.
d. Extracurricular activities. Describe any nonwork activities that you engage in for personal development or recreational pursuits.
e. Accomplishments. Summarize any recognition you have received that is related to your education, work experience, skills, or extracurricular activities.
3. Read the following list of skills. Put a 1 next to those you feel you are particularly strong in and circle those you would like to develop more thoroughly in the future.
Communication (written or oral communication, listening skills)
Management skills (supervising, persuading others, planning, organizing, delegating, motivating others)
Interpersonal skills (working effectively with others)
Team building (working effectively with groups or teams)
Creativity (innovativeness, generating ideas)
Training skills (ability to teach skills and knowledges to others)
Mathematical skills (computation ability, budgeting, accounting proficiency)
Sales/promotion (ability to persuade, negotiate, influence)
Scientific skills (investigative abilities, researching, analyzing)
Service skills (handling complaints, customer relations)
Office skills (word processing, filing, bookkeeping, recordkeeping)
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736
Dependability in completing work
Flexibility and open-mindedness
Perseverance/willingness to work
Ability to set and achieve goals
Tolerance for ambiguous, unusual, or different ideas or situations
Ability to lead projects
Integrity in work (honesty)
Ability and interest in coaching others as needed
Ability and interest in supporting or recognizing others’ contributions
Emotional maturity
Initiative/independence
Punctuality
Ability to handle conflict
Ability to plan, organize, and determine work priorities
Ability to work with others
Willingness to do more than is expected (to go above and
beyond requirements)
Tolerance for changes in assignments or team
members
4. Rate yourself on each of the following personal qualities or work characteristics. Write one response for each
characteristic, using the following scale: 1 � very low; 2 � low; 3 � average; 4 � high; 5 � very high.
PART B: WORK ATTITUDES AND PREFERENCES
1. Describe an ideal job for you. What would it be like? Describe the activities, people, rewards, and other features that would be a part of your job experience.
2. Think about the ideal job you described above. Rank the following values or attributes in terms of how important they are for you in your work (1 � most important; 12 � least important). No ties allowed.
Values/Conditions Rank
Independence or autonomy ________
Financial reward or affluence ________
Sense of achievement or accomplishment ________
Helping others ________
Creating something ________
Equality, fairness ________
Loyalty ________
Job security ________
Pleasant working conditions ________
Friendships at work ________
Variety of tasks ________
Opportunities for promotions ________
FORM 9.2.1 (Continued)
Name Group
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3. What talents do you wish to use in your work?
4. What type of working relationship with other people do you prefer? That is, do you prefer working alone or with other people? Do you enjoy working with a few people you know well or helping people you don’t know?
5. What type of physical work setting is desirable to you (e.g., office, outdoors, plant facility, working at home)?
6. How much freedom and independence do you want in your work? For example, do you want to set your own
hours? Determine your own projects? How much guidance or structure by others do you need in your work
(i.e., do you need others to outline the scope of your projects and provide deadlines)?
7. Think of one time when you felt like a real professional. What were you doing or what had you just done? Why
was this achievement meaningful?
PART C: GOALS AND ACTION PLANNING
1. Describe your career goals for the next several years.
2. What specific things will you need to do to meet your goals?
3. What internal and external obstacles might you encounter along the way toward achievement of your goals?
4. Describe any skills or assistance you will need to meet your goals.
5. How much commitment do you have to your goals? Explain.
FORM 9.2.1 (Continued)
Name Group
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- HRMCPS_Unit4Read
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