Human Development Paper Due 08/06/2018

The title for this Special Section is Context and Ethnic/Racial Identity, edited by Eleanor K. Seaton, Stephen Quintana, Maykel Verkuyten, and Gilbert C. Gee

Ecological Factors in Human Development

William E. Cross Jr. University of Denver

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1992) helped developmental psychologists comprehend and define “context” as a rich, thick multidimensional construct. His ecological systems theory consists of five layers, and within each layer are developmental processes unique to each layer. The four articles in this section limit the exploration of con- text to the three innermost systems: the individual plus micro- and macrolayers. Rather than examine both the physical features and processes, the articles tend to focus solely on processes associated with a niche. Pro- cesses explored include social identity development, social network dynamics, peer influences, and school- based friendship patterns. The works tend to extend the generalization of extant theory to the developmental experience of various minority group experiences.

Bronfenbrenner (1992) helped developmental psy- chologists comprehend and define “context” as a rich, thick multidimensional construct. His ecologi- cal systems theory consists of five layers, and within each layer are developmental processes unique to the layer, and relationships and interac- tions prototypical to the layers along with key fac- tors unique to a layer: (a) A child’s family and siblings and immediate physical home environment define the microsystem; (b) the neighborhood, school, church, and parks form the mesosystem; (c) parent–guardian workplace, fire department, wel- fare system, police, health care, and other forms of family social support constitute the exosystemic; and (d) the outermost layer or macrosystem incor- porates the local, state, and national government narratives, ideologies, and social policies.

The four articles in this section limit the explo- ration of context to the three innermost systems: the individual plus micro- and macrolayers. The Roma study explores dimensions of social identity (ethnic, national, familial, and religious) as experienced by a minority group compared to a dominant group. Because the focus is on social identity and individ- ual well-being, it is a stretch to consider it a contex- tual study. The remaining three studies all take

place at the macrolayer by exploring peer dynamics and interactions, social network analysis, and friendship patterns within school settings. Consis- tent with Barker (1978), Bronfenbrenner understood that the actual physical characteristics of a setting had the potential to elicit behaviors, yet none of the studies included the physical elements of the setting as a focus of study (Table 1).

Extant developmental theory and research long ago documented and established the importance of friendships, peer relations, group norms, and school settings as critical factors in human development; consequently, the four studies, although interesting, produce limited new knowledge. The studies con- ducted in Chile and the Balkans offer international exemplars for otherwise well-documented develop- mental factors, although the studies extend the gen- eralizability of processes to population seldom covered in previous research. Their findings strengthen the relevance of certain universal theo- rems underpinning human development. None of the studies contest theorems foundational to the discourse on ethnic racial identity (ERI) develop- ment, as explicated in the writings of Erikson (1994), Marcia (1993), and Phinney (1989).

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to William E. Cross, University of Denver, 422 Jackson Street, Denver, CO 80206. Electronic mail may be sent to william. [email protected].

© 2017 The Authors Child Development © 2017 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. All rights reserved. 0009-3920/2017/8803-0007 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12784

Child Development, May/June 2017, Volume 88, Number 3, Pages 767–769

Peer Influences on ERI Development

In the discussion section, it is stated that “peers in school matter and influence adolescents” for ERI content over time—which adds little new knowl- edge to the literature. However, reported for the first time is evidence of ERI coregulation among peers. Transactional analysis established long ago that communication reciprocity and coregulation are common place in everyday communication (Bodenmann, 1997).

Roma Study

The Roma study reminds us that social identity is better approached as a matrix than single factor or unidimensional construct, a pattern that held true across three international boundaries; however, the nations in question were from the same region of the world.

ERI Development and Friendships in Early Adolescence

One of the unique features of this study is that it extends the discourse on ERI development beyond the scope of the exploration and commitment domains and inserts a concern for identity resolu- tion, a factor more closely related to the identity achievement phase of ERI development. Again, given the importance of peer relations in practically all sectors of adolescent identity development the- ory and research, the findings showing the influ- ence on ERI resolution is not surprising and very much consistent with mainstream psychology.

Ethnic Identity Development Among Chilean Youth

The Chilean study makes clear at the onset that it does not seek to explore new theoretical dimensions nor did it contest extant theory rather it attempted to show the application of known theory to a

population and culture seldom included in previous research. The results point to the universality of ERI development while shedding light on the culture- specific challenges faced by an important and vul- nerable subpopulation found in Chilean society.

Future Recommendations

Social Network Analysis

In future studies it would be helpful if the social network analysis extended beyond the “who” and “how many” to an analysis of activities carried out with network contacts. Cochran, Larner, Riley, and Henderson (1993) found activities completed with a contact are in some ways more important than sim- ply capturing the demographic characteristics of a contact. In such new research it would be possible to distinguish between activities designed to protect against discrimination versus prideful activities that strengthen the person’s knowledge of the group’s history as well as activities that celebrate the group.

Social Media Postings

Social media exchanges have become an impor- tant vehicle for an unknown percentage of ERI youth. Reading and reacting to stranger–peer post- ings is probably a factor in modern ERI develop- ment and needs exploration.

Schools as Identity Settings

“School integration” can mean children entering the same building in the morning, but then other structural arrangements and school policies resegre- gate the student body by race and class. In future ERI studies conducted in school, more attention needs to be made to the places within the school that facilitate or inhibit social interactions related to ERI development. Barker (1978) long ego estab- lished that the space-setting arrangement can elicit behavior. Although relationships that take place within any layer of Bronfenbrenner’s model are important, elements of the space-physical setting need to be integrated into ERI research, as the lar- ger society’s concept of place continues to be rele- vant to ERI development.

Social Movement Participation

Youth express issues of ERI exploration, commit- ment, and resolution through participation in school–student organizations and/or social

Table 1 Studies and Ecological Context

Study Ecosystem situated

Ethnic identity development among Chilean youth

Person–Micro–Macrolayers

ERI development and friendships in early adolescence

Person–Micro–Macrolayers

Roma identity development Person–Social identity focus Peer influences on ERI development across multiple sites

Person–Micro–Macrolayers

768 Cross

movements or social movement organizations oper- ating outside the school but within one’s commu- nity. Future research should address how does participation in a movement such as “Black lives matter” influence ERI development? What distin- guishes activists from noninvolved?

Heard It Through the Grapevine

All minority communities have a grapevine sys- tem; there is need to study how ERI development is influenced by formal (school curriculum) as well as informal (grapevine, rumors, etc.) sources of information (and misinformation) about one’s group.

Daily Diary Studies

In the current batch of studies, context become processes associated with an ecological layer and not spatial place characteristics; dairy studies afford the opportunity to follow a person as she or he moves from place to place in the literal sense and encounter people and execute processes within each unique ecological niche (Yip & Fuligni, 2002). When carried out within a longitudinal design, one has perhaps the ideal method from conducting ecologi- cally sensitive ERI research. One of the most sensi- tive methodologies that allows the researcher to track person–process–place dynamics across 3–4 layers of the ecological concept was developed by Janet Swim and her associates at Penn State

University (Swim, Hyers, Cohen, Fitzgerald, & Bylsma, 2003).

References

Barker, R. G. (1978). Habitats, environments, and human behavior. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bodenmann, G. (1997). Dyadic coping: A systemic-trans- actional view of stress and coping among couples: The- ory and empirical findings. European Review of Applied Psychology, 47, 137–141.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1992). Ecological systems theory. Lon- don, UK: Jessica Kingsley.

Cochran, M., Larner, M., Riley, D., & Henderson, C. R., Jr. (1993). Extending families: The social networks of parents and their children. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Erikson, E. H. (1994). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: WW Norton.

Marcia, J. E. (1993). The ego identity status approach to ego identity. In J.E. Marcia (Ed.), Ego identity (pp. 3–21). New York, NY: Springer.

Phinney, J. S. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity develop- ment in minority group adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34–49. doi:10.1177/0272431689091004

Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., Fitzgerald, D. C., & Bylsma, W. H. (2003). African American college stu- dents’ experiences with everyday racism: Characteris- tics of and responses to these incidents. Journal of Black Psychology, 29, 38–67. doi:10.1177/0095798402239228

Yip, T., & Fuligni, A. J. (2002). Daily variation in ethnic identity, ethnic behaviors, and psychological well–being among American adolescents of Chinese descent. Child Development, 73, 1557–1572.

Commentary for Seaton 769

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