Unit 5.1 DB: Direct Instruction or Constructivist Learning
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EFFECTS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTIVISM ON LEARNERS’ CONGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY
Waitshega Tefo Smitta Moalosi
Department of Educational Foundations, University of Botswana,
BOTSWANA.
ABSTRACT
Direct instruction and Social constructivism are discussed in this paper as different
approaches that can enhance the learner’s cognitive development. Direct instruction
is teacher centered and the teacher is the director in the learning setting. Social
constructivism is learner centered and it enables learners to have ownership in
learning, and to develop their thinking more than those depending much on the
teacher guidance. This paper concludes that, social constructivism can have more
effect on the learner’s cognitive development than direct instruction. Learners will be able to share their ideas and collaborate with others to solve different problems they
encounter in the learning environment.
Keywords: Direct instructions, social constructivism, cognitive development
INTRODUCTION
The discussion in this paper is a comparison of Direct instruction and Social constructivism.
Direct instruction is a teacher centered approach while social constructivism is learner
centered. Teacher centered approaches makes the teacher to have more control in the
learning setting; and learners become passive recipients of information provided for them by
the teacher. In a learner-centered approach, learners construct knowledge and take
responsibility for their own learning. Social constructivism can enhance students’ learning
more than direct instruction approach. This reasoning is supported by discussing direct
instruction, and its four phases, social constructivism, and the four characteristics and situated
cognition.
DIRECT INSTRUCTION
Direct instruction is described as “an instructional model to teach well defined knowledge and skills needed for later learning” (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 409). Some examples of
direct instruction involve younger students using basic operations to solve math problems, students’ using grammar and punctuation in writing, and chemistry students’ balancing
equations. Eggen and Kauchak (2010) have found that direct instruction is effective when skills involve detailed steps. This is especially helpful in working with students who are low
achievers or with those with disabilities. A description of examples of a direct instruction
lesson are discussed below:
1. State learning objectives and orient students to learn the lesson: The teacher is expected to tell the students what they should be learning.
2. Review prerequisites: A revision of skills and concepts learned in previous lessons).
3. Present new materials: The teacher should is expected to present new information with examples to aid students’ learning.
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4. Conduct learning probes: Questions should be used to assess students’ level of
understanding (Slavin, 2012, p.185).
The above characteristics of direct lessons show that most work is done by the teacher.
The four phases of direct instruction are discussed (see Table below). The four phases of
direct instruction are cognitive in nature. Because the researchers mentioned below thought the four phases of direct instruction are related to human memory, it is important to discuss
them. This writer thinks that they represent a cognitive view of direct instruction. Eggen and
Kauchak (2010) suggested that, the model is cognitive and related to the human memory. The
above mentioned researcher’s findings are supported because one of the model’s cognitive
components, attention, is critical in human learning. Information from the environment
reaches the senses (sensory register) and then passes to the working memory when it is
attended to. It will be transferred to the Long-term memory where it will be stored
permanently. Learners can retrieve the information if they need to use it. Also, Eggen and
Kauchak (2010) proposed that Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of scaffolding is related to Direct
Instruction. Scaffolding is a process where an adult or an experienced peer help learners with
some activities, but when learners are capable of working alone; the adult should reduce
his/her guidance. (See the third phase of the model).
Table 1. Relationships between Phases and Cognitive Learning Components and Cognitive-
Based Direct Instruction (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010 p.410)
Phase Cognitive Learning Component
Introduction and Review: Teachers begin with form of introductory focus
and review previous work.
Attract attention
Access prior knowledge from long-term memory.
Developing Understanding:
Teachers describe and model the skill or explain
and present examples of the concept. Teachers
emphasize understanding.
Acquire declarative knowledge about the skill or
concept.
Encode declarative knowledge into long-term
memory.
Guided practice: Students practice the skill or
identify additional examples of the concept, and
the teacher provides scaffolding.
Move through the associative stage of developing
procedural knowledge.
Independent Practice: Students practice on their
own. Develop automaticity with the skill or concept.
The first phase Introduction and Review suggests that learning begins with attention. Students
are expected to pay attention in the beginning of the lesson. The teacher can find out the students’ opinions regarding the lesson by asking them to give descriptions of the ‘problem
asked’ and revise the work they have done to recover “prior knowledge from the long-term memory” (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010, p.411).
The second phase Developing Understanding focuses on the teacher as modeling the skills,
explaining and demonstrating how students should use the skills. In the second phase the
students obtain the ‘declarative and conditional knowledge’ that help them to be able to
adjust, and get used to applying knowledge in various situations. The declarative knowledge
contained in the Long-term memory is characterized by facts, concepts, procedures and rules
(Eggen and Kauchak, 2010).
Guided practice is emphasized in the third phase. Learners practice skills as teachers scaffold
them. The scaffolding metaphor suggests that teachers guide learners through the tasks that
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they are engaged in. As learners master the tasks, the teacher must reduce his/her assistance
so that learners can work by themselves without guidance.
The final phase is Independent Practice; the teacher assists students to shift from thinking
about the skill to ‘performing it automatically’. And it encourages responsibility in their
learning and reduces scaffolding as well. The teacher is expected to monitor students
learning. When the teacher monitors students in their learning, it may involve the power of
the teacher over students when working with them, which it is a limitation of the approach.
Social constructivism avoids this limitation by encouraging students take responsibility in
their learning.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Social constructivism is an aspect of constructivism that suggests that “learners first construct
knowledge in a social context and then individually internalize it” (Eggen and Kauchak,
2010, p. 227). Social constructivism is a process by which more knowledgeable adults or
experienced peers provide guidance which leads to transmission of knowledge so that higher
mental functions and develop in the social learning environment.
Social constructivism helps us to understand the teacher’s role in the learning setting. Teachers use the question methods with instructions and they organize and use learning
activities, motivating and assessing students. The main focus of the social constructivism approach is to facilitate “students’ constructions of knowledge using social interaction”
Flemingo and Alexander (as cited in Eggen & Kauchak, 2010 p.349).
The social constructivism view is, when the learning environment is created by
knowledgeable others, learners have the ability to exchange their ideas as well as collaborate
with others to solve problems. Santrock, (2009) added “in this way, experience in social
contexts provide an important mecha nism for the development of students’ thinking” (p.349). And teacher- centered approaches enable the teacher to be in control of the learning
environment and conditions learners to receive knowledge prepared for them. Therefore, the students’ efforts to create knowledge for themselves are constrained. Learners need to
develop cognitive processes and critical thinking; they ought to be exposed to learning environments that enhance construction of knowledge.
Social constructivists agree on the four characteristics, and the four characteristics have
implications for Cognitive education because social constructivist’s major principle is
“learners construct, rather than record, knowledge” (Eggen and Kauchak 2010, p. 230).
Other theorists believe “the view of the learner has changed from that of a recipient of
knowledge to that of a constructor of knowledge” (p. 230). The characteristics are discussed
below:
Four Characteristics of Social Constructivists
Learners are viewed as creating knowledge that makes sense to them and having control in
their learning. They are perceived as having changed from receiving knowledge from more
knowledgeable others to constructors of knowledge. Eggen and Kauchak (2010) proposed
that “Learners construct knowledge that makes sense to them” (p.230).
New learning depends on what the learners understand. Learning is perceived as meaningful
and social constructivists stress prior knowledge in facilitating learning. Eggen and Kauchak,
2010) suggested that, the emphases from social constructivists, learners develop thoughts to
construct knowledge and are embedded in the existing knowledge they have. Therefore, “new
learning depends on current understanding” (p.230).
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Learners are perceived as learning from each other and sharing ideas. Interacting with adults
or experienced peers students learn how to solve different kinds of problems. Thus, “Social
interaction facilitates learning” (Eggen and Kauchak (2010 p.230).
The internalization theory of Vygotsky proposed that children learn first by being engaged in
the activities under adult support and with time they continue to perform activities alone.
Therefore, the behavior will be viewed as first regulated socially by instruction of adults, and
then become regulated on their mental plane (Brynes, 2008).
The fourth idea that social constructivists suggested has an influence in learning is real- world tasks. Their perspectives on the above mentioned idea are rooted in situated cognition. They
proposed that most of what is learned is explicit to the setting in which “it is learned.” Anderson et al., (as cited in Eggen and Kauchak, 2010, p. 230). Real world tasks are also
called authentic tasks, learning activities where a student put into practice thinking that is
related to what is essential in the world Eggen & Kauchak, 2010).
Thinking is significant: Authentic activities are activities that promote thinking as well as problem –solving skills. Authentic activities are important in school and out of school setting.
“The most meaningful learning occurs within real-world tasks” (p.230). For example, when students use their knowledge of science to explain the importance of wearing seat belts when
driving; it is an example of including authentic learning activities (Eggen and kauchak 2010).
Situated cognition is related to the most meaningful learning discussed above. Learners are
perceived as ‘learning by participation’ borrowed from Lave & Wenger (1991). The school
setting is a place where learning is situated.
Situated Cognition
Situated cognition is vital in the social constructivist perspective; it implies that thinking is
situated in the social and physical environment not in the person’s mind (Santrock 2009). On one hand knowledge is rooted in, and related to the environment “in which the knowledge
is developed” (Santrock, 2009 p.350). The cognitive view perceives knowledge as possession while the socio-cultural sees knowledge as “belonging, participating and communicating”
Mason, 2007, p.3) Their explanations suggest that knowledge is not an ‘entity’ in the head of an individual, which the individual can obtain, develop or modify, but an action that cannot
be thought of as disconnected from the environment in which it takes place. The classroom is
“a community of learners” the teachers and students do joint work of learning together
aiming at assisting other individuals to achieve their goal in the learning environment Eggen
and Kauchak, 2010).
CONCLUSION
Direct instruction and social constructivism of knowledge differ in relation to student
learning. Direct instruction approach can contribute less input for learners in their
construction of knowledge. Direct instruction approach does not enhance much of
individual’s cognitive abilities. Social constructivists advocate for creation of learning
settings where learners share ideas and work in collaboration with each other solving
different problems they encounter as they learn.
The key element is the teacher has to make sure the type of learning where students construct
knowledge happens. Also, students are involved with others as they learn. They have the
chance of evaluating and improving their understanding through interaction and “exposed to
the thinking of others and as they participate in creating and understanding” (Santrock 2009,
p.350). When students interact and assist each other in learning; their cognitive abilities
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increase and are free as the learning environment becomes conducive. It is cooperative work
and learning. Cooperative learning happens when students are engaged in small groups
helping each other in the learning setting. Students are encouraged to work in pairs or groups
not exceeding four members. Ashman and Conway, 1997) add “the aim is to ensure that students work together to maximize their own and other group members’ learning” (p. 143).
The four characteristics social constructivists agree on stress that learners create meaningful
knowledge. When learners create knowledge that makes sense is motivated to learn by them.
Situated cognition is significant in the social construction of knowledge, it implies that
thinking is located (situated) within the social and physical environment not within the
learner’s mind. The learner’s knowledge is “embedded in” attached to the environment where
knowledge is developing. (Santrock, 2009, p. 350)
REFERENCES
[1] Ashman, F. & Conway, R. N. F. (1997) an introduction to cognitive education: theory
and applications. London: Routledge.
[2] Brynes, J. P. (2008) Cognitive development and learning: instructional contexts.
London: Pearson, Educational Inc.
[3] Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (2010) Educational psychology: windows on classroom
(eight edition). London: Pearson Education, Inc.
[4] Lave J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge: University Press.
[5] Manson, L. (2007) Introduction: bridging the cognitive and socio-cultural approaches
in research on conceptual change: is it feasible? Educational psychologist, 42(1), 1-7.
[6] Santrock, J. W. (2009) Educational psychology (4 th Edition). London: Mc Graw- Hill.
[7] Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology (10 th
edition). London: Pearson.
[8] Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in the society: the development of higher psychological
processes. Harvard University Press.
AUTHOR’s PROFILE
Dr. Waitshega Tefo Smitta Moalosi is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations, University of Botswana. She teaches courses in Educational Psychology. Dr.
Moalosi started teaching in the University of Botswana in January, 2000 as a Staff
Development Fellow (SDF).
Dr. Moalosi holds the following qualifications: a) PhD in Educational Psychology and Research, University of Tennessee, Knoxville (USA), b) M.ED Psychology of Education,
Bristol University, (England UK), c) BSc Psychology, Bolton Institute of Higher Education (England UK). Diploma in Counseling Studies, Keele University, (England UK). d)Primary
Teachers Certificate, Serowe Teacher Training College, Botswana.
Smitta’s research interests are: Teacher efficacy and classroom management, reasons for
choosing teaching as a career, self- concept and adolescent development.
