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Siena on the Silk Roads: Ambrogio Lorenzetti and the Mongol Global Century, 1250-1350 Author(s): ROXANN PRAZNIAK Source: Journal of World History, Vol. 21, No. 2 (June 2010), pp. 177-217 Published by: University of Hawai'i Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20752947 . Accessed: 21/02/2014 16:03

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Siena on the Silk Roads:

Ambrogio Lorenzetti and the

Mongol Global Century, 1250-1350*

ROXANN PRAZNIAK

University of Oregon

Translocal Exchange: Tuscany in the Mongol World

A missing map, serpentine dancers, and two plumed hats weave a

Sienese tale in the age of Mongol Eurasia (1250-1350). Not acciden

tally did Siena's Golden Age (1260-1348) in commerce, culture, and politics coincide with the rise and fall of Mongol governance across

Eurasia, Early starters in the revival of interregional trade and bank

ing, Siena's mercantile classes diversified their cultural and financial

options by participating in networks that defined the Mongol domain.

Mongol leadership, after initial territorial conquests that drew to a close in the 1250S, quickly secured the foundations of a trade empire that

would dominate the Eurasian continent for over a century. During this

period, segments of European society entered into a new relationship with Central and East Asia, for the first time becoming a significant participant in its diverse, rich, and well-established cultural life. Jerry Bentley has described this era as a time of quickening, when existing transcontinental trade routes evolved new dynamics under the author-.

* I would like to thank Morris Rossabi for his comments on an earlier draft of this

paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Washing ton, D.C., January 2008. My anonymous readers made invaluable suggestions. Thank you also to the staff at the Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florenz-Max-Planck-Institut and the Pinacoteca Nazionale in Siena for their assistance. And special thanks to my son Nicholas

for our memorable hikes to Sacro Speco near Subiaco.

Journal of World History, Vol. 21, No. 2

? 2010 by University of Hawai'i Press

177

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178 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20I0

ity of nomadic empires.1 Janet Abu-Lughod has similarly written about the prosperity of the thirteenth-century world economy in its social formations before the dominance of Europe.2 The Mongol century

opened a discourse that would shape the terms of early modernity. As

Nancy Bisaha has recently written, the period before 1350 witnessed a remarkable cosmopolitanism across Eurasia before the European cre

ation of an East/West divide that polarized and denied the terrain of a

reciprocal history.3 Just as the commercial activity of this era requires the full Afro-Eurasian context to understand its dynamics, so the intel lectual and artistic activities are more clearly illuminated by invoking the full cross-societal complexities of their contemporary world.

Before the plague of 1347-1348, Siena was a Tuscan commercial center on the periphery of Mongol Eurasia. The Via Francigena linked Siena with Rome to the south and through Lucca to points north

including towns in Lombardy, Provence, and Languedoc.4 At the ports of Pisa, Genoa, and Talamone, Siena connected with Mediterranean trade networks to the south and routes into Central and East Asia. Itself a hill town with limited water supplies for processing textiles, the com

mercial elite of Siena found its late thirteenth-century wealth not in the wool manufacturing trade that gave rise to the fourteenth-century urban Florentine elite but in the circulation of luxury goods stimulated in part by the Mongol integration of Eurasian markets. As major play ers in the thirteenth-century commercial resurgence of north-south

regional trade and papal banking services, Siena's Council of Nine, an oligarchy of bankers and merchants, administered the city through a financial body known as the Biccherna, headed by four Provisores selected by the Nine and four consuls of the merchant guild, the Mer canzia.5 After 1270 wealthy Sienese families, including the Salimbeni, the Petroni, and the Tolomei, considered diplomatic and economic

1 Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre

Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 111-117. 2

Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System, a.d. 1250-1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

3 Nancy Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks

(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvannia Press, 2004), p. 19. I thank Arif Dirlik for this reference.

4 Michelle Duran-McLure, "Pilgrims and Portals in Late Medieval Siena," in The Art, Science, and Technology of Medieval Travel, ed. Robert Bork and Andrea Kann, AVISTA Studies in the History of Medieval Technology, Science, and Art 6 (Burlington, Vt.: Ash

gate Publishing Limited, 2008), pp. 71-82. 5 William Bowsky, The Finance of the Commune of Siena, 1287-1355 (Oxford: Claren

don Press, 1970), pp. 1-15.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 179

strategies suggested by Silk Road networks extending into the eastern

Mediterranean zones. Merchants with resources to invest beyond their local markets as well as missionaries with universal goals beyond their

village circuits gravitated toward vibrant Central Asian centers. In an

expanding arena of cosmopolitan centers, social relations expanded to engage commercial and cultural knowledge. Along the Silk Road routes Mongol trade strategies and a nomadic love of finely woven fab rics facilitated the movement of human labor, including highly valued skilled weavers, often women, who in workshops in Iran and northern China produced the Mongol elite's signature textile of the period, a gold and silk fabric known as nasij. As S. A. M. Adshead has noted, oppor tunities for importation of silk increased with the Mongol conquests, and by the 1250s Chinese silk was being traded into Genoa, Lucca, and

Tuscany from Ayas in Armenian Cilicia via Sivas and Tabriz in Iran.6 These textiles with intricately patterned, delicately woven floral and animal images captured the imagination of merchants, consumers, and artists alike.7

Ambrogio Lorenzetti (1282-1348), one of Siena's most accom

plished and original artists, labored on his grand frescoes in the Palazzo Pubblico and at the Basilica of San Francesco in an era when Sienese merchants traveled to Tabriz, cut deals for Mongol silks from central

Asia, and exchanged commodities and ideas circulating through the eastern Mediterranean. This is not to imply that a vogue for Asian commodities translated into a high-profile connection between Siena and the Mongol world, but it does suggest that the pathways for this exchange were wide open and might be examined for significant cul tural traces. A learned man of philosophical bent, Lorenzetti was espe

cially conscious of his home place in the larger world beyond the Ital ian peninsula. Lorenzetti is believed to have read Latin and to have been familiar with the work of Dante, who himself in the first canto

of the Comedy referenced the Mongol presence in central Italian con

6 S. A. M. Adshead, Material Culture in Europe and China, 1400-1800: The Rise of Con

sumerism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997), p. 82. 7 Giuseppe Cantelli, Storia dell'oreficeria a dell'arte tessile in Toscana: Dal medioevo all'et?

moderna (Firenze: Banca Toscana, 1996). See especially plates 32-42.1 am grateful to Pro

fessor Piergiacomo Petrioli for bringing this text to my attention. See also Robert Sabatino

Lopez, "China Silk in Europe in the Yuan Period," Journal of the American Oriental Society 72, no. 2 (1952): 72-76. And Rosamond E. Mack, "Patterned Silks," in Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002),

pp. 27-48.1 thank Dr. Robin O'Bryan for suggesting this text and for encouraging discussion

throughout the writing of this article.

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8 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20IO

sciousness.8 Although we know little of Lorenzetti's biography, we do know that he circulated in the company of Siena's learned men, com

mercially successful politicians, and religious figures. They were his

patrons, and they respected his views, for he spoke eloquently and con

vincingly before their gatherings on occasion.9 Could such a man not

have pondered the political world around him as he conceptualized his artistic projects, including the ambiguity and social valence of specific details? Over the decades, art historians have written extensively and

persuasively about the works of Ambrogio Lorenzetti. The goal here is to contemplate the visual details of Lorenzetti's work in relationship to

their fuller historical context, to understand the contemporary social

spaces informing both Lorenzetti's keen perceptions of his world and the sensibilities that remain in his art.

In 1344-1345 Lorenzetti articulated the Sienese mercantile world view in his creation of a sixteen-foot-diameter map, his lost master

piece the Mappamondo, which once hung in the Great Council Hall of the Palazzo Pubblico where the Council of Nine met for discussion and decision making. Evidence presented by Marcia Kupfer suggests that the map could be rotated manually from floor level, affording viewers a detailed examination of geographic relationships relative to Siena:

"By turning the wheel, a viewer would have been able to inspect the

edges of the inhabited world without losing track of Italy and Siena at its core."10 This rotary motion was unprecedented in medieval Euro

pean cartography.11 Just as a Sufi story of Saint Francis on the road to Siena placed that city at the center of a whirling vortex of spiritual significance, Lorenzetti's map placed Siena at the hub of a network of cosmopolitan centers stretching out across the Mediterranean and

8 For Dante's reference to the Mongols as deliverers of the West from the West's own

moral corruption, see Dante, The Divine Comedy, version by Peter Dale (London: Anvil Press Poetry, 1996), p. 7, canto 1, lines 104-106: "But valour, wisdom, love shall be his fare. His land between a Feltro and Feltro lies. He'll save that Italy of lowly aire." See comments

by Peter Armour, "The Twelve Ambassadors and Ugolino's Jubilee Inscription: Dante's Florence and the Tartars in 1300," Italian Studies 52 (1997): 1. Canto 17, lines 16-17 also contains a reference to the Mongols: "Never did Turk or Tartar use such dyes, To make their

groundwork and embroidery." For reference to Lorenzetti's knowledge of Dante, see Timo

thy Hyman, Sienese Painting: The Art of a City-Republic (1278-1477) (New York: Thames and Hudson, 2003), pp. 95, 101.

9 Diana Norman, "Astrology, Antiquity and Empiricism: Art and Learning," in Siena,

Florence and Padua: Art, Society and Religion 1280-1400, ed. Diana Norman (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 206-207. 10

Marcia Kupfer, "The Lost Wheel Map of Ambrogio Lorenzetti," Art Bulletin 78, no. 2 (1996): 305.

11 Ibid., pp. 289, 290.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 181

Asian zones.12 Art critic Lorenzo Ghiberti viewed the work in the six

teenth century and commented that the map was a cosmografia, a view

of the entire habitable world.13 With Siena rather than Jerusalem at

its center, Lorenzetti's map was also innovative in its non-Christian

cartographic elements. Contemporary maps circulating in Chinese, Persian, and Sicilian offices embodied alternatives to Christian designs and emphasized secular elements.14 Thomas Alisen has noted that al Idrisi (iioo-n65)at the court of Norman king Roger of Sicily worked on extensive geographical and cartographical projects incorporating detailed knowledge of Europe, Africa, and Asia. In 1267 Jamal al Din from Iran presented a "terrestrial globe" to the Mongol rulers of

the Yuan dynasty and for the next several decades worked on massive

geographical projects with hundreds and even thousands of illustrated

chapters.15 The earliest known reference to a circular world map, com

posed on cloth and employing the graticule to determine location, is a work by Muhammad ibn Najib Bakran produced in Tus in 1208.16 Present at the Sicilian court of Frederic II and with commercial ties to the western regions of central Eurasia, members of the Sienese

commercial classes had ample opportunities to collect and view such

examples.17 The earliest extant regional map of the eastern Mediter ranean (Fig. 1) was drawn by Pietro Vesconte of Genoa and presented

by Marino Sanuto the Elder of Torcello to Pope John XXII in 1321 as part of a proposal titled Liber secretorum fidelium Crucis super Terrae

Sancta (Book of Secrets for Followers of the Cross). Sanuto argued in

this document that Christian use of northern trade routes through Iran

could provide an alternative to dependency on Mamluk Egypt for the luxury goods Latin Christendom sought from the east.18 Given the cli

mate that Sanuto's map suggests, it is logical to expect that Lorenzetti's

Mappamondo served a similar purpose, locating Siena in relationship to

12 Indries Shah, The Sufis (New York: Anchor Books, Random House, 1971), p. 258.

13 Kupfer, "Lost Wheel Map," p. 287. Kupfer also notes that "Portolan charts had accus

tomed Lorenzetti's patrons and audience to picture maps that needed to be rotated to be

fully read" (p. 297). 14 E. Edson and E. Savage-Smith, Medieval Views of the Cosmos: Picturing the Universe

in the Christian and Ishmic Middle Ages (Oxford: University of Oxford, Bodleian Library, 2004), pp. 75- ?5?

15 Thomas T. Alisen, Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2001), pp. 107-108, in. ( 16 Ibid., pp. 112-113.

17 George Harold Edgell, A History of Sienese Painting (New York: Dial Press, 1932), p.

9? 18

Christopher Kleinhenz, Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia, 2 vols. (New York: Rout

ledge, 2004), 1:407.

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l82 journal of world history, june 20io

Figure i . Vesconte's 1321 map of the eastern Mediterranean with east at top showing the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and the Arabian peninsula at right. Courtesy of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS. Tanner 190, fols.

204V and 205r.

the translocal commercial networks extending well beyond the Italian

peninsula.19 As Kupfer remarks, "Paradoxically, a portolan-based map may have had special appeal in the communal palace of land-locked Siena. The panoramic sweep of the Sienese contado that Lorenzetti

painted in the Sala dei Nove [the Good Government fresco] reached the sea at Talamone, a town duly inscribed, by the way, on portolan charts. A portolan-based map on the other side of the same wall would have translated this dream-vision into cartographic terms."20

After the internal division of the Mongol empire into four khanates in 1260, centers of Ilkhanate authority in Iran became a major force in the commercial, diplomatic, and cultural relations of the eastern

19 Arif Dirlik, "Performing the World: Reality and Representation in the Making of

World Histor(ies)," Journal of World History 16, no. 4 (2005): 391-410, especially p. 397. Translocal in Dirlik's usage describes the commercial, political, and intellectual motions that create grounded, flexible, place-based social spaces that precede, coincide with, and he

suggests might outlast the nation-state. 20

Kupfer, "Lost Wheel Map," p. 301.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads

Mediterranean zone. Often not remembered for their diplomacy and

culture-building activities, Mongol leadership, out of necessity in order to hold onto their conquests, actively sought allies to create governing coalitions and assert the Mongol claim of universal rulership. They did this through the maintenance of a continent-wide trade infrastructure of secure roadways and effective communications as well as cultural

production based on a level of religious tolerance unprecedented for the times. French monarchs and papal legates showed interest in the

Mongol strategy because they hoped for a Mongol/Christian alliance

against Islam, and eventually the conversion of the Mongols to Chris

tianity.21 "Ilkhan" designated the Mongol rulers of Iran as "subordi nate khans" to the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) in East Asia. The khans of the Golden Horde and the Chaghatai Khanate remained more independent but in fact were also part of the Eurasian transfer of culture and technologies. Expressing their optimism that stories of

Mongol interest in Christianity were true, Latin church authority circu

lated illustrations of Ilkhan H?leg? (r. 1256-1265) as a Christian saint, although his faith was known to be an amalgam of Shamanism and Buddhism. Both Doquz Khatun, H?leg?'s wife, and Kitbuqa, his gen eral, were Christians.22 Meanwhile, Armenian, Georgian, and Hungar ian Christians, beyond the pale of Roman orthodoxy, attempted more

active alliances with Ilkhan Abaqa (r. 1265-1282).23 In 1266 the mer

chant Arnaldo Marinarlo, who did business in the vicinity of Trebizond on the Black Sea adjacent to lands of the Ilkhanate, approached Sicil ian king Carlos I on a political mission to establish communications

with the Ilkhanate. Rulers of Sicily, the Ilkhanate, and the Kingdom of Naples launched an eastern Mediterranean strategy in the 1270s.24 Between 1274 and 1275 Giovanni and Giacomo Vassalli, soldiers in the Mongol forces who were themselves of Georgian birth and most

likely Christian, traveled as representatives of Ilkhan Abaqa to Naples via Tabriz with hopes of renewed military collaboration against the

21 Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, eds., Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection

of Medieval Notices of China (1865; repr., London: Hakluyt Society, 1915), 1:258. See com

ments by Hayton of Armenia made in 1307. 22 Richard C. Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p. 122.

23 George Lane, Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance

(London: Routledge Curson, 2003), pp. 48-55. See also Jean Richard, "The Mongols and the Franks," Journal of Asian History 3, no. 1 (1969): pp. 45-57.

24 G. M. Monti, "I tre primi Sovrani Angioni e i Tartari," in Archivo storico per le province napoletane, LVI, 1931 (Napoli: Ed. Detken and Rocholl e E Giannini, 1876), pp. 216-217.

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JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20I0

Muslims at Acre, where the alliance between Christian and Mongol armies had enjoyed a brief victory in 1260- A Mongol delegation from the Ilkhanate attended the Second Council of Lyons in 1274 to discuss the possibility of a renewed alliance with Christian forces.25

Tabriz, located on a main connecting route of the Silk Road net works approximately 150 miles west of the southern Caspian Sea, was an especially lively urban setting, a meeting place of transcontinen tal commercial and artistic networks under the authority of Mongol nomadic politics.26 Ilkhan Ghazan (r. 1295-1304) designated the city his capital in 1295 when he officially adopted Islam as the primary religion of the Ilkhanate and continued a general policy of religious pluralism which did not preclude localized attacks on some Armenian Christian or Iranian Buddhist communities. With the ascent of Pope Nicholas IV (1288-1292), the first Franciscan pope, many friars of the Franciscan order were active in Ilkhanid Iran, including the cos

mopolitan center of Tabriz.27 Pietro Veglione (or Vilione), a Venetian

trader, lived in Tabriz in 1264, acting as the contact person for a num

ber of merchants working commercial routes between Tabriz and the Italian city-states. In a 1268 grant, the king of Jerusalem gave Sienese

merchants exemptions from taxes and privileges of commerce in Acre,

acknowledging a significant Sienese presence in the eastern Mediter ranean adjacent to the Ilkhanate and allowing them to function openly as Sienese rather than passing as Pisans, as they had been doing.28 Genoese merchants had temporary quarters in Tabriz by 1280, and in 1291 Pietro of Lucalongo, a merchant who was resident in Tabriz, offered to accompany Franciscan missionary John of Monte Corvino eastward to the Yuan Court. Two Franciscan monasteries functioned in Tabriz as of 1286. Rabban Sauma, Turkic by birth from the Ordos

region north of Khubilai Khan's capital and a convert to Nestorian

Christianity, journeyed in 1287 with the support of the Khan from Bei

jing to Tabriz and subsequently to Rome and Paris under the sponsor

25 Devin De Weese, "The Influence of the Mongols on the Religious Consciousness of

Thirteenth Century Europe," Mongolian Studies 5 (1978-1979): 41-78, 58. 26 Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony, p. 196. 27 Sheila Blair, "Religious Art of the Ilkhanids," in The Legacy of Genghis Khan: Courtly

Art and Culture in Western Asia, 1256-1353, ed. Linda Komaroff and Stefano Carboni (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press; New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002), p. 112.

28 Anne Derbes, Pictur?ng the Passion in Late Medieval Italy: Narrative Painting, Francis

can Ideologies, and the Levant (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 196.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 185

ship of Ilkhan Arghun, a Buddhist by faith with many close Christian relatives. Rabban Sauma had been escorted westward by Ughetto, an

Italian interpreter, and Thomas of Anfossi, a merchant and interpreter who knew Persian.29

Travel between Rome and Tabriz was two-way, and the Jubilee Year of 1300 brought an especially visible number of Christian Mongols to Rome.30 In the same year throughout Christendom, rumors considered credible spread the news that the Mongols had recaptured Jerusalem from the Muslims and were about to return the Holy Lands to Rome.31 Dominican Francis of Perugia was appointed bishopric to the new

Ilkhanid capital in 1318, and within three years there were communi ties of friars, both Franciscan Minorites and Dominican Preachers, sta tioned at the Iranian centers of Tabriz, Dehkhargan, and Gujerat, and at the intellectual center of Maragha, near Lake Urmi; in the same year a party of Franciscans was dispatched to Georgia with Papal letters and

privileges.32 As further evidence of high-level contact between central Italian and Mongolian authorities, Pope Benedict XII in 1338 granted safe passage through the Kingdom of Naples for ambassadors dis

patched in 1336 by the Yuan emperor Toghan Timur (r. 1333-1368).33 Now in the Vatican Library, an extant copy of the Lotus Sutra dated

1346 with a gold frontispiece illustrating the life of the Buddha suggests that exchange took place at many levels.34 Mongol Eurasia facilitated

material and artistic contact as never before across the entire conti

nent, and Sienese from many walks of life participated in this world of social interactions. As Mary Campbell has written, many accounts of travel across Eurasia were more accurate than Marco Polo's. However, the latter? tremendous impact in early fourteenth-century exchange

29 Morris Rossabi, Voyager from Xanadu (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1992),

pp. 68-69, 102- Luciano Petech, "Les marchangs italiens dans l'empire mongol," Journal

Asiatique 250, no. 4 (1962): 560. 30

Armour, "Twelve Ambassadors and Ugolino's Jubilee Inscription," pp. 7, 14. 31

Sylvia Schein, "Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300: The Genesis of a Non-event," in General Index of Articles, Notes, Documents, and Selected Reviews of Books Contained in the

English Historical Review (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1967), p. 805. 32

C. Raymond Beazley, The Dawn of Modern Geography: A History of Exploration and

Geographical Science from the Middle of the Thirteenth to the Early Years of the Fifteenth Century (ca. a.D. 1260-1420) (John Murray, 1906; repr., New York: Clarendon Press, 1949), 3:206.

33 Monti, "I tre primi Sovrani Angioni e i Tartari," p. 231.

34 Lauren Arnold, Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China and Its Influence on the Art of the West, 1250-1350 (San Francisco: Desiderata Press, 1999), pp.

28-29.1 thank Lauren Arnold for early discussions on this topic.

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journal of world history, june 20io

owed its effect to Polo's representation of the khan's domain not as a dichotomous "other" but as a seat of desire, both material and spiritual, in Europe's own geopolitical imaginary.35

The political awareness and creative imagination of Ambrogio Lorenzetti produced two magnificent expressions during the Mongol Eurasian century: Effects of Good Government (1338), in Siena's Sala della Pace of the Palazzo Pubblico, and his Martyrdom of the Franciscans

(1342), now in the Basilica San Francesco, Siena (Figs. 2-4). These works shared in the emergence of a social pluralism and consequent exchange of knowledge encouraged by Mongol political and cultural

strategies that sought to practice inclusiveness as a matter of effective

governance across Eurasia. In this setting, a new historical conscious ness and attention to natural phenomena, two markers of early modern humanist perspective, took shape in the trans-Eurasian cultural flow. In an age when commercial and artistic secrets were well guarded and their mystery compounded over time by the loss of nearly 90 percent of the period's art and historical sources, it is challenging to attempt to understand the import of these interactions. While much has been

Figure 2. A. Lorenzetti, The Effects of Good Government, 1338, left half of fresco. Photo courtesy of Scala/Art Resource, NY

35 Mary

. Campbell, "The Utter East: Merchant and Missionary Travels during the

'Mongol Peace,'" in The Witness and the Other World: Exotic European Travel Writing, 400 1600, by Mary B. Campbell (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), p. 112.

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Figure 3. A. Lorenzetti, The Effects of Good Government, 1338, right half of fresco. Photo courtesy of Scala/Art Resource, NY

Figure 4. A. Lorenzetti, Martyrdom of the Franciscans, 1342. Photo courtesy of Scala/Art Resource, NY.

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JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 2010

written about Lorenzetti's fresco Effects of Good Government, less atten

tion has been paid to his Martyrdom of the Franciscans, and even less to the relationship between these two great works for what they reveal about the Afro-Eurasian world in the making of the early modern era.

It was precisely Siena's strong sense of place in a dynamic world of

Mongol syncretism and localized Catholic hegemony that contributed to a receptivity for innovative thinking about politics, art, and life. An artist with an eye to the philosophical dimensions of his work, Loren zetti employed his sensibilities to express a place-based articulation of

humanist ideals that were emergent across Eurasia. Originally referred to as Peace in a mural cycle titled Peace and War,36 Lorenzetti's Good

Government fresco located Siena in a world of travel networks that characterized Mongol-secured Eurasia; his Martyrdom of the Franciscans

brought that Eurasian setting into the heart of Siena and its political culture. His Mappamondo would eventually bring forth the conceptual framing for these earlier works.

The Via Francigena and Talamone in the Utopian Discourse of Lorenzetti's Good Government

We will never know the many bits of confidential information shared

by Sienese merchants before entering the Palazzo Pubblico council

room, where, with eyes lifted upward, they slowly turned the wheel of Lorenzetti's magnificent world map pondering new pathways of calcu lated risks. But we do know that these conversations took place rou

tinely before formal deliberations and remained unrecorded.37 Loren zetti's Good Government fresco of 1338 in many respects complemented his Mappamondo, occupying opposite sides of the same wall. From this

perspective it is significant that, when Lorenzetti accepted the com

mission from Siena's governing body to complete a fresco celebrating the Sienese ideals of peace and good government, he chose to depict a

city situated on a road, specifically the Via Francigena, and surrounded

by rolling countryside with waterways including rivers and specifically the port town of Talamone. Siena, in fact, sits on no significant rivers.

36 Joseph Polzer, "Ambrogio Lorenzetti's War and Peace Murals Revisited: Contribution

to the Meaning of the Good Government Allegory," Artibus et Hist?ri?? 23, no. 45 (2002): 82-83.

37 William M. Bowsky, A Medieval Italian Commune: Siena under the Nine, 1287-135$

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), pp. 181-182.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 189

Clearly labeled in the Good Government fresco, Talamone extended the Sienese vision of options into the Tyrrhenian Sea and the eastern

Mediterranean zone. Dante, writing from Siena's rival city Florence, ridiculed the Sienese development of port facilities at Talamone, refer

ring to Siena as vain for its daring attempts to project itself into the

larger world. Dante wrote with perhaps more than a dash of arrogance and jealousy, for we also know that Florentines themselves on several occasions entered into special treaties with Sienese officials to obtain access to port facilities at Talamone.38

By the time Lorenzetti was at work on the Good Government fresco, Siena's pathways to and from the eastern Mediterranean had more

than a half-century of recent history. Whereas Venetian and Geno vese networks tended to emphasize routes east through Constantino

ple, Sienese connections also looked east through Naples, Sicily, and the region along the eastern Mediterranean from the Sinai peninsula through Jerusalem, Damascus, and north to Lesser Armenia. Exploring the convergences of art and politics in the early Mongol era, Jaroslav Folda has identified a period between 1250 and 1291 that "reflects vig orous diplomatic, military, and cultural interactions" among Mongols, the Mamluks of Egypt, and Christians. In 1260, at either Acre or Saint

Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai, artists created a particularly stunning example of these contemporary interactions and the eclectic artistic environment they produced. On an iconostasis beam intended for installation at Saint Catherine's Monastery are three figures com

memorating the Mongol and Christian victory over Islamic Mamluk

forces at Damascus in 1260?a short-lived victory as it turned out, but a powerful event that embodied contemporary hopes for a continued alliance between Christian and Mongol forces against the Mamluks. One of thirteen panels that tell the story of Christ's life, the nativity scene shows the three magi identified as Kitbuqa, the Nestorian Chris tian general in command of the Mongol forces at Syria; Bohemong VI,

prince of Antioch, the western terminus of the Silk Road networks; and Hetoum I, king of Armenia.39 With the consolidation of the Mon

gol Ilkhanate in western Asia and Khubilai Khan's Yuan dynasty rule

in east Asia, 1260 became a takeoff point for accelerated political and

38 Ibid., pp. 6, 175, 216-217.

39 Jaroslav Folda, "Crusader Artistic Interactions with the Mongols in the Thirteenth

Century: Figurai Imagery, Weapons, and the ?intamani Design," in Interactions: Artistic

Interchange between the Eastern and Western Worlds in the Medieval Period, ed. Colum Houri

hane (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2007), p. 149.

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IQO JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20I0

cultural interactions among eastern Mediterranean centers and the Ilkhanate. While the transcontinental flow of culture and technol

ogy was in motion during the pre- and early Mongol eras, this activity accelerated after 1260 in the hands of the Ilkhanid rulers in particular. Periodically blocked by Florentine expansion to its north during these

decades, Siena augmented its opportunities by exploring possibilities to

the south and southwest.40 A Sienese link to this translocal world of political and artistic

exchange surfaces in the work of Nicola Pisano (ca. 1210-1284), who from 1265 to 1268 sculpted a pulpit for the Siena Duomo. An out

standing piece of work that immediately won him widespread recogni tion, Pisano's work displayed distinctive features such as a swooning

Madonna in the scene of Christ's crucifixion and a single nail used to

hold his feet to the cross. In the world of artistic and political interac tions that extended into the eastern Mediterranean as evidenced by the iconostasis beam discussed above, it is significant to find these unique period-specific features replicated in a 1270 crucifixion scene painted at

Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai. Art historian Anne Derbes has suggested that an artist close to Guido da Siena possibly emigrated to Sinai and took part in the creation of the Saint Catherine's cruci

fixion. Derbes has also found illustrated Gospels produced for Queen Keran and Prince Vasak of Armenian Cilicia, a Christian dependency of the Mongols, which bear a visual relationship to distinctive features of Pisano's Siena pulpit.41 The artistic dialogue evidenced by these works and the iconostasis beam suggest that artistic conventions and innovations would have moved just as easily back to Siena from the rich environment of Ilkhanid art, a fusion of Persian, Chinese, Mongol, and Tibetan styles.

Given early Sienese connections to the mobile, translocal cultural zone of the eastern Mediterranean, it is not surprising that the first known European example of pseudo Arabic and Mongol script painted on the trim or tiraz designs of luxury silk robes and draperies was the work of Sienese artist Duccio di Buonsigna in his 1285 Rucettai Madonna.*2

40 Bowsky, Medieval Italian Commune, p. 161.

41 Anne Derbes, "Siena and the Levant in the Later Dugento," Gesta 28, no. 2 (1989): 195, 192.

42 Rosamond E. Mack, "Oriental Script in Italian Paintings," in Bazaar to Piazza: lshmic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600, by R. E. Mack (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), pp. 51-71. For earlier discussions of this script see Hidemichi Tanaka, "Fourteenth

Century Sienese Painting and Mongolian and Chinese Influences: The Analysis of Simone Martini's and Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Major Works," Bijutsu shigaku 7, no. 7 (1985): 1-57.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 191

This portrayal of the Madonna and Child was commissioned for Santa Maria Novella in Florence, where it later became known as the Ruce?ai Madonna for the merchant family that sponsored the new chapel Only later did Giotto in the early 1300s develop his own patterns of pseudo

Arabic and Phagspa (Mongol) script so heavily used in the Arena Cha pel in Padua.43 The cloth of honor in the Ruce?ai Madonna details Per sian textile motifs also found in the works of LorenzettL Compared with Florentine work of the same period, Sienese art was especially rich in

Chinese and Persian design elements.44 Similarly, the first depictions of translucent white silk are found in Sienese art, including the brilliantly executed gauze loincloth with its white embroidered tiraz script design worn by Christ in Segna di Buonaventura's crucifixion scene completed between 1298 and 1327.45 After 1300 Marco Polo's stories circulated in Siena and throughout the European zone, stimulating desires already in motion for further contact with Central and East Asian territories. It was in this Eurasian setting of artistic exchange that Lorenzetti each

morning crossed the newly cobbled town center toward the Palazzo Pubblico over the eighteen months it took him to complete the frescoes commissioned by the Council of Nine for the Salla della Pace.

A striking feature of Lorenzetti's Good Government fresco is its equal attention to the rural and urban environments and the social interde

pendence of the two, a unique vision in Trecento art. In this mapping, the hinterlands and rural areas through which roads pass are the vital networks that link urban centers in a pattern of local and translocal connections. At the lower right of Lorenzetti's fresco, travelers cross a

bridge on the road and move uphill toward the city gate as they join others and meet a hunting party and fellow small traders departing for the countryside. The Via Francigena structures this roughly forty-five foot-long composition through town and countryside with the Porta Romana as the midpoint marker. Within the city walls the path wan

ders in and out of passageways among shops and exits the composition on the left with a wedding procession. Roughly nine feet high, the fresco celebrates labor, daily life, agriculture, and commerce framed by the road and the port.

43 Hidemichi Tanaka, "Giotto and the Influences of the Mongols and the Chinese on

His Art: A New Analysis of the Legend of St. Francis and the Fresco Paintings of the

Scrovegni Chapel," in Art History 6 (Sendai, Japan: Tohoku University, 1984), pp. 188

151. 44 Catherine King, "The Trecento: New Ideas, New Evidence," in Norman, Siena, Flor

ence and Padua, pp. 228-229. 45

Segna di Buonaventura, Siena 1298-1327, Crocifisso datta chiesa ? San Gisuto a Siena in the Pinacoteca, Siena, No. 21. The single nail motif also appears in this work.

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IQ2 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20I0

Art historian Diana Norman attributes Lorenzetti's rural imaginary to classical texts by Pliny the Elder, who in his Natural History described Roman paintings in which there were "villas, harbours, landscape gar

dens, sacred groves, woods, hills, fishponds, straits, streams and shores,"

along with "figures of people on foot, or in boats, and on land of people coming up to the country-houses either on donkeys or in carriages, besides figures of fishers and fowler, or of hunters or even of vintag ers."46 We should consider in addition that for the artist, images were more compelling than words, a simple list of nouns in this case. "Hill"

suggests no particular representation of a natural setting, and "fowler"

conveys no details of dress or carriage. Lorenzetti's specific inspiration for his strikingly innovative naturalism was certainly multifaceted. The central Italian countryside through which he walked from one commis sion to another impinged on his artistic imagination. Contemporary news of developments in and around the Mediterranean caught his attention. And one cannot discount the curiosity he directed toward his material world, which included Central and East Asian articles, maps, and illustrated books. Looking to the image rather than the word for Lorenzetti's representations of the rural setting, it is logical to exam

ine those aspects of his world that carried rural and agricultural images he might have perceived as novel and pioneering.

Much of the emphasis on nature and landscape in the Good Govern ment fresco resonates with innovative, contemporary styles produced in the Ilkhanate. The almost monochromatic rendering of the hilly landscape in Lorenzetti's fresco echoes illustrations from the workshops of Tabriz (Fig. 5). These imperial workshops overseen by vizier Rashid ai-Din (1247-1318) brought together artists of Persian and Buddhist

training to celebrate Mongol authority.47 Chinese artisans inhabited a

quarter in Tabriz in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries.48 As court historian, Rashid al-Din was familiar with Chinese painting and calligraphy and consulted Chinese scholars resident in Tabriz who translated Chinese texts for him. Similarly Rashid al-Din's histories of India and Christendom (both Byzantine and Latin) were completed

46 Diana Norman, "Astrology, Antiquity and Empiricism: Art and Learning," p. 206. 47 Mazhar Sevket Ipsiroglu, Painting and Culture of the Mongols (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000), pp. 11-14.

48 Karl Jahn, "Paper Currency in Iran," Journal of Asian History 4, no. 2 (1970): 131; T. F. Carter, The Invention of Printing in China and Its Spread Westward, 2nd ed. (New York: Ronald Press, 1955); K. Jahn, "Tabris, ein mittelalterliches Kulturzentrum zwishchen, Ost und West," Abhandlugen der Osteneichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 105 (1969): 209.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 193

Figure 5. Mountains of India, illustration from Rashid al-Din's J?mi ai-taw?r?ic/i, Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, MSS 727, fol. 21 a. ? Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family

Trust.

with the assistance of scholars from Indian and Christian communi ties in Tabriz.49 Kashmiri Buddhist monk Bakshi Kamalashri worked at the Ilkhanid court along with scholars and monks from Byzantium and regions of the eastern Mediterranean.50 Near Maragha, the first Ilkhanid capital, a series of caves and ruins delineate a Buddhist reli

gious complex believed to have flourished there in the thirteenth and

49 Anthony Welch, "The Arts of the Book," in Treasures of lsfom, ed. Toby Falk

(Geneva: Museum of Art and History; London: Sotheby's and Philip Wilson Publishing, 1985), p. 49.

50 Ibid., p. 50. See also Sheila S. Blair, A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Diris Illus

trated History of the World, Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art 27 (Oxford: Oxford University Press and Nour Foundation, 1995), p. 74.

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194 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20I0

fourteenth centuries.51 From this gathering a discourse emerged that included Tibetan and Song dynasty artistic conventions inspired by Buddhist philosophical tenets and representations of nature. Artists

explored the uses of line, light, and color to represent human forms and

natural phenomena. Men of diverse religious faiths discussed Buddhist notions of relativity, changeability, and metaphysics that were inte

grated into art and literature. While the Tang dynasty (618-906 ce.) had been an era of substantial central government support for Buddhist institutions and culture, including art and literature, the Song dynasty (960-1279 ce.) carried out a formal suppression of Buddhist practices.

Consequently, Song Buddhist inspiration found new forms of philo sophical expression in dramatic landscape art styles. The Armenian artist and painter Awag, who in the late 1300s trained in the Cilician

monastery of Gladzor, worked in the Ilkhanid cities of Tiflis, Tabriz, and Sultaniyya. Through Armenian Cilicia and other routes natural istic renderings of animals, water, clouds, vegetation, and trees circu

lated through craft and artisan circles of the Ilkhanate and peripheral regions.52

The entire space of the Good Government fresco is organized by what

Timothy Hyman has called an "ambient vision" in which near and far are simultaneously present. Lorenzetti created "a kind of seeing truer to our imaginative experience of space than single-point perspective can ever be. And it also takes on a moral dimension?embodying the social

diversity and fluidity of the republican ideal," as Lorenzetti concep tualized that ideal.53 Lorenzetti's naturalism and realism share in the innovative synthesis of styles found in contemporary Tabriz workshop art and other examples of landscape art produced for Mongol collec tions. Monochromatic, linear styles of landscape evoked a new sense of

spatial depth and innovative possibilities for layering multiple perspec tives and meaning into one composition. The illustrations produced in

51 David O. Morgan, Medieval Persia, 1040-1797 (London: Longman, 1988), pp. 65,

77. Although Ilkhan Ghazan converted to Islam in 1295, H?leg? at the beginning of the Ilkhanate had actively supported Buddhism, Arghun (r. 1284-1291 ) pursued Buddhism, and

Oljeitu (r. 1304-1316) had a Buddhist phase. 52

Sheila Blair, "Religious Art of the Ilkhanids," p. 115. In same volume, see Morris

Rossabi, "The Mongols and Their Legacy," in Komaroff and Carboni, Legacy of Genghis Khan, pp. 24-25, 35. A Chinese chef worked for the historian Rashid al-Din in Tabriz, and the Ilkhans imported seeds from China, employed translators of Chinese agricultural texts, and brought in Chinese agronomists to help foster the growth of an agrarian economy in Iran. Daoist medical practitioners were also present in Tabriz.

53 Hyman, Sienese Painting, pp. 105-106.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 195

Tabriz also raised the bar in terms of realism in the depiction of animals. Lorenzetti's splendidly rendered boar on his way to town moving up the hill with his fellow travelers, the nursing donkey by the shoe cobbler's shop, the goose cradled in the woman's arms, and the numerous goats, dogs, and horses all inhabit their own personalities and ways of being to an extent unique for this period in central Italian art. Commenting on the ManafiA hayavan (On the Usefulness of Animals, 1297-1298 or 1299-1300) by Ibn Bakhtishu, Robert Hillenbrand notes, "In many images, this new interest in the depiction of specific rather than proto typical creatures goes hand in hand with an unprecedented awareness

of the potential of landscape. This is an unmistakable response to Far Eastern works of art. . . . The impact of Chinese hand scrolls can be sensed in the many pictures . . ."54 We may never know if Lorenzetti encountered these texts or ones like them, and there is no hard evi dence at this point that texts from the Tabriz workshops circulated in

central Italian collections, though the texts were explicitly produced as

propaganda for circulation beyond the Ilkhanate. Of all the travelers along the Via Francigena in Lorenzetti's Effects of

Good Government, one group captures the viewer's visual focus, a string of dancers along the lower pathway of the urban space. Tracing a line that circles back upon itself, Lorenzetti's dancers move in a serpentine pattern that suggests an S for Siena,55 but also and perhaps more signifi cantly an infinity sign with its continuous motion of both linear and circular design (Fig. 6). The dancer's tambourine forms a perfect circle that is both eye-catching among the array of architectural and natural forms and a pivotal point around which the city of Siena revolves at the center of a wider world represented by the rural landscape and far

away ports to more distant but known lands. In the thirteenth century, infinity was a concept of great theological debate stimulated by erudite

Christian groups of Languedoc and Tuscany whom the Roman Church deemed heretical for their challenges to papal authority. Church theo

logians such as Alexander Nequam and Richard Fishacre sought to battle heretical views by engaging scientific and mathematical treatises on the concept of infinity as it related to discussion on the nature of

54 Robert Hillenbrand, "The Arts of the Book in Ilkhanid Iran," in Komaroff and Car

boni, Legacy of Genghis Khan, pp. 141, 143. 55

Max Seidel, "'Vanagloria': Studies on the Iconography of Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Frescoes in the Sala della Pace," in Italian Art of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, vol. 1,

Painting (Munich: Hirmer Verlag, 2005), p. 308.

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Figure 6. Serpentine dancers, detail from Good Government fresco.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 197

God.56 Within the context of Lorenzetti's work, the infinity sign (the lemniscate) symbolized balance and renewal. Taking into account the

early fourteenth-century cultural milieu of Eurasian societies, the sym bol might have alchemical and religious connotations associated with

magic and spiritual practices widespread from Tibet to the Mediterra nean. The dancers catch our attention in part because they are larger than other figures in the same plane of reference, including both the

wedding party to the left and the shepherd and customer at the shoe cobblers to the right. From one perspective they appear to stand in

relief closest to the viewer, protruding out from the fresco surface. The

dancers are also eye-catching from a contemporary Sienese perspective because Siena statutes in 1338 prohibited public dancing, and sump

tuary laws forbade wearing luxury silk clothing in public.57 The ser

pentine dancers prominently display dresses of silk with dragonfly and

caterpillar designs. Why has Lorenzetti represented these figures with

these distinctive features and with such prominence and centrality? Recent scholarship discussed by Maria Luisa Meoni suggests that

Lorenzetti's dancers are a troubadour ensemble.58 Associated with a

spirit of harmony and joy experienced by citizens in a well-governed state, the dancers as troubadours would also possess political and spiri tual charisma in the public domain. Troubadours carried wide-ranging news through song and dance up and down the Via Francigena through Siena. Among "specialists" who served as agents of cultural transmis sion between the European and Asian zones, Italian "musicians" were a recognized group and may or may not have included troubadours.59 Diverse in their sources of inspiration, troubadour activities were linked to both heretical counterculture groups in the European zone and ele

ments of Sufism and Manichaeism from central Asia.60 Sufism predated Islam and had roots in third-century Manichaeism, a blend of Judaism,

56 Anne Davenport, "The Catholics, the Cathars, and the Concept of Infinity in the

Thirteenth Century," Isis 88 (1997): 264. 57 Max Seidel, "'Vanagloria,'" pp. 297-299. Seidel makes the point that Siena statutes

in 1338 did not prohibit all public dancing but did associate some forms of dancing with

potential public disorder which they sought to curb. Male dancers, for example, were pro hibited from dressing as women or clergymen and could not cover their faces. Maria Luisa

Meoni has suggested that Lorenzetti's dancers are men dressed as women. 58

Maria Luisa Meoni, Utopia and Reality in Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Good Government:

Formal Example in the Representation of Human Activity. An Anthropological Analysis (Flor ence: Edizioni IFI, 2005), p. 37.

59 Alisen, Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p. 6.

60 Denis de Rougemont and Montgomery Belgion, Love in the Western World, trans.

Montgomery Belgion (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 78.

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p8 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20 0

Christianity, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism. By the thirteenth century, Manichaeism had become a vigorous expression of popular piety within the world of Islam spinning off poetic and musical expressions of divine love that carried notions of individual enlightenment and spiritual community across central Eurasia through Sicily to the Iberian penin sula and into the troubadour networks of Languedoc along the French

Mediterranean, creating pathways of popular culture that included the Via Francigena.61 Early Mongol destruction of regional Islamic centers

whose rulers adhered more strictly to the ritualized and less subjective aspects of Islam contributed to this flowering of Sufism, a factor in the Ilkhan's conversion to Islam in 1295.

Neo-Manichaean populism, indigenous to the northern border lands of the Iranian and Chinese empires, experienced a resurgence of activism in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Translocal place based groups with Manichaean beliefs crisscrossed Eurasia from the area of Languedoc to the Mongolian steppes.62 In the European zone, Roman churchmen referred to these groups as "Cathars" and heretics. In East Asia, a 1120-1121 rebellion by Manichaean leader Fang La

helped bring down the Northern Song dynasty. Communities from the Bulgarian region of the weakened Byzantine Empire shared in the revival of Neo-Manichaean universalism. Bogomil missionaries car

ried Christian Manichaean views westward, where they found popular reception among groups from the Rhineland to Lombardy as well as

the regions of Languedoc and the Pyrennes.63 In Siena the term pater ine was used to refer to Neo-Manichaeans and Cathars in the nega tive; by 1300 it was a label for heretics of all kinds including Cathars and Franciscan Spirituals, followers of Saint Francis devoted to peace

61 Jack Goody, The Theft of History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press, 2006), p.

271. Jill Backes, "Troubadours and Cathars," (senior thesis, Antioch College, 1973), p. 14. 62 Victor Mair, "The North(west)ern Peoples and the Recurrent Origins of the 'Chi

nese' State," in The Teleology of the. Modern Nation-State: Japan and China, ed. Joshua A.

Fogel (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), PP- 55 > 71- Victor Mair uses

the term "Manichean Cathars." I thank Ana Candela for drawing my attention to this article. See also Morgan, Medieval Persia, p. 10, on the long career of Manichaeism in East

Asia, Central Asia, and Western Europe. 63 Yuri Stoyanov, The Hidden Tradition in Europe: The Secret History of Medieval Christian Heresy (London: ARKANA/Penguin, 1994), p. 155. For a view skeptical of the Bogomil and Troubadour contributions to heretical counterculture in the area of Languedoc see Mark

Gregory Pegg, The Corruption of Angels: The Great Inquisition of 1245-1246 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 16. The relevance and analytical significance of con

sidering this material in its fuller Eurasian context remains an unaddressed issue in Pegg's text.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads

through emulation of Christ's life in poverty to be distinguished from the Church-approved Franciscan Conventuals.64 Throughout the Ira nian zone, dissident Neo-Manichean populism fostered Sufi adepts, who were most responsible for the conversion of the Ilkhans to Islam and a pantheistic doctrine that contributed greatly to the deep affinity for nature expressed in Mongol fusion art.65

Among pilgrims and merchants who also brought home news from distant places, troubadours were professionals in a manner of speak ing. Their networks were continental, making them the most inde

pendent and popular "newscasters" of their day. In addition to con

temporary political events, troubadours performed entertaining stories

with moral overtones. An example of this cultural transmission is the tale of Barlaam and Josaphat. Suddenly popular in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, this story presented the early life of the Buddha as a

parable about a prince who renounced all worldly pleasures and mate

rial trappings. Well known for centuries throughout central Asia as a

Manichaean tale, its revival was due in part to the troubadours, who in their elaborate songs blended traces of Sufi and Islamic mysticism with

Manichaean Christian narratives. Lorenzetti's world was not neatly categorized, and his creativity dwelled in the ambiguities and multiple readings of popular images. Interestingly, at Asciano, a dependency of

Siena, a painting composed in the late fourteenth century structured scenes of the Barlaam and Josaphat legend around the motif of a Wheel of Fortune.66 If Lorenzetti's dancers do represent troubadours, as sug

gested by Meoni above, it is worth considering that Lorenzetti's place ment of this group in the foreground and at the hub of his composition might signal his desire, consistent with his vision of secular morality and peace in the public domain, to show Siena in a world of cosmopoli tan civic and spiritual values.

While the dancers are simultaneously highly visible and mysterious, other less readily visible elements also suggest an aura of mystery and

possible transcontinental connections. Many observers of the Good Government fresco have noted the Mongolian-style hat worn by the well-dressed rider on horseback whose face is in half eclipse at the cen

ter of the cityscape as well as the possibly Mongolian figure with begging bowl in shadow below the arched neck of the horse that carries a lady out from the city to a hunt. Inside the city wall we encounter a weaver's

64 Bowsky, Medieval Italian Commune, pp. 267, 267 n. 31.

65 Ipsiroglu, Painting and Culture of the Mongols, pp. 87-94.

66 Kupfer, "Lost Wheel Map," p. 305.

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200 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20IO

workshop receiving bales of wool A piece of plaid fabric is in progress on the loom to the left. Woolen plaids appear as a hallmark of Sienese textile production. Sienese artist Simone Martini carefully shows these

plaids as the lining of elaborate silk and gold brocades worn by the angel Gabriel in the Annunciation ( 1333) and again in the lining of the richly woven silk tapestry on the throne in the Altarpiece of St. Louis of Tou louse (1317). Expensive silk brocade and woolen plaid lining are a curi ous combination of fabrics and an interesting interfacing of commercial

exchange between domestic and transcontinental markets. While wool was important to the Sienese economy, the silk dresses worn by the troubadours represented the world of potentially huge profits for well

organized Sienese families, such as the Salimbeni, contributors to the refurbishment of the Basilica of San Francesco and the most powerful family of Trecento Siena, with assets in banking and the luxury textile trade.67 A second shop displays ceramic containers on a front counter.

Two pieces in the center are greenish, reminiscent of the green glaze

applied to celadon ware produced in Iran during the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries.68 Could the rightmost container, a piece of white and blue pottery in the style of Chinese porcelain of the period, connote Siena's expanded cultural and trade contacts?69 A plate to the far left is more difficult to see but also appears to be of the blue and white design. Again, the image is now faint, but Lorenzetti's selection of details was not random. A gold shop, a shoe cobbler, a classroom, and most interestingly a bookshop have also been selected for inclusion as important icons of the urban setting. In an age when all books were

manuscripts and extremely expensive, a bookshop was also a reminder of challenges to Church control posed by written scholarship circulated

by heretical groups, including the Albigensians, who were associated with papermaking in the Languedoc region.70 Lorenzetti selected these details from his social world of objects and their associations.

Because Lorenzetti's goal was to convey the ideals of peace and

67 Anne Dunlop, "Once More on the Patronage of Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Frescoes at

S. Galgano, Montesiepi," Zeitschrift f?r Kunstgeschichte 63 Bd., H. 3 (2000): 395. 68

Stefano Carboni, "Synthesis: Continuity and Innovation in Ilkhanid Art," in Koma roff and Carboni, Legacy ofGenghU Khan, pp. 199-200.

69 Rossabi, "Mongols and Their Legacy," in Komaroff and Carboni, Legacy of Genghis

Khan, p. 21. 70

Arthur Guirdham, The Cathars and Reincarnation: The Record of a Past Life in Thir

teenth-Century France (1970; repr., Wellingborough, Norhamptonshire: Turnstone Press,

1982), p. 104. See also Lorenzo Paolini, "Italian Catharism and Written Culture," in Heresy and Literacy, 1000-1530, ed. Peter Biller and Anne Hudson (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni

versity Press, 1994), pp. 83-103.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 20I

good governance, the city portrayed in his fresco is both Siena and not Siena; it has an allegorical quality, a hallmark of Lorenzetti's style. The Porta Romana is and is not the gate that leads south from the city toward Rome. While the wolf and nursing cubs identify the gate as Siena's own, other features of the actual port do not match Lorenzet ti's rendering. Three arches in the merchant's arcade display the dis tinctive Sienese design of the pointed gothic arch over the rounded

Romanesque arch, but aside from these references, which could also mark a city that submitted to Sienese rule, there are no specific build

ings within the city wall to identify the location as Siena. Suggested by a tiny structure in the far upper left, even the Duomo does not accu

rately depict the architecture of the real tower and dome, and one finds no palaces of Sienese families or civic buildings from the II Campo. One terraced structure stands out for its painted fa?ade suggestive of Persian or Moorish tile and textile designs. Felicity Ratt?, in a study of "architectural portraits" in Trecento painting, suggests that "The

discrepancy between the representation and its model, in fact, holds the key to understanding these images."71 Ratt? argues that this juxta position of actual and imagined architecture was a language explicitly developed in Trecento art allowing the artist to convey different levels of meaning in one unified image. Lorenzetti was particularly adept at

this approach. He employed selective visual accuracy to introduce a

highly detailed and nuanced naturalism that simultaneously offered a

way to juxtapose a range of ideals and social realities. As we shall see, this is also key to The Martyrdom of the Franciscans, painted roughly four years after the Sala della Pace frescoes. Of Lorenzetti's architecture in the Good Government fresco, Ratt? writes, "Tnaccuracy' thus func tions as a signifier of the allegorical mode," removed from historical time and yet temporally and historically specific, embodying past, pres ent, and future in one visual frame.72

Politics of Place in the Central Asian Setting of

Lorenzetti's Martyrdom of the Franciscans

If the Good Government fresco suggests Lorenzetti's awareness of Siena's

place in the cultural geography of Mongol Eurasi?, Martyrdom of the Franciscans moves the Sienese viewer directly into the center of that

71 Felicity Ratt?, "Re-presenting the Common Place: Architectural Portraits in

Trecento Painting," Studies in Iconography 22 (2001): 90. 72

Ibid., p. 96.

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202 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 2010

geography. Financed in part by the Council of Nine upon request from

the Franciscans, Lorenzetti's Martyrdom, as well as other works origi

nally completed for the Sienese Franciscans' chapter house, was pri

marily a collaborative effort of the local Petroni family and the Sienese Franciscans, drawing heavily from Franciscan Spirituals.73 Merchant interests were heavily represented among these sponsors. Interestingly, one of the central issues in art history discussions of Lorenzetti's Mar

tyrdom is the question of the scene's location. Is the setting Ceuta in

Morocco, where seven Franciscans martyred themselves in 1227? Or, is it Tana in India, the site of a 1321 Franciscan martyrdom? Or, could it

be the central Asian town of Almalyq, north of the Taklamakan Desert in the Chaghatai khanate, where in 1339 another group of Francis cans chose martyrdom rather than comply with the Mongol practice of inclusion with a variety of religious groups? At Almalyq, friars had insisted on the exclusive superiority of Christianity during the brief rule of a particularly fundamentalist sultan. S. Maureen Burke offers a recent scholarly assessment that "the central location of the scene is

confirmed ... to be Mongol?something new for a European artist to

be exploring?[this] underlines the artist's experimental bent and the intercultural interests of his society."74 Why is this new setting first

explored by Lorenzetti for a Sienese audience? Like Lorenzetti's depic tion of Siena in the Good Government fresco, the setting of Martyrdom both is and is not Almalyq. This is consistent with Lorenzetti's approach, embodying a tension between reality and ideals in the social and reli

gious makeup of Sienese politics, what Felicity Ratt? has described as

"a new sensitivity to being situated?geographically, historically, and

culturally?in time and place."75 Within this play of time and place, Lorenzetti has incorporated elements into his composition that suggest a dissident philosophical perspective on his theme of martyrdom.

At the center of Lorenzetti's Martyrdom, now located in a side

chapel to the left of the main altar in Siena's San Francesco Basilica, sits a ruler on his throne elevated above the scene around him. His sword is drawn but at rest across his knees. The ruler's striking red shoes

point like arrows, accenting the tense action taking place at his feet in the fresco's foreground. There is an air of a psychological drama:

figures peer out from behind columns and with intense stares probe

73 Diana Norman, "The Three Cities Compared: Patrons, Politics and Art," in Nor

man, Siena, Florence and Padua, pp. 24-25. 74 S. Maureen Burke, "The Martyrdom of the Franciscans by Ambrogio Lorenzetti,"

Zeitschrift f?r Kunstgeschichte 65 (2002): 491. 75

Ratt?, "Re-presenting the Common Place," p. 106.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 203

the ruler's face as though in disbelief at the horror he has sanctioned.

Proportionally, the ruler is much larger than the other figures; in his seated position he is as tall as those who stand to his right and left. Six Franciscans have been ordered executed by this ruler with his Mongol style of clothing and facial details. Three friars on the left await their imminent execution by beheading. Three on the right already lie dead

with their severed heads on the ground. Two groups stand to either side of the ruler at midi?vel in the composition. These two groups of five individuals each, four fully visible figures and one hidden, display a range of details in dress, armor, and facial features. Two prominent fig ures have clear Mongol features and conical hats in the contemporary

Mongol style, topped with long white feathery plumes. The figure on the far left wears a turban, suggesting an Indian presence. The armor

of the third figure from the left is unlike anything worn by warriors of the Christian domains and in its remarkable detail adds a Persian or

Central Eurasian element. The figure nearest the ruler in the group on the left wears a tunic with collar and diagonal cross closure similar to that worn by the ruler himself and associated with the Mongol or Han Chinese dress of the period. Others in the group on the right have clothing styles, hats, and features that identify them as Mediterranean,

suggesting a cosmopolitan setting. Like the Good Government fresco, Lorenzetti's Martyrdom of the Franciscans is concerned with issues of

peace and violence while displaying an exquisite naturalism in the detail of costumes and facial expressions. The realism of facial features and finely detailed clothing over natural poses is one of Lorenzetti's

stylistic hallmarks.76 And yet, unlike his fellow Sienese Simone Mar tini, who captured every thread of the finely woven Mongol nasij (gold and silk) brocade of Saint Gabriel's robes in the Annunciation (1333), Lorenzetti's work consistently focused on the simpler Franciscan Spiri tual layers of his subject, the plain habit more than the elaborate robe Simone Martini detailed in his 1317 altar piece of Louis of Toulouse. Even the most elaborate silk dresses in the Good Government fresco are

simple compared with Simone's extravagant fabrics. Franciscans Roger Bacon and Raymond Lull among others associated the Mongols with material simplicity that was presumed to account for their great power,

knowledge, and morality, despite the fact that the Mongols were also the source of highly prized gold and silk textiles desired by elite con sumers and imagined as angelic attire.77

76 Ulrike Ilg, "La scoperta della natura in pitura," in Storia delie Arti in Toscana: Il

Trecento (Firenze: EDIFIR, Edizioni, 2004), p. 181. 77 De Weese, "Influence of the Mongols," pp. 56-59.

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204 journal of world history, june 20

It has been suggested that Giotto's Saint Francis before the Sultan

(1317) in the Bardi Chapel of Santa Croce Church in Florence (Fig. 7) was a model for Lorenzetti's Martyrdom of the Franciscans. Giotto's fresco was most likely known to Lorenzetti and does show some resemblances. Like the sultan, the central figure in the martyrdom scene is elevated, enthroned above the stage of action, and surrounded by groups on both his left and right. However, a compelling set of visual similarities is

also found in the extant Edinburgh and London editions of Rashid al Din's illustrated world history, the J?mi aUtaw?rTkh, produced annually in the Ilkhan's Tabriz workshops and intended for widespread circula tion through diplomatic and commercial circuits. Although any oppor

tunity Lorenzetti may have had to view these illustrations or spin-off copies remains undocumented, two execution scenes, Abu 'l-Husain Put to Death at Bukhara (1306; Fig. 8)78 and The Execution of Jal?l al-Dln Fvr?zsh?h (1314; Fig. 9),79 provided exactly the kind of detail he would have sought in attempting to portray realistically the martyrdom of

Figure 7. Giotto, Saint Francis before the Sultan, 1317. Photo courtesy of

Scala/Art Resource, NY.

78 David Talbot Rice, The Illustrations to the "World History" of Rashid al-Din, ed. Basil

Gray (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1976), p. 131, ill. 46. 79

Blair, Compendium of Chronicles, p. 75, fig. 39.

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Figure 8. Abu 'M?usain Put to Death at Bukhara, 1306, Rashid al-Din's History of the World [OrMs.20i.117v.], Edinburgh Uni

versity Library, Special Collections Department.

Figure 9. Execution of ]al?l al-D?n F?r?zsh?h, 1314, Nasser D. Khalili Collec tion of Islamic Art, MSS 727, fol. 27a. ? Nour Foundation. Courtesy of the Khalili Family Trust.

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2 6 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20

Franciscan monks in a central Asian setting. Visual echoes among the Tabriz illustrations and Lorenzetti's composition appear more forceful than those that resonate with Giotto's Saint Francis before the Sultan. Lorenzetti conceivably was aware of all these works in creating his own

composition (Figs. 4, 7-9). The movement of diplomats, merchants, Mongol Christian pilgrims, and Tartar slaves in the central Italian

region provided multiple opportunities for cross-cultural observations at both the material and social levels.80

Unique poses and highly animated interactions in the Lorenzetti and Tabriz compositions draw specific attention to similarities lacking resonance with Giotto's representation. In both Abu 'THusain Put to Death at Bukhara and Martyrdom of the Franciscans, a prominent figure with neck extended to view the execution scene peers from behind a vertical marker that visually accents his presence. A similar figure in The Execution of Jal?l alTJln Fir?zsh?h stands above the victim on the right. With a vivid naturalism, individuals in each of the three works actively engage one another through gazes and hand gestures, suggesting emotionally intense communication and similarly expres sive facial features. The ruler in The Execution of Jal?l aUD?n Fir?zsh?h has a look of dismay, almost distress rather than triumph; Lorenzetti's ruler echoes this expression. A man looks up at Lorenzetti's ruler from the left with a concentrated expression of inquiry, doubt, and almost

opposition, similar to the facial expression of the middle figure in the

group to the left of the ruler in The Execution of Jal?l al-D?n Fir?zsh?h and the middle figure in the group to the right above the execution of

Abu l-Husain. In both of the Tabriz illustrations the challenging gaze is more oblique.81 Placement of other figures also suggests Lorenzetti's

80 Iris Oigo, "The Domestic Enemy: The Eastern Slaves in Tuscany in the Four

teenth and Fifteenth Centuries," Speculum 30, no. 3 (July 1955): 328, 347-348. By the mid

1300S Tuscany was part of an extensive slave trade that brought groups of Mongol descent described as "Tartars" from central Eurasia into Florence and surrounding city-states. Some merchants traded in both silk and slaves. An official prohibition on slaves in workshops was

extant, although artisans and shopkeepers could and did own slaves. We have no idea what the significance of this prohibition might have been, but we should remember that individu als with "slave" status could in practice occupy high status by virtue of their skills and family connections. Of the foundlings left at the Florence Hospital in the late 1300s, 14 percent of them were registered as having slave parentage, whereas by the early 1400s, the number was

33 percent. We do not have numbers for Siena. 81

The degree of focus on and challenge to authority varies in these works. While Giotto and Lorenzetti both elevate and center the ruler in their compositions, the Execution

of falai al-EHn Fir?zsh?h shows everyone on the same plane and the ruler placed off center to the right. In Abu 'hHusain Put to Death at Bukhara the authority figure is decentered to the left and sits at the level of the execution just inches from the action. Lorenzetti shows

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 207

possible awareness of the illustrations for Rashid al-Din's world history. Jal?l ahD?n F?r?zsh?h and the Franciscan monk both kneel with hands tied in identical ways and bodies slightly bent. In each composition a vertical pole accents the figure of the victim. The tonsure of the monk circles the victim's lowered head at exactly the same angle as the blindfold on Jal?l ahD?n Fir?zsh?h. The executioner in each case has one person standing behind him. An array of hats, including turbans,

Mongol hats with pointed tops and wide brims, and hats with elaborate

feathery plumes, are present in different arrangements throughout the world history text and Lorenzetti's fresco. Garments that clothe some

of Lorenzetti's figures include the cross to the right shirt style with dis tinctive mandarin squares worn by figures in the Tabriz illustrations.

While the lack of direct documentary evidence raises questions

regarding Lorenzetti's access to studies from the workshops of Tabriz, artistic contact itself between Siena and Tabriz does not seem to be in

dispute among scholars who see an active transmission of artistic motifs in the case of Lorenzetti's influence on art produced in Tabriz. Art his torian Sheila Blair comments that the illustrations in the Shahnama

(1330) "reveal the inspiration of Italian works by the likes of Simone Martini, Lorenzetti, and their contemporaries. The borrowed features are both compositional devices?such as a circular arrangement with

repoussoir figures in the foreground and receding panes to indicate per

spective?and individual motifs, such as gold halos behind faces in

profile, transparent veils, and recumbent or mourning figures."82 Blair writes that The Birth of Mohammed from Rashid al-Din's 1314 world history reflects European influence in its compositional arrangement of figures suggestive of the typical Christian nativity scene. Artists of the Ilkhanid illuminated manuscripts demonstrated what Robert Hil lenbrand has called their "willingness to echo contemporary Italian and French art" as well as "an equal readiness to copy and refashion elements of Chinese art" that often contained "details taken from Buddhist images."83 Given the circles in which Lorenzetti moved, his

style of artistic creation, and a contemporary society imbued with Eur asian cultural and diplomatic exchange, it is equally feasible that one

his ruler directly challenged by a questioning gaze from a figure to his left. In the Execution

only the executioner has a weapon, while in the Martyrdom each figure in the two groups

surrounding the ruler has his hand on a sword, as does the ruler himself. 82

Blair, "Religious Art of the Ilkhanids," p. 112. 83

Robert Hillenbrand, "The Arts of the Book in Ilkhanid Iran," in Komaroff and Car

boni, Legacy of Genghis Khan, p. 165.

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2 8 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20I0

of Lorenzetti's options was to draw on artistic motifs from outside the central Italian zone to compose a visual language of dissent on criti cal issues within Sienese society. Entirely porous, translocal Eurasian artistic communities appear to have stimulated unprecedented levels of creative synthesis across the continent.

The historical vision of Lorenzetti's Martyrdom of the Franciscans is perhaps its most creative feature. A struggling order trying to define its own relationship to power?that of the Roman Church with its

officially sanctioned Franciscan order, place-based political author

ity, as well as Mongol dominance?the Franciscan Spirituals in their commitment to Francis's notions of poverty and peace sought to assert

their own historical perspective. By the late 1330s or early 1340s, when Lorenzetti conceived the composition for his fresco, heretical activity that conflated Franciscan Spiritual and Neo-Manichaean dissent was

clandestine, and Mongol rule dominated the external reference points for oppositional, innovative thought. As Jacques Le Goff has written, "The time of ancient history was accessible only to specialists in mem

ory and in its written forms. By contrast, recent history was accessible to the eyes and ears. ... It was no accident that the mendicant friars

played an important part in popularizing both this kind of history and examph: they were specialists in recent times."84 Lorenzetti's Martyrdom of the Franciscans, commissioned and supported by Franciscan Spiritu als,85 was an effort to capture the political complexities of a moment in Franciscan Spiritual history.

The claim to history was itself a central marker of the Mongol cen

tury; creation of new authority required the legitimacy of history, and the process of shaping historical perspective was a point of political contention. The preoccupation with recording and structuring his

tory was born anew in the thirteenth century to the accompaniment of dramatic sudden appearances of the Mongols, first as military force, then as a political and cultural presence. Rulers of a polyglot empire of

customs, practices, and beliefs, the Mongols after their military expan sion sought to create legitimacy through authorship. Ilkhanid works

attempting to write and illustrate universal histories and guidebooks for royal leadership integrated Christian themes and images into their

syntheses. While the Great Mongol Shahnama and the J?mi aUmw r?kh were inclusive in their rendering of the histories of diverse peoples of

84 Jacques Le Goff, The Medieval Imagination, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 79. 85

Burke, "Martyrdom of the Franciscans by Ambrogio Lorenzetti," p. 469.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads

Eurasia, the diverse peoples were often depicted with Mongol features.

Histories were adjusted to eliminate controversy and assimilate groups into a universal, shared past that by divine plan had led to a contem

porary world dominated by the great khans of the eastern Mongolian

steppes.86 Histories, such as those of the Liao and Chin, that would

have been relegated to minor status by court historians of the impe rial Chinese dynasties were given their own historical legitimacy, once

China, under Mongol rule, was absorbed into a Eurasian world.87 Mon

golian universalism emerged as a competing universalism among those

of Christian, Buddhist, Islamic, and Confucian inspiration. Recent victories over each of the above reinforced the Mongol claim to supe

riority as well as the initial European perception of Mongol superiority. This possibly accounts for the use of Asian facial features that has been

noticed in some paintings of Madonnas and other religious figures of

the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries. To share in Mongol appear ances was to be up to date. Lorenzetti's Good Government fresco and

his Martyrdom of the Franciscans are both meditations on matters of

peace and violence in this context of competing universal ideals. Both

compositions employ historical references and reflections on contem

porary conditions to express Utopian aspirations. Although Lorenzetti's

compositions had to meet the approval of his sponsors, the ambiguity of images and the possibilities for multiple interpretations left a wide range for his own convictions and readings of contemporary events; this was a fundamental feature of artistic creativity under the patron

age system. An attempt to date Lorenzetti's Martyrdom of the Franciscans pro

vides some clues to the composition's multiple historical frames. As

mentioned above, S. Maureen Burke has argued that the setting is

Mongolian and therefore depicts the martyrdom of six Spirituals in

1339 at Almalyq in the Chaghatai Khanate. Based on this evaluation

she surmises that the work must have been composed in the early 1340s, some fifteen years later than estimates that link the fresco to martyr doms at either Centua in 1227 or Tana in 1321.88 In fact, Lorenzetti has not given us a clear chronological association, and Burke's argument

appears to have some simple chronological problems. Although the

86 Komaroff and Carboni, Legacy ofGengl?s Khan, p. 246.

87 Hidehiro Okada, "China as a Successor State to the Mongol Empire," in The Mongol

Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan (Leiden: Brill, 1999),

p. 263. 88

For details of this argument, see Burke, "Martyrdom of the Franciscans by Ambrogio

Lorenzetti," pp. 463, 480, 482, 491.

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2IO JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20 0

missionaries in Almalyq were killed in June 1339, Johannes de Mari

gnolli, the Florentine Franciscan who arrived there as a papal legate in

1340 and subsequently learned of the destruction of the Almalyq friary, did not return to Europe until 1353, several years after Lorenzetti's death in 1347. By Burke's own reckoning, Marignolli's account of this jour ney was written into his Chronoicon Boemiae between 1355 and 1358, when he returned to Prague. It is not clear, therefore, that Lorenzetti and others in Siena would have had in 1340 or 1343 a detailed written account of the Almalyq martyrdom. An earlier account of the martyr dom written in 1348 by Johannes Vitodurani most closely resembles Lorenzetti's depiction, as Burke notes, but also post-dates his lifetime. The only discussion of the martyrdom at Almalyq during Lorenzetti's lifetime surrounded a petition to Pope Clement VI at Avignon in 1343

calling for the canonization of the Almalyq martyrs. Both Francesco d'Altimanno Ugurgieri, former Guardianus of S. Francesco in Siena, and Simone Martini were in Avignon during this discussion and were

possibly a source of news about the debate when they arrived back in

their home territory of Siena. It is significant that Clement rejected this

petition. While praising those Franciscans who upheld the standards of the Church-approved Franciscan order, Clement was aware that four of the six Almalyq martyrs presented a problem for Church orthodoxy? all four were from strong Franciscan Spiritual centers in Provence,

Spain, and Ancona. In 1344 Clement went on to denounce a number of Franciscan Spirituals doing missionary work in central Asia. The news about Almalyq, therefore, was ambiguous in terms of adherence to Church authority and open to multiple readings, a point Burke does not weight in her analysis. Can we presume that Lorenzetti, steeped in the complexities of his social and artistic world, would have ignored these ambiguities and multiple readings in his Martyrdom fresco?

Lorenzetti's Martyrdom of the Franciscans was one of three large nar

ratives completed for the chapter house of the Basilica of San Francesco in Siena that linked the Franciscan Spirituals of Siena with Toulouse in Languedoc. Saint Louis of Toulouse before Pope Boniface VIII (Fig. 10) particularly continues to play with the ambiguity of the Franciscan

Spiritual's social and religious positions. The Martyrdom of Saint Peter of Siena in Tana is lost except for a small fragment that shows a cityscape and harbor in India. Torn by the contradictions of poverty and ruler

ship, Louis of Toulouse was a devoted Franciscan Spiritual whose reluc tance to accept the bishopric of Toulouse in 1315 embodied the politi cal and spiritual tensions surrounding Cathar and Spiritual beliefs and contributed to controversy surrounding his canonization in 1317. Even

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 211

Figure io. Lorenzetti, Saint Louis of Toulouse before Pope Boniface VIII, ca.

1340. Photo courtesy of Scala/Art Resource, NY.

after the Peace of Paris in 1229, which curbed authority of Raymond VII of Toulouse and other elite families of Languedoc sympathetic to Cathar views, the association of Toulouse with heresy and the Roman

preoccupation with bringing this area under its own authority contin

ued. Louis agreed to accept the bishopric offered him by Boniface VIII on condition that the pope first admit Louis into the Franciscan order.

Knowing Louis's Spiritual views, this was a compromise for Boniface, who gambled that the appointment would secure greater Church con

trol of the renegade Languedoc region. Louis, as a nephew of King Louis IX of France and the future bishop of Toulouse, was an enthusiastic adherent of Pietro Giovanni Olivi, one of the most popular proponents of Franciscan Spiritual perspectives in the 1280s and 1290s in the areas

of Lower Languedoc and Tuscany.89 Olivi's major written work, Lectura

89 Robert E. Lerner, "Writing and Resistance among B?guins of Languedoc and Catalo

nia," in Biller and Hudson, Heresy and Literacy, pp. 191,197.

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212 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20I0

super Apocallysim, suggested that Francis represented the penultimate stage in humanity's spiritual progress against corrupt Church leader

ship. Church directives condemned vernacular editions of Olivi's writ

ings and ordered the destruction of Franciscan Spiritual and Beguin

(lay Franciscan Spiritual) communities. Many Franciscan Spirituals fled Provence for Italy to avoid persecution.

One reading of Lorenzetti's Martyrdom fresco would perceive a for

eign setting spatially and ideologically distinct from questions of heresy nearer to home. From a dissident perspective, however, the foreign set

ting universalized the Franciscan Spiritual commitment to pacifism. The Roman Church's cultivation of a martial worldview born of its own multiple battlefronts extended to absorb the Franciscan legacy under this mantel; this energized the Franciscan Spirituals' own preoc

cupation with their foundational focus on nonviolence, a corollary to

poverty. The commitment to not killing through the exercise of rea son and restraint reached new representational heights in Lorenzetti's fresco. The scene of martyrdom and the beheading of the Franciscans is itself a brutal reminder of the consequences of conflict that resorts to

violence for resolution. As Maureen Burke has noted, "the spectrum of emotion expressed by the spectators and ruler is rendered with a pro found humanity and naturalism. Despite the violence inherent in the

subject, drama is achieved through balance and contrast and through controlled emotion rather than from accentuated bloodshed or chaotic

agitation. Rationalism also rules the composition."90 In this suspended moment, it is interesting to note that every figure in the scene has his hand on a weapon?a sword in various poses. The executioner readies his sword and a figure on his opposite right turns away while returning his sword to its holder. The ruler himself holds a sword across his knees. The ruler's red shoes point like arrows to the bloody consequences of armed authority in ideological combat. The Mongol ruler's red shoes are so prominent, especially when the fresco is viewed from floor level.

Perhaps a clue to their significance can be gleaned from an account

titled Livre de X?tat du grand caan (written between 1328 and 1334) by John de Cora, appointed archbishop of Sultaniyah by Pope John XXII in 1330. Writing on the ecclesiastical organization of the Bud dhists under their Grand Lama, he states, "This pontiff of idolaters was

dressed like a cardinal; (porte sur son chief un chapeau rouge, et touslours

90 Burke, "Martyrdom of the Franciscans by Ambrogio Lorenzetti," p. 477.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 213

est vestu de rouge (wearing on his head a red hat, and dressed in red)."91 This reference suggests that Buddhism was still a presence in the south

Caspian Sea region at this time, even if the significance of red shoes remains elusive. Finally, weapons are all drawn but held in abeyance while animated faces express disbelief, questioning, doubt, and disgust. The representation of figures from across Eurasia, including Mongols, Indians, Persians, and Mediterraneans, suggests the Franciscan Spiri tual appeal to universal peace.92

To an informed early fourteenth-century viewer of Lorenzetti's fresco, the entire subject of persecution and martyrdom was fraught with mul

tiple meanings. While overt attacks on the Church for its continuing

persecution of Franciscan Spirituals could have severe repercussions for dissenters, a critique that placed the issue of religious persecution in the context of Muslim or Mongol authority could appear to divert attention from domestic cases of martyrdom but actually served as a

reminder of those very persecutions and the Church's religious intol erance on the home front. Yes, one reading of Lorenzetti's fresco in

Spiritual-saturated Siena may be that the Mongols were responsible for six deaths, but how many scores had perished much closer to home at

the hands of intolerant Church authority? Tuscan Franciscan Spirituals moved throughout the region from Toulouse to Sicily, and Florence was

a stronghold of Catharism.93 Between 1241 and 1245, 210 Cathari were

burned at Montsegur.94 In the closing years of the thirteenth century more than a hundred Cathars were hunted down by the Inquisition, immured, and left to die in a cave at Lombrivers in the Pyrennes.95 On

7 May 1318, four Franciscan Spirituals out of a group of twenty-five on

trial for heresy were burnt at Marseilles; similar executions took place over the next several years in Provence and Languedoc. Among the various cases of heresy in Siena is one from 1321 that involved "an act of idolatry" and was considered important because "many persons

91 Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, p. 209 n. 7. There are also representations of

Prester John, the fabled Christian ruler of the far East, with bright red pointed shoes. See

Kenneth Nebenzahl, Mapping the Silk Road and Beyond (New York: Phaidon Press, 2004), pp. 8, 52, 76.

92 For further comment on the heterogeneous nature of the populations represented in

Lorenzetti's Martyrdom and Good Government frescoes, see Anne McClanan, "The Strange Lands of Ambrogio Lorenzetti," in Bork and Kann, Art, Science, and Technology of Medieval

Travel, pp. 83-95. 93

Guirdham, Cathars and Reincarnation, p. 111. 94

Davenport, "Catholics, the Cathars, and the Concept of Infinity," p. 278. 95 Guirdham, Cathars and Reincarnation, p. 32.

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214 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20

in Siena" favored the heresy.96 Although the historical record fills in few details, the incident itself was a cause c?l?br?. The disputation of this major heresy purportedly entrenched in Siena for more than two

decades was held in the Palazzo Pubblico itself. Baroccino Barocci, who

argued the heretical position, had served on the Council of Nine in

1308 and 1311. The council, unable in this case to protect Baroccino

given his strong and persistent views, was obligated to turn him over

to the inquisitor and bishop of Siena, who sentenced him to death by burning at the stake. We can only surmise here that the major heresy involved was related to the Franciscan Spiritual and Neo-Manichaean currents that moved up and down the Via Francigena. The same years of the early 1320s witnessed the trial and sentencing of four b?guins (lay Franciscan Spiritual groups) at Toulouse. All of these individuals

were considered martyrs and saints by their fellow Franciscan Spiritu als, and their history was recorded by Angelo Clareno in his Historia

Septem Tribulationum, completed around 1325. This history circulated

widely in vernacular translation with illustrations of the martyrdom that were extreme in their brutality.97 Lorenzetti's choice of setting and

ambiguous imagery created a powerful narrative readable within the circles of Franciscan Spiritual dissent, and yet it was fully compliant with orthodox themes.

In this connection, the companion fresco of Saint Louis of Tou louse before Pope Boniface VIII takes on added significance. At first

glance the composition appears to celebrate a settlement of differences between the papacy and the strong Spiritual Sienese community that had actively rebelled against the Church's denial of the poverty of Christ.98 While the papal ceremony occupies the left half of the fresco, the assembly stirs with gestures and conversations that distract from the main event. In particular a figure in the gallery points decisively to

the right toward a figure to the far right. Pietro Lorenzetti's Madonna and Child between St. Francis and St. John (1325) in Assisi at the Lower Church of San Francesco uses the same hand gesture to direct atten

tion to the connection between Christ and Saint Francis. The figure at

the far right of Saint Louis of Toulouse appears Christlike, with no head cover, a mark of poverty, suggesting an association between Louis of Toulouse and Christ, whose poverty was also a mainstay of Franciscan

96 Bowsky, Medieval Italian Commune, pp. 76-77.

97 Nicholas R. Havely, "The Blood of the Apostles: Dante, the Franciscans and Pope John XXII," Italian Studies 52 (1997): 43, 48.

98 Hyman, Sienese Painting, p. 95.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 215

Spiritual dogma. Ambrogio Lorenzetti's two frescos for the Franciscan

chapter house read at one level as strong Franciscan Spiritual render

ings of recent historical events.

Lorenzetti's treatment of these historical events allowed him to

explore political and religious leadership at two levels?the relation

ship of the Roman Church to domestic challenges and the nature

of Mongol rule with regard to Franciscan Spiritual work. It was well known within the Spiritual tradition that Francis himself had chosen

dialogue over martyrdom and that in 1219 he had found the Sultan Malik el-Kamil of Egypt to be a man of greater humanity than the pope himself." This reality continued to complicate Franciscan Spiritual relations with Roman Church authority. If Lorenzetti's fresco reflects news of the martyrdom at Almalyq, it is important to note that the

ruler who ordered the executions was Ali Sultan, who in 1339 seized the government and poisoned Yesun-Timur Khan. The khan himself had promoted cordial relations with Richard of Burgundy, a Franciscan Latin bishop, and Francis of Alessandra, who cured the khan of a seri ous disease. The Franciscans at Almalyq, therefore, enjoyed consid

erable prestige and influence. One of the khan's sons had even been

baptized. After the short-lived attack by Ali Sultan, who ordered the destruction of the Latin church in Almalyq and the death of those who would not recant their Christian faith, Father Marignolli, who arrived

just after the martyrdom, and his associates rebuilt the church in 1340 1341 and maintained an active Latin Christian community in Almalyq until the end of the Mongol era.100 This attack on the Franciscans was an aberration in otherwise congenial relations between them and the

Mongol rulers of the Chaghatai Khanate. However, the Papacy's ani

mosity toward those it deemed heretical was unrelenting.

Conclusions: The Eurasian Humanist Dialectic

The concept of universal peace was a radical creation of Mongol author

ity; it called for a fundamental reorganization of human relations that

acknowledged diverse histories and secular life. The Roman Church's

concept of universal peace was located in the afterlife, and the Mus lim construction of Dar al-Islam (the land of Islam), while mediating

99 Adrian House, Francis of Assisi: A Revolutionary Life (London: Random House,

2001), p. 218. 100

Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, pp. 247-248.

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2l6 JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY, JUNE 20I0

among Christians, Jews, and Muslims, could be hostile to Buddhists and other groups labeled pagan, including the vast nomadic popula tions of central Asia. Universal ideals developed through the Chinese

dynasties were location and institution based, defined by adherence to a particular body of political philosophy and social organization. Only the Mongol concepts of peace (sulh, from the Arabic) and polity (?? or el in Mongol-Turkic), with their connotations of submission to Mongol imperial ideology, explicitly proposed to move toward religious plural ism and locate its project in a contemporary social space not limited

by place-based cultural geography.101 In doing so, Mongol-sponsored cultural projects placed emphasis on human agency in the making of history and naturalism in the representation of the phenomenological world. In a world defined by conflict and violence, Franciscan Spiritu als shared this common commitment to inclusiveness and peace, the Pace that was the foundation of Lorenzetti's Good Government program and his Martyrdom composition. Although the images of the Mongols in contemporary European regions were filled with ambivalence and sometimes hostility, on balance the Franciscan Spirituals cultivated a

positive set of associations with Mongol rule, which included religious tolerance to an extent that the papacy in Rome increasingly denied not only to other faiths but to variant interpretations of Christianity itself.

Sienese artists shared in the innovative fusion of styles and cir culation of images that characterized the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from Kara Khorum to the Sinai peninsula. Identified as the most innovative artists of fourteenth-century Italian painting, Ambro

gio Lorenzetti along with his brother Pietro and Simone Martini102

displayed an energized artistic imagination for which it is difficult to account without recognizing the artistic discourse that evolved through the period 1290-1350?a discourse that synthesized elements of elev

enth-century Persian and Chinese art, both of which had long since absorbed many features from Greek, Indian, Tibetan, and Nepalese regions. The innovations of Ambrogio Lorenzetti and Simone Martini

101 Reuven Amitai-Preiss, "Mongol Imperial Ideology and the Ilkhanid War against the

Mamluks," in Amitai-Preiss and Morgan, Mongo/ Empire and Its Legacy, p. 64. Wladyslaw Kotwicz, "Les Mongols, Promoteurs de l'Idee de Paix Universelle au debut du XlIIe Si?cle," Rocznik Orientalistyczny 16 (1950): 428-434; and Rafael Gilbert, "Raimundo Llull y la Paz

Universal," Estudios Lulianos 10 (1966): 153-170. I thank Thomas Alisen for clarification on the Arabie and Mongol-Turkic terminology. 102

Diana Norman, Painting in Late Medieval and Renaissance Siena (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003), p. 4.

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Prazniak: Siena on the Silk Roads 217

in realistic representation of human movement and the development of natural, daily life settings surpassed anything present in Byzantine mosaic art. Ambrogio Lorenzetti's "panoramic and cosmological imagi nation was more radical than either Giotto's or Simone's; he included more of the world, of everyday life, than any artist before or since. ... The Well-Governed City does affirm the accessibility of sensuous,

natural experience, open to all classes, all creatures; in Maginni's words 'the frescoes announce a growing conviction that governance might be defined outside of the Church.'"103 Similarly, the angel musicians of

Ambrogio Lorenzetti's 1335 Maest? for the cathedral of Massa Marit tima are the first extant appearance of such figures in Italian art, but

heavenly winged musicians were standard fare throughout the central Asian religious and political centers long before the fourteenth cen

tury. From what we have seen of the many documented contacts, there is every reason to believe that these innovations unfolded in interac tion with the rich artistic and philosophical traditions of East, Central, and South Asia. This line of inquiry pleads for further research and collaboration to clarify a unique and critical passage in world history.

Recalling Lorenzetti's lost Mappamondo, with Siena placed in rela

tionship to Almalyq, Rome, Toulouse, Cairo, Baghdad, and Tabriz, sug

gests the world of interconnected social spaces that shaped vision and behavior in the first half of the Eurasian fourteenth century. Within the dominant framework of Mongol Eurasian cultural politics, Siena's

golden age of creativity was perhaps less a confrontation with classi cal antiquity than an encounter between an embattled Roman Church

orthodoxy and a counterculture nurtured by an emergent Eurasian humanist fusion expressed in such works as the illustrated texts of Rashid al-Din's workshops or the mapping projects of Jamal al-Din. So distinctive was the contemporary constellation of images that brought into focus the humanity of spiritual figures, the naturalism of daily life, and human interdependence with nature that the first global appear ance of these configurations becomes "lost" only through a retrospec tive fragmentation of historical vision.

103 Hyman, Sienese Painting, pp. 100, 120-121.

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