Organizational Behavior Analysis

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12Career Development and Career Management

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Apply the elements of successful career development, including the design of quality management training programs. Cope with special career challenges. Manage stress on and off the job.

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Much of Geico's brand recognition comes from their mascot, a talking gecko.

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12.1 Career Development and Management Training Programs Career development may be viewed from the perspective of an individual employee or from the organization's point of view. For an individual, career development consists of a series of activities designed to help one understand and overcome challenges as well as identify and take advantage of opportunities. Many companies consider career development to be a key organizational process, because people represent a valuable resource. Consequently, career development consists of all efforts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path.

This chapter focuses on the topics of personal career development, manager training, and the various ways to cope with special career challenges such as dual careers, employee outprocessing, and stress management.

OB in Action: GEICO

For most people, the name GEICO probably conjures images of a variety of humorous and memorable commercials. Over the past two decades, the company has established high brand recognition and recall in the insurance industry. In other words, consumers remember the name and what the organization sells.

Far less recognized, but perhaps equally or even more important, is the company's management development program. As recently as 2016, the organization was mentioned as one of the 10 best companies in which an employee can �ind a mentor (Semezuk, 2016). The company offers a three-year rotational program that helps employees learn on the job and provides them access to mentorship from upper management.

The program extends beyond the formal training. The organization works to help employees build genuine relationships with those of higher rank. Team Lead Soumya Padmanabhan notes, "The family feel here is the best. From meet-the-CEO and the open-door policy to daily interactions, it's easy to feel a connection between everyone" (Semezuk, 2016).

GEICO's website (2016) describes manager training efforts this way:

In GEICO's Management Development Program, you will learn all about one of our major insurance operations and be on the fast-track to management. We'll give you all the tools you will need to succeed:

Industry-leading training and development seminars Professional insurance licensing On-the-job experience, mentoring and coaching Real life business projects and much more

At the end of your program, you'll be ready to manage a team of associates. We'll help you get started . . . it's up to you how far you'll go!

The company's track record of success indicates the program has been effective in developing and keeping quality employees.

Re�lection and Application Questions

1. What should be the primary training goal for managers at GEICO? Would it be the same for entry-level employees? 2. What type of person would be a good candidate for employment at GEICO? 3. How might manager training and career development differ at GEICO as compared to programs in other industries such as manufacturing or

health care?

Career Development: Employee Perspective

As noted in Chapter 1, the environment encompassing the world of business presents numerous challenges and opportunities. The primary concepts that apply to personal success in that context are

building an ethical foundation; training and preparation; �inding the right person–organization �it; engaging in efforts at continuous improvement; and achieving balance.

From a personal perspective, career development includes the enhancement of four key personal assets, displayed in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1: Employee career assets Asset Description

Education Degrees held, grades earned, certi�ications held, activities while in school

Experience Amount, types, applicability to managerial roles

Personality traits Motivation, team player, leadership potential, organizational skills

Contacts References, mentors within the company or industry

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Each of these assets can be enhanced by one's own personal efforts. Returning to school, obtaining additional training through conferences and seminars, earning the best grades possible, and staying professionally active while achieving an education are valuable to many employers. Experience may be built while in school through leadership roles on campus, through internship programs with actual businesses, and later as part of one's growth as an employee. Key personality characteristics will also make an employee more competitive when it comes to being hired for a new job or being promoted into a new position. Working toward being a better team player, displaying effort, and learning to lead can all be accomplished through practice, coaching, and training programs. Developing contacts who will provide quality references, assist as a career unfolds, and offer help and insight should be an ongoing activity. In sum, a signi�icant part of career development is the responsibility of the individual.

Career Development: Management Training Programs

The second part of career development rests with employers. Organizations that employ management training programs and, thus, demonstrate a promote-from- within policy receive the highest potential from each worker, make preparations for future managerial succession, and build employee morale. Table 12.2 provides examples of companies with successful management training programs, as identi�ied by monster.com (2016).

Table 12.2: Successful Management Training Programs Company Type of training

Seattle Genetics Job-related skills (on- and off-site)

SAS Sales and technical enablement

Amazon Tuition reimbursement, work-from-home training

Bonobos Performance management; know your customer

Randstad Certi�ication in specialties, communication, leadership

Paychex Virtual learning, instructional

CyberCoders Technology applications to the workplace

Schneider Electric Executive development, customer relations

Marriott International, Inc. Virtual and in-person, professional and career skills Source: Thottam, I. (2017). 10 companies with awesome training and development programs. Monster. Retrieved from https://www.monster.com/career-advice/article/companies-with- awesome-training-development-programs (https://www.monster.com/career-advice/article/companies-with-awesome-training-development-programs) .

The standard steps involved in manager training include establishing the goals of the program, selecting individuals for training, identifying training methods, conducting the program, and following up.

Establishing Manager Training Goals Individual companies establish manager training goals based on organizational needs. Each then adapts training methods to the individuals selected and the objectives that have been outlined. Management training goals include improvements in technical skills and managerial skills, resocialization, assistance in ethical reasoning, and strengthening international/cultural skills. These goals apply to �irst level managers moving into middle management as well as individuals being groomed to move into upper echelons in the organization.

Individuals who will move into �irst-line supervisory or middle-management roles are the most likely to receive technical skill training. Sales managers are taught methods to serve customers, close sales, and provide quality service along the way. These techniques can then be transferred to individual employees and salespeople making calls on other organizations. Information technology managers learn more about the system and how to protect it. Accountants are trained to more fully understand the company's system and how it operates.

Managerial skills include the basic fundamentals of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. These skills include technical, conceptual, and human relations activities. As individuals move into top management roles, it is logical that the emphasis on conceptual skills will increase, as these individuals are required to see the "big picture" and manage it effectively. Note that all the subjects described in this text can be incorporated into training, with the goal of improving and enhancing managerial skills.

Resocialization involves the transition from entry-level employee to supervisor or manager. Part of this change may involve managing friends or persons who are older. Many management training programs include resocialization programs to teach candidates how to evaluate company activities from a different perspective (managerial rather than rank-and-�ile). Further, many programs seek to help trainees develop and enhance personal levels of emotional intelligence and emotional maturity.

Ethical reasoning and training has been added to many management training programs. As circumstances become increasingly complex, and new ethical challenges continue to arise, managers need the tools to assess and respond to new dilemmas (Schmitt, 2002; Weaver, Trevino, & Cochran, 1999). In light of the massive ethical violations that have occurred in recent years, such as those that took place at Wells Fargo, Turing Pharmaceuticals, and Volkswagen, it is clear that work remains.

Evidence of the value of ethical training can be readily identi�ied. The organization Ethisphere® Institute identi�ies highly successful companies that are also consistently ranked among the most ethical, including A�lac, Fluor Corporation, GE, Kao Corporation (Japan), Milliken & Company, Starbucks, and UPS. Firms recently honored by Ethisphere® include Dell, Intel, MasterCard, Microsoft and Cisco. These organizations have been able to avoid the perils associated with unethical activities (Strauss, 2016).

Managers expecting assignments to foreign countries need training in international and cultural adaptation, along with other issues as described in Chapters 1 and 2. National and organizational culture in�luence individual perceptions of values and ethics and affect attitudes, assumptions, and expectations associated with an international role. Further, local customs and the local language may become part of this type of training effort (Javidan & House, 2001; Mendenhall, 1988–1989; Sumner, 1906).

Selecting Individuals for Training Choosing internal candidates for manager training requires the cooperation of several individuals and departments. The human resource department can provide information regarding each employee's track record of performance, as well as incident reports regarding accidents, grievances, and other incidents. The employee's direct supervisor can offer insights regarding the individual's temperament and demeanor on—and sometimes off—the job. Coworkers may render

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opinions as to the advisability of selecting a person for training. Companies also rely on various tests and instruments designed to assess the individual's readiness for a managerial position, including assessments of the Big Five personality characteristics described in Chapter 8, as well as specially designed personality pro�ile tests developed by individual companies.

Those moving from �irst line supervisory positions into higher level management roles receive a different kind of scrutiny. Track records from their current roles, combined with assessments of their ability to take on more substantial challenges, are considered as well.

Identifying Training Methods After training goals have been established and individuals have been selected, the company can proceed with identifying the training methods to be used. Usually, a combination of the approaches outlined in Table 12.3 will be prescribed. Each offers unique contributions to what the individual will learn about managing in a speci�ic organization.

Table 12.3: Manager training methods On the job Off the job

Incremental assignment of new tasks Outside reading (technical and managerial)

Job rotation Additional education (in house; on campus)

Lateral promotions Attending conferences and seminars

Leadership of teams and committees Specially designed programs Volunteering programs

Both

Mentoring programs

Coaching programs

On-the-job trainees can be assigned new tasks over time to help them gradually learn more about the company. For example, a supervisor can learn how to �ill out report forms one week and how to engage in the selection process for entry-level positions the next. Over time the individual learns various tasks associated with the role of supervisor in a speci�ic company.

A job rotation program can also be used to train workers, as it moves trainees to different departments and assignments within the company, so they can learn more about how the organization operates and how various groups interact. Job rotation programs typically apply to those moving into supervisory positions for the �irst time.

A lateral promotion means giving the individual a new title or a pay raise without moving the person to a higher rank in the organization; this type of promotion offers the illusion of upward movement. Lateral promotions often include changing a person's title from "trainee" to "assistant" or "associate" manager. Leading committees, task forces, and other groups also grants the trainee the opportunity to practice managing in a real work situation. Such programs often assist in developing a supervisor to be ready for a higher level assignment in middle management.

Off-the-job training methods include assigning outside reading and asking the trainee to participate in other types of educational activities, such as conferences or seminars. These activities help the trainee build technical skills, managerial knowledge, and socialization skills.

Some companies offer tuition assistance to trainees so they may attend a local university and complete additional education. Many large companies have actually built company universities complete with classrooms, dorm rooms, and other amenities found at traditional universities. One of the more famous examples being McDonald's Hamburger University. Specially designed programs are tailored to a company's speci�ic needs, such as the well-respected manager training systems at IBM and Sherwin-Williams. Volunteering programs provide incentives (pay, release time) for individuals to work with local organizations in leadership and management roles. Volunteer programs allow employees to practice actual management skills while creating positive publicity in the community at the same time.

Mentoring programs involve formal and informal support provided by an experienced and higher-ranking employee to a trainee or new manager. Mentoring includes the development of a trainee or protégé with the objective of increasing the employee's competencies, achievements, and understanding of the organization. The responsibility for setting up meetings, deciding what to talk about, and deciding when to end the relationship is in the hands of the trainee and the mentor.

In the past, informal mentoring appeared to be the more predominant format in which senior employees assisted newer workers and protégés. Research then began to indicate that mentors were frequently more inclined to select protégés from backgrounds similar to their own, such as by race, gender, ethnicity, religion, and even coming from the same university or fraternity/ sorority. Consequently, the need for mentors of women and minorities became apparent. With that situation in mind, many companies turned to more formal programs (Ragins, 1989; Thomas, 1990).

Successful mentors help trainees avoid political problems and con�licts as well. Some of the companies that have been noted for creating successful mentoring systems, both formal and informal, include Unilever, Pandora, and Asana (Semezuk, 2016). Others, such as Intel, begin by carefully searching for the right person to serve as a mentor. Time Warner Cable has the goal of building employee skill sets in order to increase their knowledge of the industry. Company leaders believe these programs bene�it both the mentor and the protégé. The mentor strengthens his or her leadership skills while building the skill set of the protégé (Bryant, 2015). For many years the positive effects of quality mentoring on an employee's level of success have been well established (Dougherty & Dreher, 1991). Kram (1985) de�ines mentoring in terms of coaching, counseling, and sponsorship.

Coaching programs place an expert with a trainee on his or her job over a period of weeks or months to provide continuous feedback and guidance on how to improve. Most coaches also encourage their trainees to discuss dif�icult situations as they arise and work through alternative scenarios for dealing with the situations. Coaching is a relatively new technique and is growing in popularity.

Few guidelines are available to evaluate whether a coaching program has been successful. Part of the dif�iculty in evaluating coaching systems comes from the ambiguity associated with the term itself. For example, three conceptualizations of the activity include coaching as training of leaders to inspire change and innovation, coaching as directing and motivating those at lower ranks, and coaching as facilitating the work of teams and groups (e.g. Kets de Vries, 2005; Johnson, 2015; Elsbach, Kayes & Kayes, 2016). Further, coaching styles vary widely (intense and critical versus quiet, laid-back, and complementary). In each case, the role of the organization would be to instruct coaches regarding the activities and methods deemed most desirable.

Counseling involves efforts to boost a protégé's self-con�idence through various forms of support. This would include praise, public acknowledgement of the protégé's successes, and visibility, in terms of being seen with the mentor.

Sponsorship includes activities in which the mentor intervenes on behalf of the protégé. These efforts might involve lobbying for the protégé to receive key assignments or promotions as well as seeking to make sure any rater in a performance appraisal system is aware of the protégé's efforts and accomplishments.

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There are diverse types of mentorship that can be provided to employees, including coaching, counseling, and sponsorship.

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Conducting the Program and Following Up Manager training programs demand patience. It takes time for trainees to go through the program and even more time to assess results. Often, several years may pass before true outcomes are known. In the interim, various assessment tests can be designed to see if trainees have acquired the knowledge presented to them in the program. The true test arrives when the knowledge is applied to actual situations. Modi�ications are made when the program does not achieve its goals. Successful promotions may also involve adjustments over time.

In summary, career development includes all efforts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path. The primary concepts that apply to personal success are building an ethical foundation, becoming involved in training and preparation, �inding the right person–organization �it, engaging in continuous improvement, and achieving balance. Organizational needs also must be met to fully achieve a quality career development system.

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Social progress has given rise to the "dual-earning couple," an arrangement that presents as many advantages as it does challenges.

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The Importance of Work-Life Balance

This video discusses the importance of striking a healthy and productive work-life balance, and the barriers associated with doing so.

12.2 Career Development: Special Challenges In addition to the efforts that individuals can make to advance their careers and the management training programs organizations employ, there is a third element of career development: helping employees cope with special career challenges. In this section, the challenges of dual careers, work-life balance, and employee out-processing are described. In the next section, the topic of stress and stress management receives consideration.

Dual Careers

In the 1950s, the term "dual-earning couple" was used to note that an increasing number of families had both husband and wife as wage earners. Today, over 80% of households that contain a husband and wife can be considered dual-earning households, and more than 50% of the U.S. workforce comprises employees from dual-earning couples with children (Bruning, 2004).

A distinction should be made between a "dual-earning couple" and a "dualcareer couple." The difference arises from career goals. In a dual-earning couple, one or both partners simply seek to generate income to support the family; in a dual-career couple, both partners try to build and sustain careers. Both types of arrangements generate similar problems for couples. Four of the more common include priorities, children, role con�licts, and energy levels/work– life balance (Sekaran, 1986). These issues were �irst described in Chapters 1 and 2.

The essence of priority issues revolves around the simple question, "Whose job comes �irst?" When one spouse or partner is offered a promotion that involves relocation, the priority question comes to the fore (Pave, 1985). In addition, one job may require additional time, including nights and weekends, which may force the other spouse to adapt to a new situation. That spouse, for example, may be required to take on more household responsibilities. Trying to achieve an equitable balance of labor in terms of household chores can result in con�lict and disagreement (Moen & Yu, 2000). Three additional areas of concern include having and raising children; dealing with potential role con�licts, and maintaining a quality work-life balance.

The decision to bear and take care of children often presents dual-career couples with major challenges. As more women postpone the birth of their �irst child in order to build a career, the eventual adjustment to a new person in the household requires spouses or partners to make changes (Toufexis, 1987). Many seek the assistance of a child-care professional or nanny, and this number is increasing (Bruning, 2004).

Dual-income and dual-career families may encounter various forms of role con�lict. One version revolves around the tradeoff between family life and work life. In essence, the con�lict arises due to countervailing demands to be an effective employee and a good parent/spouse. The wife/mother role strains many women (Stan�ield, 1985), just as the father/husband role creates con�lict for men (Jayson, 2009).

As the other issues imply, the continuing challenges for dual-career families revolve around balancing home and work responsibilities while paying suf�icient attention to one's spouse, one's children, and oneself. Part of the formula involves making sure to get adequate rest. Fatigue can create both stress and con�lict in the household (Levine & Pitinski, 1997).

Organizations must respond to the legislative demands regarding dual careers. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) allows 12 weeks of unpaid leave for workers with caregiving responsibilities during each of 20 or more calendar workweeks in the current or preceding calendar year. Employees must be employed in workplaces with at least 50 employees to bene�it from this (Polatnick, 2000).

Dual careers also impact the assignment of employees to other countries. Many expatriate failures are attributed to non-work-related family issues (Harvey, 1995). The failures result from the family stress that compounds the adjustment associated with the expatriate's new position and organizational expectations. Family matters impact the expatriate's adjustment directly and indirectly. Direct impact includes the potential loss of the trailing spouse's income and potential future earnings, because the spouse often encounters career disruption (Harvey, 1995).

It has been suggested that the spouse and children can indirectly in�luence the level of tension, stress, and dissatisfaction related to moving to a foreign country by creating a dif�icult family environment, and that these issues may then transfer to the work environment (Solomon, 2000). Recent research contradicts this point of view, arguing that failures may be more accurately attributed to methods of selecting persons for international assignments and "luck" (Anderson, 2005).

Work–Life Balance

Organizations have vested interests in the well-being of employees in dual-career marriages and those in other situations. Many employers try to assist employees in overcoming the problems associated with balancing work and life. The potential problems created by an uneven balance include negative effects on productivity, job satisfaction, and commitment to the organization (Fernandez, 1986).

Company assistance to dual-career couples and other employees seeking a quality balance between work and life takes many forms. Four of the more common are on-site child care, �lextime positions, job sharing, and telecommuting (Kopelman, Rosenweig, & Lally, 1982). These programs offer the potential of achieving a better work–life balance for workers of all types.

On-site child care presents the opportunity to reduce costs of lost work time. Employees who must leave the workplace in order to care for children experience reduced productivity and lower satisfaction. Child care programs represent an investment in employee morale (LaFleur & Newson, 1988).

Flextime positions allow employees to leave to tend to family matters (such as caring for an in�irm parent) while working core hours. The positions serve the purpose of reducing familyrelated tardiness and absenteeism. The programs have been related to improvement in job satisfaction as well (Ezra & Deckman, 1996), and the bene�its apply to all employees (not just those with families), who also appreciate a more �lexible schedule.

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Critical Thinking Questions

1. What changes might need to be made on a governmental level to improve overall work-life balance in the United States?

2. Do you experience work-life imbalance? If so, what do you think is the cause of this?

Baby boomers have more dif�iculty retiring than previous generations, re�lecting what has become a global phenomenon.

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Job sharing divides one job into two part-time positions. The goal remains to reduce absenteeism and tardiness. The complication arises from coordination between the two persons occupying the job, and mixed results have been reported in terms of productivity and employee satisfaction (Bohen & Viveros-Long, 1981; Sheley, 1986). Javitch (2006) notes that job-sharing offers a quality method to assist valued employees in being able to continue working at the job they love while giving them more time for personal activities. He cautions that effective programs must account for potential communication problems between the two individuals who share the job and making it clear who is the primary job-holder, if such a designation is to be made.

It is becoming increasingly common for companies to allow their employees to work from home, or telecommute. Ever-improving technologies make it possible to maintain an of�ice off- site and send the bulk of work materials to one's employer via the Internet and other digital methods. Video conferencing makes it possible for managers and employees to see each other while talking. Prior to the 2008 recession, telecommuting jobs were among the fastest growing positions in the United States. In 2013, 30 million jobs reportedly involved at least some aspects of telecommuting (Rapoza, 2013). By 2016, more than half of all jobs involved at least some element of telecommuting (GlobalWorklaceAnalytics.com, 2016). Over time, resulting impacts on morale and productivity will emerge as these positions receive greater study.

Employee Out-Processing

Employee out-processing, which occurs when a person leaves due to termination, layoffs, or retirement, has received additional attention in the past decade. The 2008 recession, combined with the aging of the baby boomer generation, has meant that numerous employees have left their organizations, many after long periods of service.

Terminations, Downsizing, Outsourcing, and Layoffs When a company is able to provide out-processing services, the system may include two elements: an exit interview and severance packages when advisable. Exit interviews may be used to discover why an employee did not �it with an organization. Severance packages and other acts of concern by an organization that terminates or displaces a worker may be considered an investment in maintaining a quality company reputation.

The primary issue associated with downsizing, outsourcing, and layoffs is ethical in nature. What is a company's responsibility to workers displaced by these tactics? Should retraining and placement services be offered? During the economic dif�iculties of the 2008 recession, the argument could be made that companies simply did not have the resources to assist displaced workers. At other times, however, such may not have been the case.

Retirement The baby boomer generation consists of 78 million people in the United States. In 2011, the �irst wave of these individuals reached retirement age. By 2012, the number of potential retirees exceeded 1,000 per day (Slyker, 2011). Many of these individuals do not have suf�icient resources to stop working. The challenges associated with an aging workforce include assisting those who stay on the job for �inancial resources and helping others assimilate into the retirement lifestyle.

Company programs designed to help those who do intend to retire include phased retirement programs, mentoring systems, and counseling programs. Phased retirement allows the employee to gradually ease into a departure while continuing to contribute to the organization on a parttime basis. Mentoring programs permit phased retirement candidates and those who have fully retired to offer advice and counseling to members of the organization. The program grants a sense of ful�illment to those who might otherwise lack a sense of purpose. Counseling systems help retirees adjust to new life circumstances by providing assistance with �inancial needs, emotional concerns, and other challenges such as medical needs.

As with terminations and layoffs, an ethical question arises. Does the company have a moral responsibility to assist in these circumstances? Some social commentators suggest that doing so can also be in a company's �inancial interests. Those who move into phased retirement or mentoring programs continue to contribute value to the organization's operations, at a reduced cost.

In summary, special career challenges present themselves throughout a person's life. Life events such as marriage (and divorce), children, the desire for a balance between work and life, the sudden need to care for an in�irm parent, and retirement, along with personal losses such as being terminated or laid off, all can be managed. Caring organizations help employees tend to these and other employment matters.

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Whole Foods is an example of an organization that's mission incorporates the well-being of its employees.

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12.3 Stress and Stress Management The role of stress in a person's career often changes depending on one's circumstances. Early on in life, simply �inding a job creates stress. Over time, family issues, including, caring for children, dual careers, caring for aging parents, and prioritizing these responsibilities add an additional layer. Each stage of life presents new challenges to employees and the companies where they work.

The study of stress and its consequences has important implications for management and organizational behavior for at least three reasons. First, the argument can be made that adulthood has become more stressful for practically everyone, particularly when you consider the pace of life. Employees are expected to react in nearly real time to many situations. They are bombarded with messages from a variety of sources, including voicemail, e-mail, instant messages, video conferencing, and those emerging from personal contacts. Companies seeking to remain competitive have placed additional pressures to produce on employees at every level. It may also be that the sources of stress in daily living are rising, especially in turbulent political eras and during times of economic turmoil.

Second, the study of stress provides a rare opportunity for a scientist or professor to exert a direct, positive impact on the quality of work life. By understanding and managing stress, it becomes possible to improve the workplace for others. Third, stress clearly exhibits a bottom line. Those who fail to deal effectively with stressful jobs end up with emotional and physical symptoms that can keep them off the job and raise company insurance premiums as well (Segerstrom & Miller, 2004). Limited research suggests that productivity may also be related to manageable levels of stress (Allen, Hitt, & Greer, 1982; Ivancevich & Matterson, 1981). One company that subscribes to the idea that a quality work environment includes efforts in the area of stress management is Whole Foods, as noted in the upcoming OB in Action vignette.

OB in Action: Whole Foods

Perhaps it is not surprising that a company that states its initial core value as "We appreciate and celebrate the difference natural and organic foods can make in the quality of one's life," would place a strong emphasis on employee well-being. Whole Foods takes such a stance.

The company's statement regarding employee careers begins this way: "Whole Foods Market attracts people who are passionate—about great food, about the communities they live in, about how we treat our planet and our fellow humans— and who want to bring their passion into the workplace and make a difference" (wholefoodsmarket. com, 2016). Caring about employees begins with an emphasis on a quality culture enhanced by possibilities for personal growth. The �irm heavily promotes the team dynamic, rather than working as an individual.

To assist in matters related to stress and personal health, employees are encouraged to participate in personal wellness or health savings accounts. They receive as much as $1,800 per year to help cover the cost of health insurance deductions and out-of-pocket expenses.

Whole Foods provides a seven-day Total Health Immersion program, which includes lectures and sessions from nutritionists. Team members are allowed to donate personal paid vacation time to another member to help in times of sickness or personal hardship. They also vote on the company's bene�it package each year. Moreover, the company gives back 5% of its after-tax pro�its to help the communities in which its employees live and work (Thorpe, 2015).

Recent Monster.com research (Dill, 2014) suggests that 42% of workers have left a job due to a stressful environment (Reina & Reina, 2016). The Whole Foods approach is designed to make sure stress-related outcomes do not occur in the company. Results have been highly encouraging. In 2010, the company's turnover rate was 15% in an industry where many grocers experienced a 100% rate (Martin, 2010). In essence, a healthy workforce labors in a less stressful environment, and the net results include positive personal outcomes as well as bene�its for the company.

Re�lection and Application Questions

1. What factors do you think create the greatest amount of stress on the job? 2. What types of programs do you think would be most valuable in reducing workplace stress? 3. How might the Whole Foods manager training and career development programs differ from those at other companies?

One of the continuing issues in stress management is de�initional (American Institute of Stress, 2011). One approach to understanding stress suggests that it is caused by various forces. This view, the antecedent model depicted in Figure 12.1, implies that various forces cause this nebulous thing labeled stress. As an example, "She was going through a messy divorce and experienced a great deal of stress because of it," or "He was in �inancial trouble and felt really stressed out as a result." In both of those examples, stress represents a condition in which an individual confronts a situation in which the outcome is uncertain and important (Schuler, 1980).

Figure 12.1: Antecedent model of stress

The antecedent approach examines potential forces that are causes of stress-related problems.

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A second conceptualization of stress focuses on what happens when it occurs. As shown in Figure 12.2, the outcome model of stress seeks to discover what happens when a person is routinely overwhelmed by stressful events (Sailer, Schlacter, & Edwards, 1982). Someone might say, "He was under so much stress that he had a heart attack," or "She was so stressed out that she had a nervous breakdown."

Figure 12.2: Outcome model of stress

The outcome model of stress focuses on the results of stress, or the events that result from encountering large amounts of stress.

So, which is the case? Is stress a cause or an effect? In 1951, one famous quote suggested that "stress in addition to being itself, was also the cause of itself, and the result of itself " (American Institute of Stress, 2011). Further, counselors and managers may focus more on helping individuals cope with stress-related problems. Assuming their perspective merits equal attention, a more complete stress model can be developed, as shown in Figure 12.3. The model serves as a guide for understanding and describing stress �irst, and then for resolving stress-related problems.

Figure 12.3: Full model of stress

This model suggests that stress is related to both causes and outcomes. Coping mechanisms and company programs are included.

Antecedents or Causes of Stress

After many years of research, a complex web of potential sources of stress has emerged. These sources can be placed into �ive categories, as shown in Figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4: Antecedents, causes, or sources of stress

Stress can originate from many different sources, including environmental sources, work events, individual temperament, organizational factors, and life events.

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Environmental Sources In many countries, unstable governments, the threat of revolt, and terrorism create political uncertainty. When political turmoil threatens one's way of life, a potential source of stress arises. Economic uncertainty can also worry a family because of the potential loss of job or home. The 2008 recession in the United States created a great deal of stress for those "underwater" on mortgages and for unemployed and underemployed individuals. Many also �ind certain social trends to be unsettling, especially those that inspire conversation and controversy. Further, elements in the natural environment, such as a tornado, earthquake, or hurricane, can become a source of stress, either through the worry that one might occur, or in those who have experienced tragedies such as Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy, or any of the many recent forest �ires, and still cope with their aftereffects.

Life Events Many sources of stress emerge away from work. Certain disruptions or changes can create mental pressure on individuals. These potential stressors can be family-related or nonfamilyrelated. Examples of each are provided in Table 12.4 (Holmes & Holmes, 1970).

Table 12.4: Life events as sources of stress Family-related stressors Nonfamily-related stressors

Marriage Jail term

Divorce Personal injury or illness

Marital separation Outstanding personal achievement

Marital reconciliation Death of close friend

Death of spouse Financial problems

Death of family member Change in residence

Sexual problems New mortgage

Pregnancy Change in living conditions

Gain of new family member Change in social activities

Son or daughter leaving home Traf�ic ticket

Problems with in-laws Change in sleeping habits

Con�licts during the holidays

Family member illness

Work Events A great deal of stress results from issues on the job. Three major job-related categories of stress exist. Each contributes to stress-related problems in different ways.

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Physical stressors include conditions inside the workplace such as excessive heat, excessive cold, polluted or smoke-�illed air, loud noise, cramped work areas, proximity to high-traf�ic areas (inside and outside), dangerous work, overtime or long hours, and extensive travel. Physical stressors may not only affect an individual's mental state but also be related to lower productivity. A construction foreman noted that when the temperature drops below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, a crew performs at 50% of capacity. In other words, a temperature below freezing doubles the cost of construction.

Social stressors can develop between two or more employees of the same rank or of different ranks. Many types of social stress may be found in everyday work. These include

con�licts with peers, con�licts with supervisors, discrimination, sexual harassment, hazing, group cohesiveness/morale problems, and con�licts between groups.

Managers can try to identify social stressors and reduce them when possible. A manager can intervene in a con�lict and resolve the issue. A manager can also challenge those using offensive language, related to gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and even levels of seniority, to reduce the number of incidents. These problems contribute not only to stress levels in individual employees, but are also counterproductive to the organization in other ways (Quick & Quick, 1984).

Job stressors come from the basic demands of the work. Some are related to the worker's role (McClean, 1980), others to different forces. Each creates challenging circumstances for employees. Role con�lict takes two forms. The �irst occurs when a task con�licts with the individual's sense of right and wrong. The second takes place when two assigned tasks con�lict with each other. Role ambiguity means the employee remains unsure about which tasks to complete or how to complete them. A matter as simple as having a new supervisor can generate role ambiguity as the worker seeks to satisfy the demands of a new boss. Role overload occurs when the amount of work expected of an employee exceeds what the person can handle. Layoffs and downsizing often generate role overload for those who remain with the organization (Kahn et al., 1964; Sutton & Rafaeli, 1987).

Further, the intrusion of technology into everyday work life has created a new form of role overload; one in which a person feels continually inundated with requirements to respond to various messages (e-mails, texts, videoconferences) as well as being shadowed by technology both on and off the job. Many workers complain that they cannot completely leave work because they are required to check in via social media, e-mail, or in some other manner, including having their movements tracked by GPS devices in the technologies they are given to complete work (McCaffrey, 2015).

Non-role-related job stressors include blocked career progression, otherwise known as a "dead-end job." The perception, whether real or imagined, that getting promoted will be impossible creates a long-term stressor. The glass ceiling, which affects many female employees, represents blocked career progression. Monotonous work can be stressful, especially to those seeking more meaningful employment. Rates of alcohol and substance abuse are often higher in boring work settings (Sutton & Rafaeli, 1987). Occupation stress results from the type of work performed. Table 12.5 provides examples of low- and high-stress occupations (Frank, 2011; Zupek, 2011).

Table 12.5: Low- and high-stress occupations High stress Low stress

Police of�icer Civil engineer

Fire�ighter Carpenter, mason

Financial aid counselor Industrial machinery mechanic

Sales account manager Operations research analyst

Restaurant assistant manager Massage therapist

Nurse College professor

Individual Temperament Two types of individuals may be predisposed to stress-related problems, due to their basic natures. Overachievers and those with the type A personality factor may experience problems due to the aggressive nature of their personality. Overachievers are highly competitive with others and themselves. Such individuals do not achieve true satisfaction from accomplishments and constantly move on to the next challenge, leaving them vulnerable to stressrelated problems. In fact, one apt description of a true type A is someone who tries to do more and more in less and less time. These individuals tend to be impatient and caustic with those who slow them down.

Type A personalities received a great deal of attention in the 1980s. The type A trait was originally identi�ied in heart attack victims that survived. Research suggested that an extreme type A will be susceptible to a heart attack, partly due to heightened blood pressure and partly because constant frustration and annoyance produce destructive enzymes associated with an "angry heart" (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974; Ragland & Brand, 1988). More recent literature disconnects hostility or continual anger from other personality characteristics (Steptoe & Molloy, 2006).

Organizational Factors Organizational structure refers to the level of differentiation employed by a company, the number of rules and procedures it has established, and the degree of delegation or decentralization that characterizes it. Excessive use of authority over workers performing simple tasks that are regulated by numerous rules and procedures can become stressors.

Organizational life cycle means that companies go through four periods over time: birth and development, growth, maturity, and decline. Organizations just beginning operations create stress, even though some of it may be due to excitement and challenges. Companies in decline normally experience layoffs and uncertainty, also creating stress, but of a different (and more negative) variety.

A Stress Model

Hans Selye was among the �irst to identify and model stress and stress coping mechanisms. The term used to describe his model—"�ight-or-�light"—has received considerable attention. The GAS, or general adaptation syndrome, approach is displayed in Figure 12.5.

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Figure 12.5: General adaptation syndrome/Fight-or-�light model

A stressful stimulus prompts one to choose either a �ight-or-�light response, which in turn leads to a result. How one feels about the chosen response and subsequent outcome (i.e., individual reaction) determines how effectively one has dealt with the stressful stimulus.

Adapted from Selye, H. (2011). The nature of stress. International Center for Nutritional Research. Retrieved from http://www.icnr.com/articles/the-nature-of-stress.html (http://www.icnr.com/articles/the-nature-of-stress.html)

As shown in the �igure, an event or stimulus demands attention. The stimulus can be positive, neutral, or negative. A positive stimulus might be a friend waving "hello." A negative stimulus might result from being yelled at or the gesture of an aggressive driver. A neutral stimulus occurs when the phone rings, because you do not as yet know what the call will be like.

In each circumstance, a �ight response involves dealing with the stimulus directly. Someone who cuts you off in traf�ic and then gestures may lead you to "get even" in some way, such as by passing that person later or, at the extreme, phoning the police to warn them a drunk driver is in front of you. A �light response means �inding a way to avoid the stimulus, such as slowing down and moving away from the bad driver.

Neither reaction—�ight or �light—is "good" or "bad" in and of itself. Rather, how you feel after the response will be the key. When you feel you have successfully adapted to the stimulus, you have dealt with the stressor in an effective manner. When lingering emotions or doubts continue to haunt you, the response has created additional stress. Selye points out that stress cannot and should not be avoided, but rather managed. Counselors who employ the �ightor- �light model try to help individuals develop positive coping mechanisms for every type of stimulus. You can learn to "pick your �ights" and "let go" at other times.

Selye's work concentrates on the biological aspects of stress far more than the psychological elements (Selye, 2011). Selye also points out that people need a certain level of stress to function. The appropriate amount establishes the mental energy to cope with the challenges of the day. Only when stressors overwhelm the individual over time does distress emerge (Selye, 1974).

Symptoms of Distress

Distress, or strain, can be used to differentiate normal, manageable levels of stress from a circumstance in which the individual becomes overwhelmed and symptoms of distress begin to occur. The symptoms of distress include physical, psychological, and social outcomes, as summarized in Table 12.6.

Table 12.6: Symptoms of distress Physical Psychological Social

Heart and circulatory High blood pressure Heart attack

Stomach Ulcer Gastritis "Nervous" stomach Diarrhea

Lungs Hyperventilation Nervous coughing

Skin Hives Acne Dermatitis Galvanic skin response (sweating)

Insomnia Depression Tension headache Nervous breakdown Sexual problems Substance abuse

Alcohol Legal drugs Illegal drugs

Rage Inappropriate behaviors Creation of new and unnecessary con�licts Family violence Other marital problems

Physical outcomes normally begin with less severe symptoms, which may increase over time. Occasional indigestion might evolve into more dramatic and chronic stomach problems. High blood pressure over time results in heart attacks and strokes. The same progression often takes place with psychological outcomes (McClelland & Jemmott, 1980). What might begin as an occasional sleepless night might evolve into chronic insomnia. Social manifestations of distress may be less evident to a supervisor, as many take place off the job. At the same time, a manager can detect persons appearing to exhibit stress-related symptoms using the following checklist:

New, never-before-seen con�licts with peers

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Responding to Stress by Taking Back Control

This video discusses approaches to successfully manage stress.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How do you maintain a balance between work/school and your personal time?

2. What are some ways that you can relieve stress in your daily routine?

Higher levels of absenteeism or tardiness Lower productivity Argumentativeness Daydreaming Leaving early for breaks or at the end of the day Extended lunch hour Hangovers, obvious aftereffects of drug abuse Statements like: "I can't take much more of this," "I'm thinking about quitting," or "This isn't worth it" Unwillingness to follow directions (when it had never previously been a problem) Throwing/breaking objects

The point can be reached in which an individual requires help. Fortunately, the symptoms of distress can be addressed before they become too severe. Table 12.7 identi�ies methods for coping with the stress of life as well as distress (Charlesworth & Nathan, 2004).

Table 12.7: Coping with stress and distress Physical coping mechanisms

Psychological coping mechanisms Social coping mechanisms

Combination approach

Proper diet Meditation/prayer/quiet time Time away from technology

Support group (work) Biofeedback (combines physical and psychological)

Mild exercise Prioritization/time management Support group (home)

Regular rest/sleep Frontal attack on stressors

Massage Healthy escapes (hobbies and vacations)

Proper diet includes avoidance of foods that might make stress symptoms worse, such as caffeine, energy drinks, and other elements of an upper-downer cycle. Mild exercise discharges tension and creates positive energy. Regular rest can help reduce fatigue.

Quiet moments at any time appear to address stress symptoms (Wallace & Benson, 1972). This might include taking very intentional breaks from technology to help alleviate stress, such as turning off work e-mail on weekends, for example. Prioritization and time management are ways to regain a sense of control over the day. A frontal attack involves removing stressors proactively. Healthy escapes include relaxing hobbies and vacations. Biofeedback, a combination approach, involves mental control over physical symptoms through relaxation and focus techniques (Lazarus, 1981; Schwartz & Andrasik, 2005). Support can come from friends at work or from family and others off the job (Cohen & Wills, 1985).

Complicating Factors It appears that interactive relationships exist between both the sources of stress and the coping mechanisms. An additive situation occurs when stressors "pile up" on a person. In other words, physical, mental, and social pressures add together to create an even more stressful situation. In a compensating circumstance, one category of antecedents or outcomes can reduce stress in another. Walking to reduce stress is physical compensation for mental stressors. Biofeedback is a counseling and training program in which subjects learn how to mentally compensate for and control physical stress symptoms, such as by learning how to control one's own pulse and breathing patterns through various relaxation techniques during stressful episodes. Social support compensates for both physical and mental stress. Further, categories within the same category can compensate, such as when a person travels home to relieve the stress of a pressure-�illed job or goes to work to get away from a troubling marriage or personal life.

Segmented circumstances suggest an ebb and �low to both the sources and symptoms of stress. At times a job may feel overwhelming; at others it becomes manageable. The same holds true for physical, mental, and social systems (Seers et al., 1983).

Finally, it is important to note that stress does not always represent a negative force. Tension and pressure can, in certain circumstances, "bring out the best" in a person. Some people perform well when time-pressure exists; others turn the energy created by a negative event into a positive reaction, such as when a supervisor responds to a crisis with positive ideas about how to resolve the problem. Consider, for example, that some players in sports are considered to be "good in the clutch." When the game is "on the line," their performance levels rise. The same holds true for workers, such as accountants who complete tax forms under the pressure of a deadline, or a marketing team that comes up with a brilliant response to negative publicity.

Company Responses Company leaders can take four steps to reduce the impact of stress in the workplace. First, they can work to reduce stressors that arise in the workplace by paying attention to all of the potential sources. Second, human resources and other managers can identify and offer help to individuals appearing to suffer from stress-related problems. Third, employees should be placed properly. Some individuals enjoy being busy and challenged; stress does not seem to be an issue. Others can feel quickly overwhelmed. As part of the recruiting and selection process, the individual can be informed about the level of tension and activity to expect in any position. Finally, companies can teach and offer stress management programs and techniques. Many organizations now provide exercise facilities, in-house game areas, and even neck massages to those who are bound to desks throughout the day. Companies can schedule appearances by stress management experts to further assist employees in coping with today's challenging and fast-paced business environment.

In general, one secret to reducing stress-related issues in the workplace is to be proactive. The management team can investigate the organization and discover areas that require attention. Problem situations should be quickly addressed and remedied.

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Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary

Career development consists of all efforts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path. Issues include personal career development, manager training, and the various ways to cope with special career challenges such as dual careers, employee out-processing, and stress management.

Personal career development involves an individual enhancing his or her educational level, experiences, personal characteristics, and list of contacts.

Employers offer management training programs, which include the steps of establishing the goals of the program, selecting individuals for training, identifying training methods, conducting the program, and following up. Management training can take place on the job in the form of incrementally assigning new tasks, having the trainee perform job rotations, awarding lateral promotions, and assigning trainees to lead teams and committees. Off-the-job manager training involves technical and managerial outside reading, additional education, attendance at conferences and seminars, and specially designed company programs. Mentoring and coaching programs take place both on and off the job.

Three career challenges are dual-career marriages, employee out-processing, and stress management. Each creates an impact on organizational behavior variables, including productivity, workplace satisfaction, organizational commitment, con�lict, absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover. Practical responses to these issues can help a company achieve the status of being family- or employee-friendly, building a positive reputation for the future.

Dual-earning and dual-career couples face issues that include priorities, children, role con�licts, and energy levels/balance. Couples can respond to dual-career challenges through communication, coordination, commitment, �lexibility, rest, and time away. Companies can assist dual-career situations through on-site care programs, �lextime systems, job sharing, and telecommuting programs.

Employee out-processing involves the decision to assist those who have been terminated or laid off. Many believe the issue raises ethical and moral questions. Companies can offer assistance in the form of helping those who must continue to work due to �inancial concerns as well as helping retirees through phased retirement, mentoring, and career counseling programs.

The study of stress and its consequences has implications for management and organizational behavior, due to issues associated with the pace of life, the quality of life, and the company's bottom line. The sources, or antecedents, of stress begin with environmental sources such as political turmoil, economic uncertainty, and social trends. Life events that contribute to stress include problems associated with one's family as well as nonfamilyoriented problems. Work events consist of physical, social, and job-related stressors, including role con�lict, ambiguity, and overload. Organizational factors associated with stress include a company's structure and its stage in the life cycle. An individual's particular temperament— overachieving or type A—can contribute to stress-related problems.

The terms "distress" and "strain" refer to circumstances in which normal, manageable levels of stress become a situation in which the individual becomes overwhelmed and symptoms begin to occur. The symptoms of distress include physical, psychological, and social outcomes. Coping mechanisms can be produced in the same three areas. The individual must know if he or she operates in an additive, compensating, or segmented mode to achieve the greatest relief from distress.

Company leaders have four methods to assist in the areas of stress and distress. These include reducing the sources of stress, identifying people with stress- related problems and offering help, placing people into jobs they can manage, and offering stress management programs and facilities.

CASE STUDY: The Crossroads

Rachel and Jeff sat together waiting for an appointment with the director of human resources, although the purposes of their visits were quite different. Jeff was about to inform the company of his intention to quit in two weeks. Rachel had applied to become part of the management training program.

Rachel and Jeff were employed by the Lucky Seven Casino and Resort, which was located on the river in Gulfport, Mississippi. Following the hurricane that devastated the area a decade ago, the area had begun to grow and rebound, especially for destination gamblers who wanted gaming rooms but also other amenities, including tourist attractions, golf courses, and shopping in the area.

Jeff worked in the main card playing area. He was a novice dealer, which meant his shifts took place at night. He was married and had two children in grade school. The job kept him away from his family except on weekends, when more experienced dealers took the shifts where gratuities were higher. Jeff often came home to a harried wife, Sue, who was frustrated with taking care of the children and feeling "stuck at home" all week. Jeff made sure Sue was free on weekends to get away and do other things, but this meant they spent less time together. There had been tension between Jeff and Sue for several months.

The actual job also bothered Jeff at times. He was open-minded about lifestyles, but was sometimes disturbed by watching people gamble away money they could not afford to lose. He had hoped to move away from the gaming �loor into some other aspect of the business, but few openings had materialized, and he never became a serious candidate for those positions.

The casino's management team had strict policies about how to conduct operations. Jeff was told to treat gamblers as adults, which meant that no matter how much they lost, it was their concern. The dealer's job was to remain pleasant, positive, and professional. Jeff knew at times he was watching an "adult" gamble away money that should have been spent on food and medicine, sometimes for children. He became reluctant to tell people where he worked, and was somewhat embarrassed around those who knew. Jeff had begun battling insomnia and felt like he was in a bad mood far too often, which affected his free time with his children. As he waited to give notice, Jeff felt as though a weight was being lifted from his shoulders.

Rachel was a free-spirited young adult who loved the idea of being part of the "action." She enjoyed working nights and meeting new people. Her friends called her "terminally single." She loved working in the roulette wheel area, �lirting with men, and charming the women, who seemed to like her enthusiastic, carefree approach.

Rachel shared a house with two other coworkers. The low rent and inexpensive lifestyle allowed her to save the majority of her earnings. She took half and called it "fun money," for traveling and expensive nights on the town. The other half was saved for either a college fund or to buy a home. She took pride in her �iscal responsibility, part of which was based on never gambling.

Another of Rachel's career assets was, in her own words, "no attention span." Although the eight-hour shifts could become long and boring when business was slow, Rachel was able to constantly meet new people. She was often invited to parties and other gatherings.

As part of her interview for �loor manager, Rachel was asked what kind of person �it best with the Lucky Seven. She responded, "Someone like me. Someone who takes care of the job and the customers, but knows how to enjoy the experience at the same time." She told the interviewer she knew Jeff was about to quit. "He takes himself so seriously," she noted.

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Case Questions

1. What should be the goals of the manager training program for the Lucky Seven? 2. What kinds of management training should the Lucky Seven offer? 3. What were the stressors that were affecting Jeff ? 4. Why was Rachel not affected by stress in her job?

Review Questions

Click on each question to see the answer.

What four career assets can an employee offer to a company? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The four assets are education, experience, personality traits, and contacts.

What goals are associated with manager training programs? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Management training goals include improvements in technical skills and managerial skills, resocialization, assistance in ethical reasoning, and strengthening international/cultural skills.

What types of manager training programs can companies employ? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

On-the-job programs include incrementally assigning new tasks, job rotation, lateral promotions, and leadership of teams and committees. Off-the-job programs include outside reading (technical and managerial), in-house or on-campus additional education, external conferences, and specially designed programs.

What four problems affect dual-career and dual-earning couples? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Four of the more common include priorities (whose job comes �irst?), children (having and raising them), role con�licts associated with gender and work division, and energy levels/ work-life balance related to having to work as well as tend to the home.

What programs can companies offer to assist dual-career couples? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Standard advice to dual-career couples includes the three Cs—communication, cooperation, and commitment— combined with �lexibility, rest, and time away alone and as a couple. Four of the more common company-based programs include on-site child care, �lextime positions, job sharing, and telecommuting.

What programs can companies offer to retiring employees? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Phased retirement allows the employee to gradually ease into a departure while continuing to contribute to the organization on a part-time basis. Mentoring programs permit phased retirement candidates and those who have fully retired to offer advice and counseling to members of the organization. Counseling systems, including assistance with �inancial needs, emotional concerns, and other new circumstances, help retirees adjust to new life circumstances.

Explain the difference between an antecedent model of stress and an outcome model of stress. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The antecedent model implies that various forces cause stress. The outcome model of stress seeks to discover what happens when a person is routinely overwhelmed by stressful events.

What categories of antecedents of stress affect employees on and off the job? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The �ive categories are life events, work-related events, personality characteristics or individual temperament, organizational characteristics, and environmental sources.

What are the categories of symptoms of distress? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The three categories are physical, psychological, and social. Physical includes issues related to the heart and circulatory system, stomach and digestive system, lungs, and skin. Psychological symptoms include insomnia, headache, depression, nervous breakdown, sexual problems, and legal and illegal substance abuse. Social symptoms are rage, inappropriate behaviors, creating new and unnecessary con�licts, family violence, and other domestic problems.

What coping mechanisms can individuals use to deal with stress and distress? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Physical coping involves diet, exercise, proper rest, and massage. Psychological coping includes meditation/prayer/quiet time, prioritization/time management, frontal attacks on stressors, and health escapes through hobbies and vacations. Social coping comes from at-work and away-from-work social support. Biofeedback is a combination of physical and psychological coping.

Analytical Exercises

1. Think of a career as having a life cycle (birth and development, growth, maturity, and decline). Consider the four career assets listed in Table 12.1. Evaluate the importance of each asset at each stage in the life cycle.

2. The �ive goals associated with manager training include technical skills, managerial skills, socialization, ethical reasoning, and international/cultural skills. Evaluate the potential effectiveness of on-the-job training, off-the-job training, and a combination of both with regard to each of the goals.

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3. Four challenges associated with dual-career marriages or partnerships are priorities, children, role con�licts, and energy levels/work–life balance. Evaluate how these would manifest in the following circumstances:

Husband works high-powered professional job; wife works low-powered para-professional job. Wife works high-powered professional job; husband works low-powered para-professional job. Both partners work high-powered, professional jobs. Both partners work low-powered paraprofessional jobs. One partner has high schedule �lexibility; the other does not.

4. Consider the �ive categories of antecedents, causes, or sources of stress in Figure 12.4. What kinds of connections are there, in terms of additive, compensating, and segmented situations, between the following:

work events and individual temperament life events and environmental sources organizational factors and work events

5. Four company responses to stress-related issues include reducing stressors in the workplace, identifying individuals who might require help, teaching stress management, and placing people properly into jobs they can handle. Explain how these could be combined with the individual coping responses listed in Table 12.7 in all four categories.

Key Terms

Click on each key term to see the de�inition.

blocked career progression (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Also known as a dead-end job; a position that creates the real or imagined perception that getting promoted will be impossible.

career development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

All efforts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path.

coaching programs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The process of placing an expert with a trainee on his or her job over a period of weeks or months to provide continuous feedback and guidance on how to improve.

distress (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Also called strain; a situation in which an individual becomes overwhelmed by stress and problems or symptoms begin to occur.

dual-career couple (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Both partners in a relationship try to build and sustain careers.

dual-earning couple (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

One or both partners in a relationship seek to generate income to support the family unit.

mentoring programs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The formal and informal support provided by an experienced and higher-ranking employee to a trainee or new manager.

phased retirement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

A program in which an employee gradually eases into departure while continuing to contribute to the organization on a part-time basis.

Flashcards

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