Research Method

Brief Mindfulness Meditation Improves Mental State Attribution and Empathizing Lucy B. G. Tan1*, Barbara C. Y. Lo2, C. Neil Macrae3

1 School of Medicine, Psychiatry Discipline, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, 2 Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China,

3 School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom

Abstract

The ability to infer and understand the mental states of others (i.e., Theory of Mind) is a cornerstone of human interaction. While considerable efforts have focused on explicating when, why and for whom this fundamental psychological ability can go awry, considerably less is known about factors that may enhance theory of mind. Accordingly, the current study explored the possibility that mindfulness-based meditation may improve people’s mindreading skills. Following a 5-minute mindfulness induction, participants with no prior meditation experience completed tests that assessed mindreading and empathic understanding. The results revealed that brief mindfulness meditation enhanced both mental state attribution and empathic concern, compared to participants in the control group. These findings suggest that mindfulness may be a powerful technique for facilitating core aspects of social-cognitive functioning.

Citation: Tan LBG, Lo BCY, Macrae CN (2014) Brief Mindfulness Meditation Improves Mental State Attribution and Empathizing. PLoS ONE 9(10): e110510. doi:10. 1371/journal.pone.0110510

Editor: Howard Nusbaum, The University of Chicago, United States of America

Received July 24, 2014; Accepted September 23, 2014; Published October 17, 2014

Copyright: � 2014 Tan et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper.

Funding: LBGT was supported by an Australia Prime Minister’s Endeavour Asia Award. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

* Email: [email protected]

Introduction

‘‘It is wisdom to know others; it is enlightenment to know one’s self.’’ Lao-Tzu, 6th century BC

Interpersonal success rests on the mind’s remarkable ability to

decode and comprehend other people’s mental states. In a

challenging social landscape, mindreading is the conduit through

which relationships are forged, cultivated, and sustained [1,2]. As

Lao-Tzu’s quote indicates and an extensive literature has

demonstrated, both admirable (e.g., empathy, compassion) and

unsavory (e.g., deception, manipulation) aspects of the human

condition rest squarely on the ability to read minds [3]. Indeed the

utility of this skill – commonly referred to as Theory of Mind

(ToM) – is most apparent when one considers the plight of

individuals for whom mindreading is a decidedly problematic

activity (e.g., autism spectrum disorder), a topic that has

dominated psychological writings for decades [4–6]. But what of

the converse situation, rather than focusing on impairments in

mindreading, is it possible to identify factors (e.g., interventions)

that may enhance ToM?

Intriguingly, preliminary investigations have revealed that

mindreading can be improved under certain circumstances. Nasal

administrations of oxytocin, reading literary fiction, and extended

compassion-based training have all been shown to enhance ToM

[7–9]. Extending this line of inquiry, here we considered whether a

brief period of mindfulness-based meditation would similarly

improve mindreading performance. In recent years, mindfulness

interventions have been shown to remediate a range of clinical

problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, stress) and to impact core

aspects of social cognition (e.g., metacognition, self-referential

thought, see [10]). Emphasizing the non-judgmental appraisal of

present-moment thinking [11,12], even brief episodes of mindful-

ness meditation exert profound effects on brain and behavior,

effects that we suspect may extend to people’s mindreading skills.

Several strands of research highlight important linkages between

mindfulness and ToM. First, mindfulness interventions enhance

executive attention, a core component of mentalizing and person

understanding [13]. Deployed effectively, executive attention

enables perceivers to form multifaceted evaluations and impres-

sions of other social agents that extend beyond rigid stereotype-

based conceptions [1]. Second, present-moment thinking facili-

tates the cognitive operations that map the minds of self and others

[14]. Specifically, cortical regions that support mindreading and

self-referential mental activity (e.g., medial prefrontal cortex,

temporal parietal junction) also play a prominent functional role

during mindfulness meditation [2,15–17]. Overlap in these regions

likely captures the influence of self-reflection during explicit

mindreading [18]. Collectively these observations suggest a

straightforward prediction, mindfulness meditation may enhance

ToM.

To explore this possibility, participants completed two comple-

mentary ToM tasks following a mindfulness (cf. control) interven-

tion. One task, ‘The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test’ [19],

assessed participants’ ability to decode emotions and mental states

from subtle facial cues. The other task, ‘The Cyberball Social

Exclusion Game’ [20] explored their capacity to empathize with

others. Adoption of these tasks enabled us to consider the effects of

PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 1 October 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 10 | e110510

mindfulness on two pivotal components of ToM, mental state

attribution and empathic understanding [3]. Importantly, partic-

ipants had no prior experience with meditation and did not

complete the typical 8-week mindfulness-training program.

Instead, only a brief mindfulness-intervention was employed (see

also [21]).

Methods

Participants and Design An a priori sample size calculation performed on G*Power

3.0.10 (/ = .05, d = 0.6, power = 80%) revealed a requirement of 72 participants. Seventy-two individuals (36 females; Mage = 23.8, range 18–50 years; 93% Chinese) provided written consent and

took part in the research. The ethics board at the University of

Hong Kong approved the manner of consent and the study

(reference EA 480114). The experiment had a single factor

(Condition: mindfulness or control) between-participants design.

No rewards were offered for participation in the research, all

participants received de-briefing and opportunity for further

clarification afterwards.

Materials and Procedure Participants were greeted by a female experimenter, randomly

assigned to one of the treatment conditions (i.e., mindfulness or

control), and told the research comprised an investigation (i.e.,

series of tasks) into people’s reactions to different types of thoughts

and situations (i.e., participants were blind to the purpose of the

inquiry). The experimental manipulation was then introduced. All

participants were instructed to close their eyes, relax and listen to

scripted audio instructions (via headphones) and that a bell would

chime after 5-minutes to signal the end of this activity. Based on an

established protocol [22,23], participants in the mindfulness

condition were instructed to pay particular attention to the

sensation of their breathing during the 5-minute period. In

addition, they were told it is quite natural for the mind to be

distracted and attention to wander during such a task. However,

they were asked to observe these moments as fleeting states of

mind and to return attention to their breathing each time a

distracting thought, emotion or memory occurred. Participants in

the control condition received instructions that were similar in

style and length. Contrasting the mindfulness treatment, however,

these individuals were told to notice each thought, emotion and

memory that may arise and to be completely immersed in the

experience [21].

Following the 5-minute task, as a manipulation check,

participants completed the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale

(MAAS-State, [24]), a questionnaire (5-item) that probes levels of

mindful-attention and awareness via a 7-point rating scale (0 = not

at all; 6 = very much). On completion of the MAAS-S, partici-

pants’ mindreading skills and levels of empathic understanding

were assessed using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test [19]

and Cyberball Social Exclusion Game [20], respectively. Task

order was counterbalanced across the sample.

Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) The RMET required participants to identify the emotions/

mental states expressed by eyes displaying subtle affective facial

expressions. Measuring mental state inference from socio-percep-

tual cues, the RMET is one of the most widely used instruments in

ToM research [25]. In total, participants viewed 36 pairs of eyes

(black-and-white pictures of 18 male and 18 female eyes)

displaying discrete expressions (12 negative, 8 positive, 16 neutral,

counterbalanced for the sex of the eyes). Their task was to report

which of four presented words (e.g., hateful, jealous, arrogant,

panicked) best described the emotion/mental state of the person

whose eyes were displayed on each trial.

Cyberball Social Exclusion Game Participants were asked to watch a 90-second video clip during

which three players (i.e., cartoon figures) engaged in a virtual ball-

tossing game (i.e., Cyberball, cyberball.wikispaces.com). The

names of the three female players were provided and participants

were informed that afterwards they would have an opportunity to

write a letter to Ann, one of players. In total, participants observed

two rounds of Cyberball (11 ball tosses per round). Critically,

during each round, Ann received the ball on only two occasions,

thus was largely ignored by the other players. This paradigm has

been used extensively (and successfully) in previous research to

simulate social exclusion/rejection and distress (e.g., [26,27].

Following the Cyberball videos, participants were given 3-minutes

to write a letter to Ann, and were instructed to provide an account

of their thoughts and feelings during the game. These letters were

later scored for empathic content by independent raters. On

completion of the tasks, participants were debriefed, thanked and

dismissed.

Results

Several t-tests were conducted in order to examine inter-group differences. The success of the experimental manipulation were

confirmed, such that participants in the mindfulness condition

reported a greater awareness of the present moment (i.e. state

mindfulness) than their counterparts in the control condition,

t(70) = 6.23, p,.001, d = 1.47 (see Table 1). As expected, partic- ipants who underwent the mindfulness induction reported higher

levels of state mindfulness.

Mindreading performance, as measured by the RMET, was

better for participants in the mindfulness than control condition,

t(70) = 5.62, p,.001, d = 1.33, confirming our prediction. Addi- tional regression analyses were undertaken to test the predictive

power of mindfulness after controlling for other variables (i.e., sex

and age). Using the enter method, a significant model emerged in

which mindfulness best predicted mindreading scores (standard-

ized ß = 2.41, p,.001 and an adjusted variance R2 = .13, p, .001). Neither age nor sex were significant predictors in this model

(ß = .05, p = .66; ß = .05, p = .65; respectively). To assess the effect of mindfulness on empathic understanding,

two coders who were blind to experimental condition and the

purpose of the investigation scored the letters for empathic content

(i.e., 6-point scale: 1 = not at all empathic; 6 = very empathic). The

coders were instructed to consider the pro-social flavor of the

letters, specifically the extent to which the writers had attempted to

direct support, comfort and understanding to Ann (i.e., the

excluded individual). Assessment of the inter-rater reliability

indicated a high level of agreement in their ratings (Cronbach’s

a = .92), scores were therefore averaged and a single measure of empathic understanding was calculated for each letter (see

Table 1). Subsequent between-group analysis revealed that

mindfulness participants expressed more empathic concern

compared to participants in the control condition, t(70) = 2.62, p = .011, d = .62 (see Figures 1 and 2 for examples of letter excerpts). Further analysis revealed that the sex of participants did

not impact empathic concern, t(70) = 1.31, p = .20. In summary, significant between-group differences were found

after a brief mindfulness induction. Confirming our hypotheses,

participants in the mindfulness group out-performed those in

Brief Mindfulness Meditation Improves Theory of Mind

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control condition on both ToM tasks (i.e. mind reading and

empathic expression).

Discussion

As demonstrated herein, brief mindfulness meditation enhanced

core components of ToM, notably mindreading and empathic

understanding. Not only were participants better able to decode

complex mental states from subtle facial cues following a brief

period of mindfulness meditation, so too they expressed greater

empathic concern when communicating with the excluded victim

of a computerized ball-tossing game. Together, these findings

highlight the potent effects that even short-lived mindfulness

interventions can exert on basic aspects of social-cognitive

functioning (i.e., mentalizing & empathizing).

Questions remain, however, regarding the specific mechanism

through which mindfulness meditation impacts ToM? One

possibility is that elevated levels of metacognitive awareness

Table 1. Descriptive statistics as a function of experimental condition.

Condition

Mindfulness M (SD) Control M (SD) 95% CI

Measure

MAAS-S 4.31 (0.98) 2.89 (0.95) 1.87 0.96

RMET 26.42 (3.01) 21.97 (3.67) 6.02 2.87

Empathy 3.50 (1.46) 2.58 (1.50) 1.61 0.22

CI – confidence interval; M – mean; MAAS-S - Mindful Attention Awareness Scale-State; RMET - Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test; SD – standard deviation. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110510.t001

Figure 1. Examples of empathic letters written by participants in the mindfulness condition. These participants expressed more empathic concern, warmth and support in their letters towards Ann (who was socially excluded in the game). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110510.g001

Figure 2. Examples of letters written by participants in the control condition. These participants approached the letter writing task in a ‘matter of fact’ manner; focusing on the facts or rules of the game. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110510.g002

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facilitate mindreading and boost empathic responding [1]. A

commonly articulated viewpoint is that awareness of one’s own

bodily and psychological states serves as an important precursor to

mentalizing. That is, accurate observations of self are required for

a comprehensive understanding of others [18]. As mindfulness

meditation focuses on internal (bodily and psychological) experi-

ences, increased self-focused attention is a natural byproduct of

this activity [28,10]. It may therefore be the case that enhanced

metacognitive awareness serves as the critical pathway through

which brief periods of mindfulness improve ToM [29], a possibility

that awaits empirical investigation.

Additional questions center on the extent to which mindfulness

interventions benefit all aspects of ToM. In charting people’s

mindreading skills, a fundamental distinction has been drawn

between the affective and cognitive sub-components of ToM [30].

While affective ToM represents the ability to intuit what a person

is feeling, cognitive ToM reflects the capacity to infer their beliefs

and intentions. As the current inquiry employed tasks that

consider only the affective component of ToM (i.e., RMET,

empathy task), it remains unclear whether comparable improve-

ments in mindreading would emerge on activities that tap the

cognitive aspects of person understanding (e.g., false belief tasks,

see also [7,9]. Given however that mindfulness is acknowledged to

enhance awareness of bodily states, emotions and cognitions [28],

there is little reason to suspect that improvements in mindreading

should be restricted to affective tasks. Instead, elevated metacog-

nitive awareness may facilitate multiple strands of person

understanding [1].

While previous work has highlighted the cognitive and

emotional benefits of long-term meditation training [10], here

we demonstrated comparable effects on mindreading following

only a brief (i.e., 5-minute) mindfulness intervention. The current

results are far from unique, however. Elsewhere, researchers have

shown that even brief mindfulness training can improve perfor-

mance in a variety of domains, including: executive function,

visual-spatial processing, working memory and impulse control

(e.g., [31,22,32]). Of course, that brief episodes of mindfulness

appear to facilitate processing much like extended training regimes

raises a host of important questions pertaining to the underlying

processes, mechanisms of change, strength, and duration of the

respective effects. In no sense are we suggesting that brief

mindfulness interventions are as effective as long-term training

programs in shaping behavior. Nevertheless, emerging evidence

indicates that even minimal mindfulness training is sufficient to

facilitate fundamental aspects of human cognition. Elucidating the

precise nature of these effects will be an important task for future

research [32].

Conclusions

The finding that brief mindfulness training improves ToM may

have implications that extend beyond the laboratory. Underlying

harmonious living is the ability to understand the thoughts and

feelings of other social agents. Indeed, ToM is deemed by many to

be one of the pinnacles of human evolution. While extant research

has focused primarily on explicating the problems that emerge

when mindreading goes awry, recent investigations have shifted

instead to the identification of strategies (and interventions) that

enhance person understanding [8]. As the current findings

demonstrate, brief mindfulness-based meditation comprises just

such a tactic. At least with respect to affective ToM, mindful

attention facilitates mindreading, although additional research will

be required to scrutinize the hypothesized link between mindful-

ness and ToM. Of particular importance will be work exploring

the process and consequences of brief mindfulness meditation in

applied settings, such as a longitudinal study with a clinical

population.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the participants and reviewers (J.

Smallwood and P. Williams) for helpful comments on previous version of

this manuscript.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: LBGT CNM. Performed the

experiments: LBGT. Analyzed the data: LBGT CNM. Contributed

reagents/materials/analysis tools: LBGT BCYL. Contributed to the

writing of the manuscript: LBGT CNM.

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