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Habitat International 50 (2015) 90e98

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Habitat International

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Eighty years of urban growth and socioeconomic trends in Dammam Metropolitan Area, Saudi Arabia

Abdulkarim K. Alhowaish Department of Urban and Regional Planning, College of Architecture and Planning, University of Dammam, P.O. Box 2397, Dammam 31451, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history: Received 24 May 2015 Accepted 11 August 2015 Available online 25 August 2015

Keywords: Urban growth Socioeconomic trends Dammam Metropolitan area Eastern province Saudi Arabia

E-mail address: [email protected].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.08.019 0197-3975/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

The Dammam Metropolitan Area of Saudi Arabia gained a leading role on the world stage by establishing itself as a major supplier of energy to the rest of the world. At present, it is the third largest urban center in Saudi Arabia. Little attention has been paid to the environmental and/or developmental aspects of its urban growth in terms of the quality of the urban environment and the potential needs of future gen- erations. The purpose of this study was to examine Dammam's urban growth and socioeconomic trends during the past eight decades to identify present and future challenges. Particular attention was paid to its current and future urban growth and development challenges. The results suggest that Dammam's past and current development is primarily driven by the economic benefits realized by private sector.

© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

From the time that oil was discovered in the Dammam area of Saudi Arabia in 1937 to the present, development of the Dammam Metropolitan Area (DMA) has been closely linked to the mobilization of natural, capital, and human resources, transforming it into a major supplier of fossil fuel energy to the rest of the world. The DMA comprises the three major cities of Dammam, Alkhobar, and Dhahran and includes relatively new urban developments in Alaziziyah and Half-Moon Bay to the south. The DMA is located in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia alongthe coastof theArabian Gulf (26�260000

north and 50�70000 east) about 400 km east of Saudi Arabia's capital of Riyadh (Fig. 1). Dammam city is the seat of the regional administra- tive centers, Alkhobar is known for its commercial centers and business offices, and Dhahran has scientific and technological cen- ters. Alaziziyah and Half-Moon Bay are recreational centers.

Dammam Metropolitan Area is the third largest urban center in Saudi Arabia, with a population of about 1.66 million in 2014. The population doubled nine times over the past 50 years, from 0.18 millionin1964to1.66millionin2014.Itsstrictlyurbanareadoubledin size46timesduringthepast50years,increasingfromabout1162hain 1964e2050 ha in 1974 to more than 38,670 ha in 2014 (Fig. 2).

This study examined the 80-year pattern of urban expansion of the DMA together with its socioeconomic trends. Coverage begins a few years before the discovery of oil (1934) and concludes at the

present (2014). The specific objectives are to: (1) outline the pro- cess by which the DMA developed into its present form and func- tion, (2) discuss the pattern of changes in terms of socioeconomic development, and (c) assess current and future challenges to the DMA.

2. Historical growth and development

Upon the discovery of oil in 1937, the overall pace of develop- ment in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia immediately accelerated, which was particularly evident in the area that would become the DMA. Rapid urban expansion occurred during the first oil boom, which lasted from the end of WWII until 1956. A period of eco- nomic crisis followed until 1974. Then, the second oil boom in 1975 significantly influenced the DMA (Daghistani, 1993). From 1975 until the present, the DMA developed at a breathtaking pace, pro- pelled by powerful physical, economic, environmental, and human developmental pressures. This study examined the growth and development of the DMA in four historical stages. Stage I was the initial stage of growth from 1932 until 1956, Stage II was the formative stage spanning 1956 to 1980, Stage III was the emerging stage that lasted from 1980 until 2000, and Stage IV is a period of maturity that began in 2000 and continues today.

3. Stage I: the initial stage (1932e1956)

This period began in 1932, when the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded, and ended in 1956, when the capital of the

Fig. 1. Location of Dammam Metropolitan area. Source: Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (2008).

A.K. Alhowaish / Habitat International 50 (2015) 90e98 91

Eastern Province (in which the DMA is located) moved from Hofuf city to Dammam city. In 1932, Dammam was a small coastal town which, together with a tiny huddle of fishermen's huts known as Alkhobar, depended on fishing and pearl diving for subsistence. Some El-Dawasir tribesmen emigrated there from Bahrain, which boosted the two towns' populations (ARAMCO., 1968). According to Candilis-Metra (1974, p. 21), in 1935, the total population of the two towns was about 1700 (1500 in Dammam and 200 in Alkhobar) people living in about 330 small huts made of palm fronds. Growth and development remained slow until the discovery of the first oil field in 1938 (Fig. 3).

When the first oil field (Dammam No. 7) was discovered, the drilling and oil exploration work accelerated and oil workers immigrated to the area, but there was no housing in Dammam and Alkhobar except for the fishing huts. Therefore, Dhahran became a campsite for the oil workers, drilling equipment, and other supplies brought from abroad. Alkhobar was selected as the port for loading and unloading cargo (ARAMCO., 1968, p. 31). Thus, Alkhobar briefly served as the exit point of the Saudi Arabian crude oil being transported to the refinery in Bahrain. Urban Dammam and Alkhobar of this period can be characterized as compact; the buildings in the old town sections were unplanned and closely proximate and the streets were inconsistent in width with few open spaces (Candilis-Metra, 1974, p. 23).

After 1950, the urban boundaries began to dramatically expand outward. Two primary driving forces were behind the expansion: (1) the transition of the administrative capital of the Eastern Province from Hofuf to Dammam city in 1953 and (2) the con- structions of the King Abdulaziz Seaport in 1955 and the rail line to

Riyadh city in 1951. The port was a major boost to the DMA econ- omy and governmental employment opportunities and industrial growth further intensified the area's development. The built-up area of the DMA increased from about 34.2 ha in 1934 to more than 883 ha in 1954, indicating that the urban area doubled its size more than 24 times during that 20-year period (Table 1). Further- more, the population increased from about 5000 inhabitants in 1934 to about 98,000 in 1956. The annual growth rate was esti- mated at about 16.4 percent, which was the highest growth rate in the DMA's history (Essawi, 1993, p. 112).

In 1934, about 94 percent of the DMA population was Saudi. A mere 10 years later, the proportion of Saudis had declined to 80 percent because of the immigration of foreign workers, particularly oil workers (see Table 2). According to Alsubai (1989, p. 153), employment was concentrated in two economic sectors: govern- ment and oil (and its related activities). Of secondary importance were agriculture, services, and trade. The majority of Saudi em- ployees worked for the government, whereas non-Saudis domi- nated the oil sector.

Because of the continual expansion of oil operations, Arab American Oil Company (ARAMCO) decided that a comprehensive plan was needed to facilitate orderly growth for the future. In 1945, it contracted the American architectural firm of Caudill Rowlett Scott (CRS) to prepare master plans for its towns (Al-Mubarak, 1999, p. 45). CRS devised master plans for Dhahran and three other ARAMCO towns modeled on American lifestyles for Ameri- cans and other non-Saudi workers (Caudill Rowlett Scott, 1975). Al- Hathloul (1981) and Al-Mubarak (1999) argued that ARAMCO's urban development left indelible marks on the Eastern Province's

Fig. 2. Historical growth of the Dammam Metropolitan area. Source: Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (2008).

Fig. 3. The three towns of the future Dammam Metropolitan area in 1940. Source: Saudi Embassy (1997).

A.K. Alhowaish / Habitat International 50 (2015) 90e9892

urban landscape, which were beneficial in that there were modern, fully equipped, gated communities yet had negative effects from ignoring local culture and heritage. Two years later, despite the negative downside, the Saudi government requested ARAMCO's planning help for the towns of Dammam and Alkhobar. The resultant extensions of the old organically built towns were grid

Table 1 DMA urban area size and population, 1934e2030.

Year Urban area (hectares)

Population Population density ratio (person/hectare)

1934 34.2 5000 146 1956 883.6 98,000 117 1980 5023.7 360,000 72 2000 19,532.1 1.02 million 52 2014 38,760.3 1.66 million 43 2030 57,130.0 2.10 million 37

Sources: ARAMCO Handbook (1968); Candilis-Metra (1974); CH2M HILL (1978, 1982); Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (2008); and Central Department of Statistics and Information (1980, 2000, 2014).

patterns of 150- by 300-foot rectangular lots serviced by a system of north-south roads ranging from 40- to 60-feet wide (Al-Mubarak, 1999, p. 44). The two towns' road networks were connected to a major transportation corridor adjacent to their shorelines.

During this period, the first municipal council of Dammam city was elected in 1954, with a clear role to accelerate the process of urbanization in Dammam city and in Alkhobar and Dhahran. New housing regulations prohibited huts and mud-and-brick dwellings and limited construction materials to stone. The owners of the existing dwellings were given some time to refurbish their houses with stone and eliminate the palm fronds and mud bricks. Concrete buildings, modern housing, open space, landscaped streets, and many other elements of modern urban structure slowly emerged during this time.

4. Stage II: the formative stage (1956e1980)

During Stage II, the Dammam-Alkhobar highway was completed, the first public park (King Saudi Garden) was created,

Table 2 Dammam Metropolitan Area Saudi and Non-Saudi Population (N) with Proportions (in parentheses) and Employment, 1934e2030.

Year Population (N) (proportion) Employment (in millions)

Saudis Non-Saudis Total Saudis Non-Saudis Total

1934 4700 (0.94) 400 (0.06) 5000 1956 80,000 (0.82) 20,000 (0.18) 98,000 0.07 1980 200,000 (0.56) 160,000 (0.44) 360,000 0.04 0.15 0.19 2000 690,000 (0.68) 330,000 (0.32) 1.02 million 0.15 0.27 0.43 2014 1.16 million (0.70) 500,000 (0.30) 1.66 million 0.33 0.45 0.78 2030 1.68 million (0.80) 420,000 (0.20) 2.10 million 0.54 0.38 0.92

Sources: CH2M HILL (1978, 1982), Alsubai (1989), Essawi (1993), Daghistani (1993), Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (2008), and Central Department of Statistics and Information (1980, 2000, 2014).

A.K. Alhowaish / Habitat International 50 (2015) 90e98 93

and many major roads inside the three cities’ boundaries were paved, lighted, and landscaped (CH2M HILL, 1978). New industrial, commercial, and residential development projects were accompa- nied by public services, such as schools, hospitals, and modern shopping centers along the Dammam-Alkhobar highway. These developments supported connections between the cities of Dam- mam and Alkhobar on the one side and between Alkhobar and Dhahran on the other side of the DMA.

Immigration from different areas of the Kingdom continued to influence the population and a large number of oil industry experts living in the DMA needed housing, hospitals, schools for their children, and other amenities. Thus, the area witnessed a new type of construction (high-rise residential and mixed-use buildings). According to Essawi (1993, p. 121), two public housing projects were completed by 1979. The Dammam housing project was completed first, in 1979, with 37 buildings on 32 ha. This was fol- lowed by the Alkhobar housing project, consisting of 219 buildings on more than 133 ha (see Fig. 4).

Because oil revenues increased in 1975, the area's industrial development and number of workers in the industry accelerated apace. Two major industrial cities were established during this period. The first industrial city was located between the three cities, covering an area of about 380 ha. At present, this city is home to more than 124 factories, which are completely engulfed by an ur- ban mass. The second industrial city was established in 1978. It is relatively far from the DMA, located along the highway to Riyadh. It comprises about 960 ha and includes more than 179 factories (Saudiindustri, 2012).

The additions of high-quality medical care in top-rated hospitals and schools provided additional incentives to people considering relocation to the DMA. Service industries emerged to support the needs of the oil industry and the people living in the DMA. Consequently, the DMA population dramatically increased, princi- pally driven by immigration of non-Saudis. The population doubled

Fig. 4. Large-scale urban development projects in the DMA. Source: Waqas (2012).

almost 3.7 times during this period, increasing from 98,000 in 1956 to about 360,000 in 1980. The proportion of Saudis to the total population declined from slightly more than 80 percent in 1956 to about 55 percent in 1980, whereas the non-Saudi proportion increased from less than 20 percent in 1956 to about 44 percent in 1980 (Essawi, 1993, p. 125).

The DMA dominated commerce, technology, governmental services, and industrial development expansion during this period and captured most of the employment growth in the region. As shown in Table 2, employment increased from 70,000 jobs in 1956 to more than 190,000 jobs in 1980. Foreign workers filled more than 77 percent of all jobs created during this period (Alsubai,1989; Essawi, 1993). Although the population doubled 3.7 times, the geographic urban area doubled more than six times during this time, from about 883 ha in 1954 to about 5023 ha in 1980.

5. Stage III: the emerging stage (1980e2000)

Stage III covers the period from 1980 to 2000. The simultaneous growth of Dammam, Alkhobar, and Dhahran ultimately merged them into one large urban area, known for the first time as the Dammam Metropolitan Area, which means (and is often referred to as) the greater Dammam area. Each town retained (and still retains) its unique character and some local administrative functions; but, in terms of its place in the Kingdom, the DMA is a single admin- istrative entity (Saudi Embassy, 1997).

Rapid urban growth throughout the DMA was the prevalent feature of this period, and, in many areas in north and northeast of DMA, vast stretches of the shallow Arabian Gulf waters were filled to create land. The Dammam-Alkhobar Corniche (waterfront), which runs several kilometers along the two cities’ seashores, was completed in 1990, adding more than 4500 ha to the built-up area (Abou-Korin, 2011, p. 10). The rapid growth necessitated the con- struction of a larger and more modern airport to replace the

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Dhahran International Airport, which was then transformed into a military airbase. The new King Fahd International Airport opened its doors to commercial traffic in 1999 and serves the DMA and Jubail, an industrial city about 64 km to the north.

At the end of 1978, the Town Planning Office of the Ministry of Interior for Municipalities contracted a new master plan for the DMA with CH2M HILL and CEG & Associates (Daghistani,1993). The Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs (MOMRA) instituted the plan in 1983. Designed to establish an urban growth strategy to guide and enable DMA expansion and development until 2005, it had two stages of urban growth and development. The first stage covered the existing DMA area and developed new areas until 1995, when the population was expected to reach 1.0 million. The second stage covered future development areas until 2005, when the population was expected to reach 1.5 million (CH2M HILL & CEG Associates, 1982). The master plan had several goals, among which were controlling expansion and supporting the existing ur- ban structures. For example:

� Control the growth of the Dammam city urban area and its adjacent cities of Alkhobar and Dhahran to the extent necessary to maximize benefits to all residents and minimum inconveniences;

� Enforce development controls to ensure that city growth is beneficial, balanced, and sustainable;

� Encourage and support public transit systems and networks to strengthen the corridors between Dammam and Alkhobar and between Dammam and Dhahran.

� Support business development, commerce, and tourism in the north and northeast along the shoreline.

The master plan provided a foundation for modern city growth and development, established the elements for future city struc- tures, and provided guidelines for growth in the preferred direc- tion. According to CH2M HILL and CEG Associates (1982, p. 54), residential areas would be separated from the commercial and industrial sections, roads would be wider and straighter, and building architecture would be conformed to a Westernized urban design. Rectangular grid street systems replaced the intricate curvilinear and irregular patterns of the old towns and outward- oriented building structures became the norm, replacing the inward-facing Islamic structures.

However, by the middle of the 1990s, the DMA encompassed an area of approximately 14,300 ha with a total population of about 0.84 million. According to the Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (2000, p. 78), the proportion of urban land use that was residential (including services and utilities) was about 30 percent of the total land. Industrial land used about eight percent, commercial uses were at four percent, recreational and open space used about nine percent, and special uses, such as military, governmental, airport, and port land uses, garnered 43 percent of overall land use; vacant land accounted for six percent of the total DMA area.

In Stage III, the population increase continued, but the rate was slower than in the previous stages. With an annual growth rate of 5.3 percent, the total population of the DMA increased from about 0.36 million in 1980 to just under 1.02 million in 2000 (Central Department of Statistics and Information, 1980, 2000). The popu- lation doubled more than 2.8 times during this period. The pro- portion of the Saudi population increased by 12 percent (68 percent in 2000 compared to 56 percent in 1980).

Additionally, employment doubled 2.3 times during this period. Job opportunities increased from 0.19 million jobs in 1980 to more than 0.43 million jobs in 2000. Saudi workers accounted for about 44 percent and non-Saudi workers accounted for about 52 percent of total jobs created during this period. Construction,

manufacturing, and trade combined to add more than 0.24 million jobs to the DMA economy. These three sectors accounted for more than 45 percent of the total job creation during this period. Governmental service activities, real estate, and educational ac- tivities together contributed about 0.11 million jobs and accounted for more than 27 percent of total job creation in the DMA (see Table 3).

Spatially, the DMA urban area increased from about 5023 ha in 1980 to more than 19,532 ha in 2000, doubling its size almost four times. However, by 2000, urban growth in the DMA slowed. Many factors contributed to this change, among which was the “Saud- ization” policy requiring replacement of expatriate with Saudi workers, particularly in the oil industry and the governmental sector (Ramady, 2005). In addition, the development of other urban areas in the Kingdom created competition that influenced the extent of immigration to the DMA, which sharply dropped because people were able to find work closer to their homes. Moreover, new industrial cities with huge buildings and construction development began emerging all over the Kingdom (Khan & Bashir, 2004). These and other factors affect the DMA's growth pattern.

6. Stage 4: the maturity stage (2000ePresent)

In the early years of the 21st century, the urban growth rate of the DMA declined (until late in 2007) and then stabilized. One reason for this was the Global Financial Crisis, which affected the Saudi stock market. The attractiveness of the Saudi stock market between 2003 and early in 2006 had encouraged many investors to move their investments from real estate and construction to Saudi stocks. Some people (particularly middle-class Saudis) sold their lands and houses, sold their cars, or borrowed money from banks to invest in the stock market (Ramady, 2007). It was estimated that the DMA real estate market experienced a severe 20 percent to 30 percent decline in some parts of the DMA (Alsutan, 2006; Al- Nwaisir, 2012).

This situation continued until February of 2006 when the Saudi stock market collapsed. Full recovery of the building and con- struction industry was not realized until late in 2009, when it apparently returned to its former peak, spurred by the Saudi gov- ernment's decision to build 500,000 new homes in the near future as an affordable housing program for Saudis. Moreover, the gov- ernment implemented new flexible mortgage rules so that Saudi nationals would be encouraged to take out loans to invest in real estate.

According to housing data provided by the Central Department of Statistics and Information (2007, 2014), DMA household ownership was 40 percent in 2007 and about 43 percent in 2014. The government's affordable housing program and new mortgage policy, coupled with increasing demand (due to the ever-growing population), further drove demand. A large-scale residential sub- division with an area of about 9400 ha was approved by MOMRA in 2008. According to Abou-Korin (2011, p. 17), this urban develop- ment project is proposed on infill land of the Arabian Gulf in the eastern part of Dammam city, the southern part of Alkhobar city (the Alziziyah area), and near the King Fahd International Airport (Fig. 5). These large-scale residential subdivision projects are ex- pected to provide housing for more than 600,000 residents.

Since the turn of the 21st century, the spatial size of the urban area doubled almost twice, from 19,532 ha in 2000 to more than 38,760 ha in 2014. Moreover, population and employment doubled their sizes by 1.6 and 1.8, respectively. Due to “Saudization” pro- grams, the proportion of Saudis in the workforce increased from 35 percent in 2000 to more than 42 percent in 2014, whereas the proportion of non-Saudis declined by about five percent. Addi- tionally, more than 0.35 million jobs were created. The trade,

Table 3 Employment by sector and proportional changes between 1980e2000 and 2000e2014.

Economic sector Employment (in thousands) by Sector with percentages Percentage change

1980 2000 2014 1980e2000 2000e2014

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 4.2 (2.2)

4.6 (1.1)

5.6 (0.7)

8 23

Mining and quarrying 13.8 (7.3)

24.4 (5.7)

31.9 (4.1)

77 30

Manufacturing 18.4 (9.7)

48.1 (11.2)

92.5 (11.8)

162 92

Electricity, gas and water supply 1.9 (1.0)

5.3 (1.2)

10.5 (1.3)

176 96

Construction 30.9 (16.3)

77.0 (18.0)

106.0 (13.6)

149 38

Wholesale and retail trade 25.2 (13.3)

57.7 (13.5)

123.5 (15.8)

129 114

Tourism service activities 4.2 (2.2)

10.5 (2.5)

34.4 (4.4)

151 228

Transportation and storage 9.9 (5.2)

23.9 (5.6)

49.7 (6.4)

141 108

Financial and insurance activities 1.7 (0.9)

4.0 (0.9)

12.4 (1.6)

140 208

Real estate activities 10.5 (5.5)

28.6 (6.7)

44.5 (5.7)

174 56

Public Administrative 36.5 (19.2)

67.1 (15.7)

82.5 (10.6)

84 23

Education 10.3 (5.4)

25.3 (5.9)

59.0 (7.6)

146 133

Health and social work activities 6.1 (3.2)

14.0 (3.3)

54.8 (7.0)

130 293

Private household activities 12.4 (6.5)

28.8 (6.7)

61.0 (7.8)

133 112

Other services activities 4.1 (2.2)

9.1 (2.1)

12.7 (1.6)

122 38

Total 190.0 428.3 780.8 125 82

Sources: Central Department of Statistics and Information (1980, 2000, 2014) and Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (2000), as calculated by the author

A.K. Alhowaish / Habitat International 50 (2015) 90e98 95

manufacturing, health, and educational sectors accounted for nearly 52 percent of total job creation, followed by construction, tourism, and transportation, which together accounted for another 15 percent of total job creation (see Table 3).

On February 2, 2014, the high commission for the development of Eastern Province (and its executive branch, Dammam develop- ment authority) was established by the Council of Ministries' de- cree (Batyour & Almalki, 2014). The commission was established to fully develop the entire region (urban and rural) economically, socially, culturally, architecturally, and environmentally, and it was given responsibility for drawing up policies and procedures to raise the efficiency of services and facilities to improve citizens’ stan- dards of living and welfare. The commission has the further re- sponsibility of developing comprehensive development projects in the DMA and the major urban regional centers as well as con- ducting planning and feasibility studies for development projects and programs.

7. Current and future challenges

The historically rapid pace of DMA urban growth and develop- ment created a web of serious environmental and socioeconomic challenges, including the problem of lack of fit between the size of the DMA urban space and the needs of its population. Specifically, the increases in built environment are far beyond the needs of the present and projected urban population sizes. On the one hand, the population doubled 17 times over the past 60 years, increasing from 0.098 million in 1956 to 0.36 million in 1980 to almost 1.66 million in 2014. According to the Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (2008, p. 101), the DMA population is expected to reach 2.1 million by 2030, an increase of about 0.44 million over the next 16 years. On the other hand, the urban space increased from 834 ha in 1954

to about 5023 ha in 1980 to more than 38,760 ha in 2014, doubling 46 times over the past 60 years. The DMA is expected to reach 57,130 ha by 2030, which is an increase of about 18,370 ha over the next 16 years (Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs, 2008, p. 66).

Urban sprawl and large-scale urban development projects are the most pressing urban challenges associated with rapid urban growth and development in the DMA. Urban growth, in terms of land approved for urban purposes, spread over a vast area of the DMA, consequently resulting in low levels of development in most of these areas. In 2014, the built-up area was about 52 percent of the total area inside the urban boundaries, where the built-up area is about 20,150 of the 38,760 ha allocated for urban purposes (Eamana, 2015, p. 20). Thus, more than 18,600 ha of city land are undeveloped.

The most striking evidence of this rapid urban sprawl is the low and declining population density in the DMA. The overall popula- tion density in the DMA was only 43 persons per hectare in 2014, which is very low compared to cities, developing or developed, in the modern world. During the past forty years, despite overall population gains, the urban population density in the DMA declined by more than 60 percent. The trend of overall urban population density in the DMA is expected to continue declining to about 37 persons per hectare in 2030 (Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs, 2008). Continuing urban sprawl, coupled with the remarkable decline in overall population density will negatively affect current and future developmental processes in the DMA.

The DMA faces another problem caused by the rapid urban growth and development of the past 60 years, which is a signifi- cantly changed regional environment and ecosystem. One example is the land filling of Gulf water that initially covered an area larger than 8400 ha (Abou-Korin, 2011). Further major land-filling

Fig. 5. Large-scale residential subdivision. Sources: Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (2008) and Abou-Korin (2011).

A.K. Alhowaish / Habitat International 50 (2015) 90e9896

activities have recently occurred along the entire Alkhobar and Dammam coastlines, particularly at the King Abdulaziz Seaport, where the new coastline is as much as 6 km out from the original shore. These filled areas are costly activities in terms of foundation and construction relative to the cost of desert reclamation.

In addition, and perhaps more significantly, are the effects of coastal reclamation on the coastal environment and marine ecol- ogy of the Arabian Gulf. Past activities muddied the seawater close to the shore due to hill cutting, dredging, filling activities, and the overflow of materials into the sea. Low water quality influenced seawater circulation in the area where the oxygen penetration of the water was degraded, creating a situation that negatively influenced many coastal habitats. According to Dammam Municipal Council (2013, p. 8), almost 90 percent of the mangrove forest along

the coastline disappeared in the past 30 years and the remaining areas of mangrove, sea grass, and coral reef are vulnerable to urban development and industrial pollution, including air pollution and pesticide overuse. Furthermore, it is estimated that, to date, more than 4650 ha of coastal habitats have been dredged along the Gulf Coast and further dredging operations are daily occurring. The coastal reclamation activities severely influenced the Saudi fishing industry, which is estimated as having experienced a 70 percent decline over the past 10 years (Dammam Municipal Council, 2013, p. 12).

In addition to the land-filling activities’ effects on the environ- ment and ecosystems of the DMA, wastewater poses a major problem, caused mainly by urban sprawl. A high volume of wastewater is being directly discharged into coastal creeks (Abou-

Fig. 6. Wastewater discharge into coastal creeks. Sources: Environmental Consulting Bureau (2004) and Abou-Korin (2011).

A.K. Alhowaish / Habitat International 50 (2015) 90e98 97

Korin, 2011, p. 8). Incompatible land uses are emerging and large- scale residential and commercial activities along the shoreline are not in the sewage network and are, instead, dependent on septic tanks. These urban activities, particularly those that are on the coast, produce high volumes of wastewater that they tend to discharge directly into coastal creeks (Fig. 6). This activity likely has an adverse effect on the immediate and long-term environmental viability of the area. It was estimated that 57 percent of urban area in the DMA is not adequately linked to a sewage network system (Eamana, 2015, p. 22). Similar major challenges to environmental viability of the DMA are waste management, air quality, pollution, traffic congestion, and land contamination.

A secondary problem is the suitability of land for future spatial development. Urban sprawl has already consumed most of the land suitable to urban development in the DMA. Most of that land has been allocated to residential purposes, resulting in two serious problems. First, there is not enough land left to meet projected development needs. Second, the approved subdivisions, although presently vacant, place major development constraints on formu- lating future urban development plans in the DMA. More than 50% of the land allocated to urban activities in the DMA is vacant (Eamana, 2015, p. 25). Development of these sparsely populated subdivisions, particularly regarding creation of infrastructure and public services, is costly.

8. Conclusion

This study presents the pattern of urban growth and socioeco- nomic trends of the Dammam Metropolitan Area over the past 80 years. The area experienced rapid and extended growth throughout its historyas it transitioned froma group of small fishing towns and a

port to a nationally and internationally renowned urban center. The DMA is expected to continue growing at a rapid pace. Its growth has been associated with problems in urban planning and urban growth management that mostly relate to increasing demands for housing, public services, effective responses to urban sprawl, and the need to control and guide present and future development. Moreover, its rapid urban growth is associated with some serious unsustainable development practices linked to the rapid destruction of marine life along the shores of the Arabian Gulf due to land infill.

This historical assessment of the past and current urban and socioeconomic growth patterns in the DMA demonstrates that these patterns are primarily driven by the private and public sec- tors' desires for economic benefits. Little attention has been paid to the public good regarding environmental and development prac- tices in terms of the quality of urban life and the needs of the area's future generations. Thus, a more comprehensive approach to managing current and future growth of the DMA is urgently needed. A comprehensive approach should focus on protecting the marine environment and ecosystem by revising relevant legal regulations and environmental protection legislation and by pre- serving urban land for future development by halting urban sprawl. Improving the urban environment can be accomplished by reach- ing out to the public through community awareness programs and redirecting investments to sectors other than housing, such as tourism, commerce, and agriculture.

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