theater

The Sacred and the Secular --In

India's Performing Arts-- Ananda K. Coomaraswamy Centenary Essays

Edited by Prof. v. Subramaniam

ASHISH PUBLISHING HOUSE NEW DELHI-110027

published by : Shri S.B. Nangia,

for ASHISH PUBLISHING HOUSE: CONTENTS H-12, Rajouri Garden,

New Delhi-l10027.. PART I

1980

@ With the Contributors

Printed at :

National Printers, West Patel Nagar, New Delhi-l 10008

Phone: 582828

I. The Sacred and the Secular: Symbiosis and Synthesis

-Prof. V. Subramaniam

II. Religion as a Bridge between Classical . \. and Folk Art

-Prof. V. Subramaniam , ..

III. The King-God Concept and the Arts -Prof. V. Subramaniam

IV. The Rasa Theory: Theology or Aesthe- tics

-Prof. V.K. Chari

V. The Place of Indian Classical Dance in

Traditional Indian Culture

-Anne-Marie Gaston

VI. Secularism in Yakshagana - Martha B. Ashton

PART II

VII. Bharata Nat yam -Dr. T. Balasaraswati

VIII. The History and the Origin of the

Thumri with Special Reference to Gharanas and Style

-Premlata Sharma

IX. The Evolution of the Thumri -Jaideva Singh

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... 19

... 47

... 62

... 86

... 98

... 109

•. .124

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X. The Musical Evolution of the Gazal -Ashok Ranade .

XI. Kootiyattam (A General Survey)

-K. Kunjunni Raja

XU. The Yakshagana of Karnataka -K. Shivram Karanth

Appendix

The Editor's Postscript

. .. 133

... 138

... 151

... 163

... 18l

A NOTE ON OUR CONTRIBUTORS

Prof. V. Subramaniam, the editor is Professor of Politi- cal Science at Carleton University ; Ottawa and a classical composer of acknowledged merit. In the last few years, he has done considerable work on cultural sociology and history of which his recent book Cultural Integration in India (Ashish Publishing House) is a good example. For more background information see the dust jacket.

Prof. V.K. Chari, is a Profe ssor of English Literature at Carleton University and has done much work on Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics. He is also an accomplished Katha- kali dancer.

Anne-Marie Gaston (Anjali) recently completed her B. Phil. Thesis at Oxford-from which the present chapter is taken . She is a professional Bharata Nat yam and Odissi dancer of repute with considerable knowledge of Kuchipudi and Kathakali.

Dr. Martha Ashton is a cultural anthropologist who has worked in Karnataka on folk culture. She is also an ac- complished Yakshagana dancer.

Dr. Balasaraswati is the doyen of Bharata Nat yam dancers and one who played an important part in the revival of this ancient art. She is the grand daughter of the legen- dary genius of the Veena, Dhanammal and has taught in Universities in India and the West.

Dr. Premlata Sharma is Reader, Theory and Research College of Music and Fine Arts, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.

Dr. Jaideva Singh, musicologist and authority on Hin- dustani music lives in, D 61/26 F, Vishram Kuti, Siddhagiri

. Bagb, Varanasi.

( vi )

Dr. Ashok Ranade is the Head, University Music Centre, University of Bombay, Dnyandevi Sahitya Sahawas, Bandra (East), Bombay-400051.

Dr. K. Kunjunne Raja is Professor of Sanskrit, Depart- ment of Sanskrit, University of Madras, Chepauk, Triplicane- p.d., Madras-600005.

Dr. K. Shivram Karanth, Like a many-splendoured god from a Yakshagana play Shivram Karanth towers over the world of Kannada letters and art. This renowned novelist, play-wright, educationist and, above all, the man who revived the ancient art of Yakshagana Bayalata was recently honoured with the prestigious Jnanpith Award.

His name is synonymous with Yakshagana, the cen- turies-old folk theatre of Karnataka. But almost all his iIlllovations, such as doing away with the dialogue, have been widely questioned.

He is living in Suhasa, Saligrama P.O., Udipi Taluk. South Kanara, Karnataka State-576225.

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KamiJIabhupa and. his 'da:ughteii Rati

CHAPTER XII

THE YAKSHAGANA OF KARNATAKA

-K. Sbivram Karanlh

The Kannad a-speak)ng area of India, usually called Karnataka, has a rich theatre form known as 'Yakshagana.' In earlier times it used to be called 'Bhagavatara ata,' "Dashavatara at a,' or simply 'Bayalata.' In Kannada 'ata' mean s a play . Originally this form of theatre used to deal with the tales of Bhagavan Krishna and hence the name 'Bhagavatara ata.' Later on, it began to depict tales of the ten jncarnations of Lord Vishnu; hence the name 'Dashavatara .ata.' Being an open-air theatre, it came to be called ·'Bayalata.' The nomenclature 'Yakshagana' came from a special style of music which accompanies these plays. It is .a very ancient style, for there is mention of this style in Kannada literature of the tenth and twelfth centuries. The Chandraprabha Purana (1189) makes mention of the form. Nagachandra's Mallinatha Purana (1105) refers to Yaksha- :gaDa as "pleasing to Laksmi who stands in the lotus." In the sixteenth century Kavi Ratnakar Varni speaks of Yakkalagana in his Bharateshavaibhava. Since he belongs to the region of South Kanara, it may be surmised that the Yakshagana form was widespread by that time.

Yak shagana embraced in earlier times a form of music played before royal personages. Later on, owing to the

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advent of more evolved styles of music like Hindustani and Karnatic music, Yakshagana receded very much into the' background. We would have totally lost this form, but for the fact that opera-like plays began to be written in this style and their stage success contributed to its survival right to· this day. In the Kannada country we have over three' hundred Yakshagana plays, written by a number of writers .. from at least the period of the sixteenth century. The tradi-

tion of staging such plays has continued over the past few' centuries, evolving its own peculiar stage techniques .

An essential feature of these plays is that the play is· conceived as a fantasy dealing with heroes, gods and demons;: the material chosen for depiction comes from our myths and

- legends. Such stories are moralistic in outlook and often portray the victory of good over evil. Most of our traditional drama leans heavily on such legendary lore. The special distinction of Yakshagana consists in its presentation of the' story through the medium of music, dance and literature.

The very backbone of Yakshagana is its operatic nature; songs and verses are employed for the narration of its. themes. This is done sometimes in the third person, and often in the first and second persons. The songs consist of many musical patterns, composed to express every type of emotion contained in the puranic stories. The language is simple and direct, and can easily be understood by lay audiences. The Bhagavathar, or conductor of the play, has. to sing all those songs (in addition to many narrative verses) to the accompaniment of cymbals and drums.

The purva ranga of the performance is known as Sabha- lakshana. It begins with a prayer to Ganesha, Skanda and other deities. The Bhaga vathar is, of course, the leader. Next to him in importance is the character who plays heroic or serious roles. Tho se who perform the parts of demons are known as bannada vesha. (Colour is banna (varna) in Kannada). The stree-vesha is lower down in the scale. The

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Bhagavathar is at the apex. The two accompanying instru- ments, the cl1ande and the madda/e, are an aid, but it is he who controls the rhythm and the pace. The Bhagavathar introduces each character; when a character is alone on the stage and seeks to express his feelings, it is the Bhagavathar who listens to his problems. The shruti determines the note of the Bhagavathar and the shruti box is by his side through-· out the performance. Even when the music is silent, the- dialogue continues to be based on this particular note and has its own mode of presentation. The din of the chande becomes more pronounced during a war sequence or in~ moments of elation or vigorous movement.

Another feature of the earlier part of the performance is . the Balagopala (Krishna-Balarama) dance. Then there is always a comic interlude. Hanumanayaka comes with his . band of urchins. These young monkeys are the kodangi and their nayaka (leader) is Hanuman. Even as the Bhagavatha r sings the praises of Ganesha, Hanumanayaka and his follo- wers forge ahead with their own brand of humour. They' repeat the pattern during the moments when Skanda and Shiva·Parvati are praised. Then the stree -vesha enter; they dance and sing, concentrating on the shringara rasa.

The Sabha-Iakshana terminates and the Prasanga proper begin s. It is introduced by the vaddolaga. The character, who is about to enter, stands behind a curtain arid he is presented to the spectators. If a Mahabharata story is to be enacted, the Pandavas are presented through the vaddolaga. For example, Hanumanayaka speaks the birudavali of Dharmaraja. He hails him thus: Shrikrishnasuprita, Duritavamshavidhata, Trailokyavikhyata, Sakalavaninatha, Sharanasankuladhata, Kamakrodhavidhata, Ajatashatruavadata Sarvashastradhita Saddharma Pariputa, Shrimaclrajakula- kulalimandita, Padpadmaradantha, Dharmaraja Maharaja. There are traditional songs associ ated with a vaddolaga. For instance, Krishna's vaddolaga begins with a Sanskrit shloka and is followed by a song in raga Sankarabharana, tala Adi.

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'The vaddolaga of the demons is a more spectacular affair; the dance is more slow and is punctuated by roars and cries. Popular prasangas like the Karna-Arjuna Yuddha are

· eagerly awaited by the audience.

Kannada works based on Sanskrit compositIOns form the source of these prasangas. These include Kumar Vyasa's Bizarata, Torwe Narhari's Ramay ana and Battaleshwara's Kau~hik Ramayana and Bhagvata Katlta. It is through them that village audiences make their earliest acquaintance with

· our epic forms. The neroic prasangas which feature battles have the word kalga incorporated into their titles. They include Babltruvahana Kalga, Sudhanvana Ka/ga, Marimukha Kalga and other ka/gas. Those that end in marital bliss have the word Kalyana or Parinaya inserted in the title. For

· example, Subhadra Parinaya or Kanakangi Parinaya. Of course, the humorous element of a performance is wholly monopolised by Hanumanayaka. The Sabha-lnkhana intro-

· duces us to the choreography of the Balagopala and stree- vesha sequences. The vaddo/aga includes excellent group

formations in its dance.

Various metres fulfil a particular function. For instance, ·the Kannada metre Kanda, based on the Sanskrit Arya, helps to speed up the pace of a narrative. Vritta is used when

· deities are praised. Dvipadi and Bhamini Shat padi are employed for telling a story. Yakshagana is never too ornate

· and some of the songs like those in the Shrikrishna Balalila borrow heavily from folk songs . The famous prasanga of ChandravaJi composed by Kavi Nagappaya of Dhwajapura has elements of love and pathos, and a touching simplicity

·of mood . The Bhagavathar resorts to prose particularly when something exciting is expected to happen.

Yakshagana music at one time employed as many as ·one hundred and fifty ragas and about seven talas in its musical patterns (Dhatis) . Today's Bhagavathars has forgot- ten most of these ragas; even so the musical patterns that have survived are numerous enough to depict forcefully the

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many different moods of these plays. If all the earlier ragas ·could be revived now, we would experience again the opera- tic excellence of thi s form. There is a richness and potency in the ragas and talas used; they are able to convey various 'shades of thought a nd feeling. In classical music, both Hindustani and Karnatic, we have numerous ragas, but their thought content is generally devotional or sad in its nature. It embraces the wail of a devotee, self-castigation or praise

·of one's personal deity. Even in the aspect of love, it is the viraha element (the pangs of separation and the yearning for the presence of the lover who has vanished from sight) that predominates. A drama cannot restrict itself to these ·emotions alone. It has to deal with other human feelings 'like anger, jealousy, rage or joy. It cannot limit its emo- tional ~ore to pathos , devotion or praise. The Yakshagana -composer, therefore, found greater opportunities for compo- sing expressive patterns which could also lend themselves to 'rhythmical dance expression.

In Yakshagana some of the ragas have Karnatic names (Gaula, for instance). Others have a wholly Kannada

'flavour-Koravi, Mechali or Gopanite. The Koravi is close 1 0 the Kurunji of Karnatic music. Dvijavanti is like the Hindustani Jaijaiwanti; Pahadi is like Pahadi . Assembling 'some of our traditional Bhagavathars and with the help of ·classical scholars (in both the Karnatic and Hindustani styles), I was able to discover more than sixty ragas, whose 'patterns our Bhagavathars can recollect still, but whose

names they have forgotten . Not being sure of their scales, they often migrate from raga to raga; at times they tend to be monotonous. We realized that whenever an old compo-

sition (set in a particular raga) was wittingly or unwittingly ·changed, its expres si ve power seemed to wane. It is quite -clear that in former time 3 composers were exp l:) rts in their musical style; whereas most of our present day 'Bhagavathars a ppear to have lost their moorings .

The importing of gamaka (style of modulation) from the

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Hindustani and Karnatic schools has also had an adverse: effect on Yakshagana. This factor differentiated it from the other two schools. The tendency of the Bhagavathar to, imitate Marathi stage music and the devotional songs or- saints like Purandaradasa has also modified the originaL

style and impaired its purity.

There is one element in Yakshagana which has suffered' a good deal at the hands of the present-day Bhagavathar and' his accompanists. The Bhagavathar tends to ignore the- language· content of his song. and to concentrate for the- main part on its style and tala. The accompanists are mainly absorbed in playing the maddale and chande. The sound of' these drums drowns all the words of the song. The musi- cians pay little attention to thought content. The pitch of' the voice and the accompanying cymbal and drum beats are- shrill and piercing. The dancer necessarily follows them. Subtler feelings, the lines of demarcation between one erno-' tion and another are wiped out in the process, Earnest- attention to these aspects of music can help us to exploit. the richness of Yakshagana. For a dancer it offers wonderful. opportunities for expression; many of the songs portray a-. wide range of emotions, calling for quick changes in mood, and utmost subtlety in projection.

The characters speak out their words in dignified prose ' after each song; this art has to be cultivated over long years . of experience. The prose passages cannot be learnt by rote .. A speech is delivered extempore and often improvised on · the spur of the moment after the Bhagavathar has sung one ' stanza after the other during the course of the play. Two , opposing characters, or a courting couple, can thus develop · a fascinating dialogue between themselves; this is often· handled with dexterity by veterans of the Yakshagana stage ..

Kathakali, with its strong accent on music and the lan-- guage of gesture, allows for no dialogue spoken by actors .. In Yakshagana the dance element is not predominant. The- story unfolds itself through the words spoken by the actors •.

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Jhe dance is supported by the rhythm of the chande and .maddale ano the pace of the Bhagavathar. The simple metre of the Bhamini Shatpadi provides the dancer with the right 'tempo. The s/ree-veJha concentrate on the lasya element ·of the dance. The male characters display valour and fury. Hanumanayaka's movements embrace humour and joy. The ·dances do not depict so much of delicate emotions as the predominant mood of a sequence. They offer the rhythmic background to its delineation. Thus dance (except for the few occasions when travel, battle and valour are depicted) .serves as no more than an embellishment to an otherwise prose drama. The spoken word is the main ingredient and the audiences remain passive observers of the drama en- .acted in front of them.

The important problem in Yakshagana is that of libe- rating dance from the medium of prose. Dance with music .can by itself suggest quite significantly many aspects of a <lrama. The thought-content is in the realm of language; but emotions can also find an intense and subtle expression through music and dance. To discover these possibilities, I ,esehewed spoken prose altogether in my ballets. The songs <lid have words; they set a sequence in motion. But the <lancers were taught to express their emotions in terms of footwork, body flexions, gesture, facial expressions, and cho- reography. This did not mean substitution of gestures for ·every spoken word. The minimum of commonly under- stood gestures was used. The entire body was turned into .a vehicle of expression. Footwork was subdued or tuned .up depending on the nature and pitch of the emotion. Steps were not deemed to be exercises in technical skill. Tala rhythms had to be a part of the dancer's body-movements

and poses. The rhythms of songs had fo evoke correspon- ·ding reflections in a dancer's movements. Years of study .and exercise led me to the conclusion that our Indian dance has a lot to gain by accepting the fact that one medium "hardly enriches itself by imitating another. Skill alone is

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neither art nor shastra; acrobatics in raga and tala cannot serve the needs of dance or musical expression.

The potential in this form can be exploited to the fun and its canvas enlarged. For example, tradition has given Hanumanayaka full liberty of speech and action. He assu- mes light roles like those of servant, courier or messenger. He provides the element of humour in the d ance. Dance developed to suit such a mood can enrich the possibilities latent in his role. Yakshagana ha s a few basic dance pat- terns but they are restricted to the performances of the main characters during the battle and travel sequences. They can be employed to embrace other situations, too.

Yakshagana surpasses many Indian theatre forms in one particular field, that is in the matter of costumes and make-up. These plays were originally conceived as fantasies and practioners of the form evolved a rich variety of cos- tumes. Their design was not in spired by ancient paintings or sculpture; it is ba sed on the essential nature of the cha- racters. To the first category belong heroes like Karna and Arjuna or A vat ara purusha like Rama or Krishna. The se- seco nd type consists of characters of heroic mould who are a tr ifle too proud of their prowess and consequently slightly imm ature . To thi s class belongs Indra or Gaya (Gandhar- va) . The third group includes those like Kirata who are fearless , yet somewhat uncultured a nd even stupid. Then there are demons 'like Ravana and Kumbhakarna wh o are brave in their own-right but, on the whole, quite destructive in their ways, Another group includ es those who are born among demons but have a code of ri ght and wrong. Among thes e are Ravana's brother Vibh ishana or Ravana's son Atikaya . A special ki;d of costume is designed for t~em . Then there are those deities like Veerabhadra and Naras lmha who are entrusted with the difficult task of annihilating demons. A part from the characters of this de va -danava- manava group, there are others like Hanuman, Bali and, Jambava. Then there are straight characters, like rishis or

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gurus. The stree-vesha includes queens; princesses a nd attendants.

The Yakshagana performances used to take place at night. Torches were used to light the arena. The dim, yellowi sh fla- mes flickered and the dazzling costumes imparted to the at- mosphere a suggestion of fantasy. In the olden days aradala (yellow orpiment) was mixed with coconut oil and smeared over uncovered parts of the body. With the introduction of petr,omax lamps-a whiter shade, with a slight crimson colouring, was substituted. The area of the temples near the eyes is covered with white and outlined with streaks of red. A white ti/ak is painted on the forehead and a black line is- drawn in the middle. The stree-vesha has a red tilak on the forehead. Balagopala, Lava-Kusha, Krishna have no mous- taches.

The main colour for the rakshasa characters is red, green and black. The face is multi-coloured. Rice paste is used to outline the contours and after m any such laye rs, the face begins to have a solid, three-dimen sional effect. The fac e look s even larger when it is framed by a strip of paper, cut into sharp, teeth-like shapes and ti ed behind th e ears .

Those playing the ro les of rishis or purohits are usu- ally simply clad. The clothing f01" all the chara cters is effective; the ornaments are elaborate and dazzling. Special type s of beadgear correspond to the nature of the characters portrayed in the play. Every forei gn student of the theatre who has witnessed Yakshagana plays, has gone into raptures ove r its costume and make-up. It can stand compari son with the best in their Balinese, J avane se or Cambodian counter-parts . Unfortunately decadence slowly set in in the matter of costumes, particularly in the style of clothing worn by female characters. The desire to cater to popul a r taste resulted in their being presented like fashionable ladies of the times. Female figures looked like women on the:

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s treet straying on to the stage from among the crowd. Re- <iesigning appropriate costumes and ornaments for them has

now become an urgent task and I have sought to introduce suitable patterns and colours for the sari and other apparel used by female characters. I have also tried to design a few ornaments to blend with those of the male characters. A

number of early plays have stopped being performed and

the costumes and make-up of characters like Vali, Hanuman Jambava, Nandi and Garuda have been totally or partially

forgotten. I am now making an attempt, with the help of veteran artists, to fill in this gap and introduce improve- ments in this sphere.

There is an enthusiasm for the 'new' and the 'latest' and many troupes have made it a point to stage 'novel and

fenciful plays. But the writers seem to lack talent and shabby musical structures are produced as a result. They do not realize that new types of characters need intricate and well-designed costumes and make-up. Imitating the professional stage of the cinema will not help matters.

To get a clear picture of what Yakshagana is, all one

has to do is to experience its artistic wealth. This rich va- riety cannot be expected of every troupe. Every play can- not fulfil a rigorous standard. Today the aesthetic elements of this theatre have been renounced by those votaries of the bizarre who have no sense of colour or harmony. Even so,

there are a few temple troupes which still retain much of what is best in the old tradition.

The village audiences, who for centuries appreciated and patronised the traditional Yakshagana, now find it stale; their patronage has shifted to those cheap and garrulous

productions that profess to be Yakshagana. Lack of aes- thetic perception has contributed to this state of affairs. In earlier days, traditions were considered sacred and nobody

dared to tamper with a given form. A more sensible go-

vernment or the existence of discerning patrons could have

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helped in the task of preserving Yakshagana as a national :asset. State troupes could have come into existence and

-this heritage (which is now in the hands of commercially- ,

minded individuals and novelty-chasing audiences, who -regard it as a form of escape) would have thus been conser-

ved in its authentic state,