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The Sacred and the Secular --In
India's Performing Arts-- Ananda K. Coomaraswamy Centenary Essays
Edited by Prof. v. Subramaniam
ASHISH PUBLISHING HOUSE NEW DELHI-110027
published by : Shri S.B. Nangia,
for ASHISH PUBLISHING HOUSE: CONTENTS H-12, Rajouri Garden,
New Delhi-l10027.. PART I
1980
@ With the Contributors
Printed at :
National Printers, West Patel Nagar, New Delhi-l 10008
Phone: 582828
I. The Sacred and the Secular: Symbiosis and Synthesis
-Prof. V. Subramaniam
II. Religion as a Bridge between Classical . \. and Folk Art
-Prof. V. Subramaniam , ..
III. The King-God Concept and the Arts -Prof. V. Subramaniam
IV. The Rasa Theory: Theology or Aesthe- tics
-Prof. V.K. Chari
V. The Place of Indian Classical Dance in
Traditional Indian Culture
-Anne-Marie Gaston
VI. Secularism in Yakshagana - Martha B. Ashton
PART II
VII. Bharata Nat yam -Dr. T. Balasaraswati
VIII. The History and the Origin of the
Thumri with Special Reference to Gharanas and Style
-Premlata Sharma
IX. The Evolution of the Thumri -Jaideva Singh
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... 11
... 19
... 47
... 62
... 86
... 98
... 109
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X. The Musical Evolution of the Gazal -Ashok Ranade .
XI. Kootiyattam (A General Survey)
-K. Kunjunni Raja
XU. The Yakshagana of Karnataka -K. Shivram Karanth
Appendix
The Editor's Postscript
. .. 133
... 138
... 151
... 163
... 18l
A NOTE ON OUR CONTRIBUTORS
Prof. V. Subramaniam, the editor is Professor of Politi- cal Science at Carleton University; Ottawa and a classical composer of acknowledged merit. In the last few years, he has done considerable work on cultural sociology and history of which his recent book Cultural Integration in India (Ashish Publishing House) is a good example. For more background information see the dust jacket.
Prof. V.K. Chari, is a Professor of English Literature at Carleton University and has done much work on Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics. He is also an accomplished Katha- kali dancer.
Anne-Marie Gaston (Anjali) recently completed her B. Phil. Thesis at Oxford-from which the present chapter is taken. She is a professional Bharata Nat yam and Odissi dancer of repute with considerable knowledge of Kuchipudi and Kathakali.
Dr. Martha Ashton is a cultural anthropologist who has worked in Karnataka on folk culture. She is also an ac- complished Yakshagana dancer.
Dr. Balasaraswati is the doyen of Bharata Nat yam dancers and one who played an important part in the revival of this ancient art. She is the grand daughter of the legen- dary genius of the Veena, Dhanammal and has taught in Universities in India and the West.
Dr. Premlata Sharma is Reader, Theory and Research College of Music and Fine Arts, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.
Dr. Jaideva Singh, musicologist and authority on Hin- dustani music lives in, D 61/26 F, Vishram Kuti, Siddhagiri
. Bagb, Varanasi.
( vi )
Dr. Ashok Ranade is the Head, University Music Centre, University of Bombay, Dnyandevi Sahitya Sahawas, Bandra (East), Bombay-400051.
Dr. K. Kunjunne Raja is Professor of Sanskrit, Depart- ment of Sanskrit, University of Madras, Chepauk, Triplicane- p.d., Madras-600005.
Dr. K. Shivram Karanth, Like a many-splendoured god from a Yakshagana play Shivram Karanth towers over the world of Kannada letters and art. This renowned novelist, play-wright, educationist and, above all, the man who revived the ancient art of Yakshagana Bayalata was recently honoured with the prestigious Jnanpith Award.
His name is synonymous with Yakshagana, the cen- turies-old folk theatre of Karnataka. But almost all his iIlllovations, such as doing away with the dialogue, have been widely questioned.
He is living in Suhasa, Saligrama P.O., Udipi Taluk. South Kanara, Karnataka State-576225.
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CHAPTER VI
SECULARISM IN Y AKSHAGANA
-Martha B. Ashton
The Yakshagana dance-drama of the, Kanara Coast is considered a religious art form because it relives the c eation and life stories of the Hindu deities as well as episodes revealing their intervention into and effect on the lives of mortals. The dance-drama through Mahabharata, Ramayana and Puranic legends reinforces the theme that Hinduism is all encompassing, that is; that everything in life is in some way related to religion. Therefore, if we want to discuss "secularism" in a Hindu dance-drama we must first be cognizant of the fact that "secularism" is a relatively recent concept in Indian thought. "Secular" is an Anglo-Saxon English word with its root in Latin; and there appear to be no equivalents in any of the Indian languages. Moreover, it seems that the nearest similar term is a combination of Sanskrit words "dharmaniraphekshata" which means "no favoriti sm towards any particular religion." The problem is then that we are attempting to discuss an aspect of the Hindu culture in terms of an English word, the concept of which is not indigenous to the Hindu culture. Accordingly we must be aware then, that whatever is considered "secular"
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from the point of view of one culture is not necessarily -considered so from the points of view of other cultures.
With all this in mind let us consider "secularism" in Yakshagana beginning with a subject that is sure to be .controversial, that of the romances of Lord Krishna. These are described in a collection of 14 songs four or five of which are alternatively sung and danced to as part of the prelimi- nary rituals of each traditional Yakshagana performance. The dance is sensual, yet tastefully performed by two male youths dressed in female attire. The songs suggest that these two can be either wives of Lord Vishnu, or Gopis.
To an outsider the words of this first song appear only as those of a jealous female. It is only if one knows the ' stories of Krishna that all the clues are recognized and the song gains religious significance. E\'en so we do not know if this song is an expression of a jealous wife or a jealous
mistress.
Raga Kalyani Adi Tala
I can't bear this mischief. He is a great adulterer, mother. He is a butter thief and
he is strong in magic. But at the same time
he is very charming. When the ladies are going to fetch water,
he blocks their way and calls them to him. With such small hands he will lift the
big mountains and secretly enjoy the eight ladies.1
The beginning part of this next song suggests that it is only -one wife making known her jealousy of another wife. In the latter lines, however, references to the avatars appear. Yet, only those who are knowledgeable in these legends are able to distinguish that the subject is the God Vishnu, not
an ordinary man being scolded.
Raga Kalyani Rupaka Tala
Oh ! My dear female companion. What am I to do ?' My dear lord has gone to another wife,
to a place where they will enjoy each other. I am feeling so, lonely here. These are the fruits I reap for marrying him. What am I to do ?
Shall I make a house in the water and keep him there ?' Shall I put my burden on him.
Or by some native root shall I cure him of his cruel' ways?
Whom can I tell ? Whom can I ask ? Can I call him a beggar (of love) by nature? Can I give up this jealousy and once again join him? Shall I ever talk to him again or shall I leave him
forever?
Tell me if he has any affection,
he (Parashurama) who has killed his mother; he (Rama) who has monkeys for companions.
What is the use of giving him acivice. How am I to beat this? He is so much taken up with (Satya) Bhama. He has permanently settled there. This great fellow has no shame. What am I to do ?
Shall I get him (Kalki) a horse to ride in the end.2
The third song tells of a husband longing for his beloved wife. Only in one line is the husband's name mentioned and we know that this is a religious song.
Raga Natai Adi Tala
Beautiful lady, rich in her virtues, come and let us enjoy one another.
I am suffering from passion. Come.
I'll embrace you affectionately. Come ! Come ! Come!Come!
Beautiful lady, I am forever thinking of you in my dreams.
Don't break my heart. It's not proper. It's not proper. LIla, I1a, I1a, wife.
Beautiful lady, Guru Venkateshwara is the only protection.
How can you forget him.3 Ta, ta, ta, wife.
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The next song is usually the last song of these particular rituals. It appears to be a song that many a wife probably did and stilI does sing. But it does not give us any indication as to whose wife should get the credit here.
Raga Kalyani Rupaka Tala
Moth~r, I am bidding you goodby. I am leaving for my home. I don't know my destiny. I came here in the hope of staying for ten days
as I was suffering from my mother-in-Iaw's nagging. But can we erase what Brahma has written or
what actions we have done in the previous life ? How can I disobey my husband, shamelessly listening
to others? He is always punishing me by abuses .4
To those who are both knowledgeable and who are devotees- these songs are considered religious. To those who are- neither perhaps these songs could be considered secular?
Let us now turn to the possibilities of secularism in Yakshagana humour. The Yakshagana texts rarely contain.: humour. This is brought about through the folk songs and.-
through the impromptu dialogue which follows the per- formance of songs, poems or explanatory passages of the texts. Although conversation between or among the non- comic characters might be clever and witty the comic mood of the performance mainly depends on the abilities of the clowns.
The clown actors play the roles of sages like Narada and Valmiki, guards, messengers, and servants. One of the most enjoyable roles of the clown is that of being the guard for the Pandavas' Ashwamedha horse in "The Battle of Babhruwahana." The horse roams into the kingdom of Queen Pramila. Pramila's female guards find the clown sleeping instead of watching the horse. Clapping their hands and shouting, the guards try to awake him. But he rolls over and yawns. When he is finally awoken, he notices with delight that he is surrounded by lovely young maidens. He dances to and sometimes sings alongwith the Bhagavata a comic folk-song entitled "Oh, you girl."
Lavani Eka Tala
Oh, you girl ! Who are you? Who came with you? Tell ~e quickly.
Oh, you girl! Clever one, who is your father? Here, show me your face? Married or unmarried ? Tell me quickly.
Oh, you girl! Mara's (God of Love's) flowered arrow is shot. My mind is filled. Lady, I promise you I am telling the truth. I am in a state of emotional frenzy.
. . "Furthermore, you forget everything else . 1 will make you happy. I won't leave you. It's getting dark and I'm getting hungry. "Don't delay, come quickly. Don't you want to come ?5
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-With comic facial movement he flirts with, chases the girls, :and tells how infatuated he is with them.
If the clown is playing the part of the gate-keeper and "must protect his master's kingdom or possessions, he is usually the loser. The clown's weapon is a long stick. The
-victor pulls the clown's arms back and bends them at the ·-elbows. Through the opening caused by the bent elbows "the victor puts the clown's stick and leaves him defeated. -The clown bemoans his situation to the Bhagavata and asks :the Bhagavata to remove the stick.
I~ one scene from The Battle af Abhimanyu, a king's --messenger comes to challenge Arjuna to battle. The clown -playing the role of the messenger created an aura of -nonsense as he entered miming a deformed person and -talking as though he were hare-lipped. Arjuna asked how the had come to this State. The clown replied that when 'his wife was pregnant she craved a liquid sw~eet (payasam) -made from a sour fruit pod (tamarind). He had climbed the tree to get the fruit and had fallen. Arjuna cured him
'with a magic arrow.6
In another scene from The Battle of Abhimanyu Kaurava's -servant comes to announce the arrival of Kaurava's friend, ,the demon Samasaptaka, from Patala. The servant says to Kaurava: "He has come from Patala." Kaurava says: -"Who has come from Patala?" Then the clown runs to -ask Samasaptaka what to tell Kaurava. Samasaptaka beats ·the clown and says, "I have come from Patala." The clown t hen runs to Kaurava and says: "I have come from Patala."
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Kaurava beats the clown, again says: "You have not come- from Patala. Now you go and ask the name of the person who has come." Finally the clown gets the message straight and Kaurava receives his friend. Later on in the same ' sequence Samasaptaka agrees to fight on Kaurava's side ' against the Pandavas. When preparing to give and receive ' the betel leaf and nut as a sign of their contract, Kaurava requests the clown not to make any noise. Pretending he cannot help himself the clown' sneezes, trips on his owm feet and falls on the fioor, then yawns loudly. After each incident the annoyed Kaurava beats him with a handerkerchief. 7
The clown rarely escapes without a beating from his - superior. In The Wedding of Kanakangi, the servant accom- panies Abhimanyu in search of Abhimanyu's mother, Subhadra. When they found Subhadra she was sleeping soundly. The clown says that she must have died, therefore, . they are not able to wake her. As Subhadra awakes, Abhimanyu beats the clown with mango leaves for trying to· fool him .B
The demoness also brings humour with her role. Unlike> the mighty demon who, regardless of his so-called evil nature still commands the fear and respect of the audience, the demoness is known to use any devious means to have' her way. She is famous for her disguises, from beautiful' damsels down to the ugliest old crones. In the dance ' introducing the demoness into the story the actor shows her- completing her daily routine, that is, through mime and to · rhythmic drum beats she brushes her teeth, washes ber hair, . combs her hair with her fingers, kills some lice in the process · and then throws her hair over her shoulders. In a make-- believe mirror she admires herself and puts on her make-up .. After her entrance she asks the singer how she looks. He- teils her that her appearance is ugly and pretends to give her ' a mirror. Looking into the mirror she agrees and says she: will return as a beautiful maiden.
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The following is a sample of the demo ness Shurpanika's <dialogue with the singer. It occurs during Lava and Kusha's .Battles. In this scene she smells human flesh and imagines -herself preparing a banquet. Making snorting sounds she searches and finds the young boys Lava: and Kusha. Remembering that it was their father Rama, who had refused to marry her and their uncle Laksbmana who cut ·off her nose and breast her desire for revenge increased. But first she had to catch them. As the demoness she exits and :another actor in gentle female attire enters.
-Shurpanika (in disguise) says to the singer: Do you know who I am ?
Singer: No.
Sh urpanika : Did a big demoness come here?
Singer: Yes.
Shurpanika: Well, I am she. How do I look?
Singer: You look beautiful.
Shurpanika : I wasn't sure. People were gazing at me all along the way. Let me see a mirror. (The singer pretends to hand her a mirror.) Oh, yes! I am wearing precious jewels, therefore, I am attractive. I have a swing that is going to be a death trap for my victims. I'm going to decorate it with fragrant flowers. It's a magic swing? Did you know that? I'm going to sing with a voice as beautiful as the cuckoo and they will be spellbound by the beauty of my song (and thereby be lured into my swing).9
The outcome of this adventure is that one brother warns the other that this girl must be a demoness. Why? Because she is not singing the raga properly. Nevertheless one brother is charmed into the swing which she takes high' into
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the sky. Her play is spoiled when the other brother shoots. down the swing.
The regioIial flavor of South Kanara is often reflected ' in the dialogue. One ex.ample occurs in the talk of the singer, a character named Chikka and another called_ Kichaka. Prior to Kichaka's entrance, a poor man, Chikka,. played by the clown, discusses his life story with the singer ' and talks about buying bufalloes, preparing them for and . entering them into a particular local race. As far as I know buffalo-racing is unique to South Kanara. After- further chat about buying and selling dried coconuts and alL sorts of local varieties of plantains, Chikka exits . He re-- enters with Kichaka.
Kichaka says that he has not been to visit his sister for some time. He wants to go now and wants Chikka to- accompany him. Chikka asks if Kichaka's sister will prepare him some good food. If so, he will come. Kichaka suggests that she will certainly do so and inquires into · Chikka's desires. Chikka wants among other things chicken rotti which in South Kanara refers to a very hot chicken curry served ever paper-thin crisp-edged rice pancakes-a specialty of the Bant community of this coastal area. He- also wants boiled rice and payasa, a favorite liquid sweet of South India. In time they come near the house of Kichaka's sister. Kichaka instructs Chikka to go and announce their arrival. Chikka who has come in the hope of getting good food is overcome when he sees Kichaka's. sister cooking and forgets his purpose. With his mouth watering he speaks.
Chikka : Amma, (mother) what are you doing?
Sudeshna: I am frying rotti, Chikka.
Chikka : Why have the edges become black, amma ?
S~deshna: The fire has become too hot.
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Chikka : Is it so, amma? Then give it to me. I'll eat it.
He takes it and returns to Kichaka and tells him what has happened. Then Kichaka asks Chikka if he told her that her younger brother Kichaka had come. He sheepisly admitted that he had not, returned to announce Kichaka's arrival and then both entered Sudeshna's house.1o
The dialogue between the singer and Babruwahana's political minister in The Battle of Babhruwahafia is proof on how it must have been in the past when wandering troupes of Yakshagana artists, referred in the dialogue as Dashavatara players, or players of the stories of ten avatars of Vishnu, tried to get people to sponsor their performances_ An excerpt follows:
Minister: How many of you are there?
Singer: We are forty.
Minister: Whose house did you start out to deplete? If this many of you go to one house, how can it survive.
Singer: For our purposes we need this many people.
Minister: From which direction did you come? Didn't you cross a river on the way?
Singer: Yes, we crossed a river. And the boatman there has no sense. He caused one of our group to drown, so we are really less than usual in number.
Minister: All right. Let that be. We will agree to sponsor your performance by giving you four seers of
rice.
Singer: That is not enough rice for this many people.
Minister: We'll give you other things as well. And we'll give you an abundance of salt.
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Singer: Why so much salt?
Minister: If you eat a lot of salt, you will drink a lot and that way your stomachs will become full. ll
Except when the hunter is the God Shiva, perhaps this role also could be considered secular. The hunter's entrance along with his little hunters is always a spectacle. His very colorful costume and unusual headdress, along with a bon- fire and the acrobatics of the little hunters is topped off with some rather appropriate hunters' talk. The dialogue runs along these lines:
,Hunter: In which direction shall we go to-day? In which forest shall we hunt? We're so hungry. What animals and birds do we want to hunt to-day. We' ll take the net and several dogs, knives, spears and bows. Who will go to drive the animals in our direction? (Looking at one boy) Where will you go?
Boy: I will sit on the river bank. When the animals come to drink I'll shoot them.
Another Boy: I will sit in the cashew tree (common in South Kanara). When the animals come to eat the fruit I will shoot them.
Third Boy; There are two hills and a salty stream running. There I will sit and catch the animals.12
Through the above examples I have suggested that even though the concept of secularism was not realized as being .a part of Hindu culture, that is, they did not have a term to express it, nevertheless these examples of dialogue imply that secular situations exist in this Hindu religious dance drama. Perhaps the mystery lies in a word lost or removed from the vocabularies thousands of years ago.
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:!Footnotes to Chapter VI
1. Yakshagana Sabhalakshana and Prasangapithige (Udipi, South ' Kanara, Mysore, India: Pavanje Gururao and Sons, 1968-69, p . 38 (in Kannada). All songs from this work quoted in this paper were translated by Sri mati B. Leela Bhat. Reader and Head of the Department of Kannada, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial College, U dupi.
2. Sabhalakshana, p. 39.
3. Sabhalakshana, pp. 40-41.
4. Sabhalakshana, pp. 39-40.
5. A Kannada folk-song which is traditionally per- formed in The Battle of Babhruwahana. Translated by Srimati B. Leela Bhat.
6. Recorded at a performance of The Battle of Abhimanyu by Kamalashile Troupe, Brahmavara, South Kanara, December 7, 1970. Translated by L. Bhat.
'7. Ibid. .8. Recorded at a performance of The Wedding of
Kanakangi by Perduru Troupe, near Hiriadka. South Kanara, January 8, 1970. Translated by L. Bhat.
9. Recorded at a performance of Lava and Kusha's Battle by Kadiyali Temple Troupe, Udupi, February 20, 1971. Translated by L. Bhat.
.10. Collected by Sri Hiriyadka Gopala Rao, November 1976 and translated by the author. Although this dialogue is known to several performers it has rarely been performed in the last fifty years.
11. Ibid.
12. Collected by Sri Hiriyadka Gopala Rao and trans- lated by Rao and the author. The last two sentences are risque. The two hiIls symbolize a woman's breasts and the salty stream represents her urine.
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