Research Methods in Psychology

Contributions of African-Centered (Africentric) Psychology: A Call for Inclusion in APA-Accredited Graduate Psychology Program Curriculum

Olufunke O. R. Awosogba1, Stacey M. Jackson2, J. Robina Onwong’a3, Kevin O. Cokley4, Andrea Holman5, and Shannon E. McClain6 1 Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center

2 Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin 3 Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, University of Missouri

4 Department of Psychology, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor 5 Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Huston–Tillotson University

6 Department of Psychology, Webster University

Over the past few years, there has been increased visibility of, and attention paid to, enduring issues such as racial discrimination toward Black Americans. Black psychologists have been called upon to explain various race-related mental health issues to the public, as well as their colleagues and students. Discussions about how to heal from persistent, intergenerational, oppressive attacks on the African psyche are important, but the theories and treatments in which most practitioners are trained and considered “best practices” are Eurocentric in nature. African- centered (or Africentric) psychology is a well-established school of thought, predating the philosophies often discussed in Western/American psychology’s History and Systems curric- ulum, that provides an authentic understanding of the psychology of people of African descent from an African perspective. In this article, we present the historical contention about the lack of inclusion of an African perspective in conceptualizing and addressing the psychological needs of people of African descent, provide an overview of African-centered psychology including its underlying worldview and philosophy, development, and key contributors, and advocate for the inclusion of Africentric psychology in APA-accredited psychology graduate programs.

Public Significance Statement We propose that a psychological school of thought in which Black people are understood from a strength-based, healthy perspective should be included in the standard curriculum for APA-accredited graduate programs. We provide an overview of African-centered (or Africentric) psychology as a school of thought with distinguished Black scholars who have contributed to its theory, research, and praxis.

Keywords: African-centered psychology, Africentric psychology, African/Black psychology, graduate curriculum

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Editor’s Note. HelenNeville served as the action editor for this article.—HC

Olufunke O. R. Awosogba https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0620-3912 J. Robina Onwong’a was a doctoral candidate at the Department of

Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, University of Missouri, at the initiation of the research. She is currently at a consulting practice. Olufunke O. R. Awosogba played a lead role in conceptualization

and writing–review and editing and an equal role in writing–original draft. Stacey M. Jackson played an equal role in conceptualization and writing–original draft. J. Robina Onwong’a played a supporting role in

writing–review and editing and an equal role in conceptualization and writing–original draft. Kevin O. Cokley played a supporting role in conceptualization, resources, and writing–review and editing and an equal role in writing–original draft. Andrea Holman played a supporting role in writing–review and editing and an equal role in writing–original draft. Shannon E. McClain played a supporting role in writing–original draft and writing–review and editing. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Olufunke

O. R. Awosogba, Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 1440 Empire Central Drive, Suite LD2.274, Dallas, TX 75247-9044, United States. Email: olufunke. [email protected]

American Psychologist

© 2023 American Psychological Association 2023, Vol. 78, No. 4, 457–468 ISSN: 0003-066X https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001164

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As history demonstrates, increased interest in studying Black people has not typically led to an accurate understand- ing of their psychological experiences and, in several in- stances, has enacted harm through denigration and supporting anti-Black racism. In the classic text entitled, Even the Rat Was White, Black psychologist Guthrie (1976, 2004) details mainstream empirical studies stating that such research “…

not only provided inaccurate data that led to racist conclu- sions, but also called into question the intentions of psycho- logical researchers” (p. 51). For example, early research on intelligence conducted comparative studies of Blacks and Whites for the purpose of finding evidence to support the societal belief that Blacks were intellectually inferior (Guthrie, 2004). Similarly, in his article titled Toward a Black Psychology, White (1970) details the belief held by most psychologists that Blacks were “… culturally deprived and psychologically maladjusted” (p. 45) due to their home envi- ronment. Conclusions from a plethora of psychological stud- ies perpetuated systemic racism in all domains of societal and intellectual functioning (Guthrie, 1976). In Martin Luther King Jr.’s (1968) address to the American

Psychological Association (APA), he advocated for social scientists to end their promotion and perpetuation of structural racism. Black psychologists also challenged the APA leader- ship to correct erroneous and harmful claims of Black inferi- ority. The continual exclusion of and discrimination against African Americans within the APA led African American psychologists to establish the Association of Black Psychol- ogists (ABPsi; see Williams, 2008, for a detailed chronology on the ABPsi).1 These psychologists recognized the Eurocen- tric worldview emphasis in American psychology and advo- cated for culturally relevant psychology that accurately studies the psyche and intra- and interpersonal experiences of African

Americans, as outlined in White’s (1970) famous publication Toward a Black Psychology. Since then, many Black psychologists have theorized,

studied, and engaged in healing practices from an African- centered framework. In fact, there have been several books, chapters, and articles in the psychological literature on African-centered/Africentric/African psychology.2 There- fore, the purpose of this article is not to introduce something new, nor is it to duplicate the illustrative works of scholars who have labored to detail this school of thought. Instead, the authors advocate for the inclusion of African-centered psychology, a school of thought rooted in ancient African philosophy, that accurately provides understanding of peo- ple of African descent. The authors review the development of African-centered psychology in the United States, pres- ent an overview of this school of thought, highlight a few key Africentric psychologists, and present problems with competency in providing care to African-descended indi- viduals given the current state of APA-accredited graduate psychology training programs. Finally, the authors discuss the inclusion of African-centered psychology as an imper- ative step to adhering to APA’s guiding principles and ending structural racism within the field of American psychology.

Overview of African-Centered Psychology

Definition

While African-centered psychology overlaps with Black psychology, it is distinguished by different approaches in conceptualization, research, and praxis for Black people. Grills (2004) presents a comprehensive definition from de- liberations among Africentric psychologists in the African Psychology Institute on defining a psychology from an African framework. African-centered psychology is defined as

the dynamic manifestation of the unifying African principles, values, and traditions. It is the self-conscious centering of psychological analysis and applications in African reality, culture, and epistemology. African-Centered psychology examines the process that allows for the illumination and liberation of the spirit. Relying on the principle of harmony within the universe as a natural order or existence, African- Centered psychology recognizes: the Spirit that permeates everything that is; the notion that everything in the universe is interconnected; the value that the collective is the most salient element of existence; and the idea the communal self-knowledge is the key to mental health. African- Centered Psychology is ultimately concerned with the systems of

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Olufunke O. R. Awosogba

1 Authors use Black Americans and African Americans as two distinct classifications—the former as a race, including Africans across the diaspora who also claim American nationality and the latter as an ethnic/cultural group. Specifically, African American is referred to as persons whose ancestors were enslaved Africans in the United States and who have collectively established a shared culture.

2 In this article, authors use African-centered, Africentric, and African/ Black psychology(ist) interchangeably.

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human beingness, the features of human functioning, and the restoration of normal/natural order to human development. (African Psychology Institute, 1995, as cited by Grills, 2002, p. 172)

Next, African worldview and philosophy are first outlined as a backdrop to the later development of African-centered psychology.

African Worldview and Philosophy

The way we experience and interpret internal and external phenomena is culture-bound. Worldview is the substratum of all systems that govern our way of being with self, others, and the environment. Kambon (1998) identifies worldview sys- tems as a philosophical infrastructure of cultural beliefs and behaviors pertaining to a collective group. Those philosoph- ical structures are cosmology (how is reality structured), ontology (how to understand the basis of reality), epistemol- ogy (ways of knowing), and axiology (the value ascribed to interpersonal and human–nature relations). According to an African-centered framework, reality is structured by interdependence, collectivism, and human–nature oneness. The basis of reality (i.e., nature, existence, and the universe) is understood through a spiritual lens; affective–cognitive synthesis is the way of knowing what is; and significant value is placed on connectedness and harmony, interpersonally and with nature (Chapman-Hilliard et al., 2017). African- centered psychologists advocate that African-centered psy- chology be “rooted in worldview components that allow for the behavioral, mental, and spiritual tendencies of African people to be best understood in relation to African philo- sophical thought” (Cokley & Garba, 2018, p. 709). As such, Africentric theory and methodology are rooted in an African worldview that reflects culturally based constructs that

inform the conceptualization of the lived experiences of people of African descent (Jamison, 2018). African philosophy has been described as “the under-

standing, attitude of mind, logic, and perception behind the manner in which African peoples think, act, or speak in different situations of life” (Mbiti, 1990, p. 2) as cited in. African-centered psychologists have been diligent to emphasize that African philosophy did not begin in the late 1960s (Akbar, 1994; Grills, 2004; Kambon, 1998) in response to racialized science when the ABPsi was formed. Origins of African philosophy trace as far back as 3200– 6000 BCE in ancient Kemet (Egypt; Azibo, 1996; Kambon, 1998) and predate Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle who constitute the foundation of Western/American psychology. African-centered theory, methodology, and praxis are based on traditional African philosophy. It is important to acknowledge the heterogene- ity among the thousands of cultural groups across the many nations on the continent with distinct ways of knowing and being. African worldview and philosophy presented here and throughout the literature emphasize unity among different African ethnocultural groups. Therefore, the Afri- centric perspective is not specific to any singular African ethnocultural group but encompasses unifying aspects of worldview across multiple African ethnocultural groups (Grills, 2002).

Development of African-Centered Psychology

Akbar (1994) asserted that while the beginning of psychol- ogy as a discipline and the study of the mind is often linked back to European philosophy, the Greek term psyche is a derivative of the ancient African idea of Sakhu, which des- ignates spirit as the basis of all that is known and knowable. Although the psychological study of African-descended peo- ple can be traced back to ancient Kemet (3400–600 BCE), it is noted that within the United States, African-centered psychol- ogy is a recent field of study (Belgrave & Allison, 2019). The intellectual origins of African-centered psychology can be traced to the early 1970s, where Black psychology graduate students were heavily influenced by Black psychologists at Stanford University, specifically Dr. Syed Khatib and Dr. Philip McGee (Hilliard, 2006), as well as Black economist Vernon Dixon’s theory on worldview differences and their impact on research methodologies in social sciences (Carroll, 2010). During the height of the civil rights movement, Black psychologists began to publish works regarding establishing a psychology for Black people. Black psychology brought to light the need for Western/

American psychology to acknowledge that there is no “universal psychiatric reality in terms of psychological knowledge and practice” (Grills et al., 2018, p. 797). Black psychology as a discipline has been centered around the culturally relevant conceptualization of the African

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American experience. Black scholars assert that “Black/ African psychology has been relentless and steadfast in articulating a different psychology from the excesses of an individualistic, empirical, ‘objective,’ and ultimately deficit-oriented psychology that has historically character- ized Eurocentric psychological approaches to Black people” (Cokley & Garba, 2018, p. 713). While the goal of Black liberation and advancement were the same, the approach to understanding the cognitive processes and behavior of African Americans diverged. Some Black psychologists’ works sought to articulate theories about Black people in the context of oppression in a racialized society, while other Black psychologists focused on understanding Black people based on a worldview that is historically and culturally their own. African-centered scholar and theorist, Karenga (2010),

identified three schools of thought in Black psychology: (a) traditional, (b) reformist, and (c) radical. Traditionalists recognize the need for a change in the attitudes pertaining to the psychological assessment of African descent people but continue to use Eurocentric methodology. Reformists seek to implement change through the combination of Black psychology and traditional Eurocentric methods of analysis. Unlike other Black psychologists, radicalists (African-cen- tered/Africentric psychologists) contend that an emic approach is necessary to study African-descended people. That is, African-centered psychology is solely concerned with the study of people in the African diaspora through the lens of an African worldview. Theory, methodology, and praxis have been developed within the context of African culture. For African-centered psychologists, the foundation of Black psychology is African philosophy. In other words, Africentric psychology is Black psychology, which is often designated as African/Black psychology.

Key Contributors to African-Centered Psychology

First, in honor of African tradition, the authors give homage to our scholastic ancestors who have laid the foun- dation for African-centered psychology such as Asa Hilliard and Kobi Kazembe Kalongi Kambon (formerly known as Joseph A. Baldwin). In this section, we highlight a few key contributors to African-centered psychologywho have devel- oped and continue to expound its theoretical framework and methodological and healing approaches. Notably, Drs. Na’im Akbar (1987–1988), Linda JamesMyers (1990–1991), Wade Nobles (1994–1995), and Cheryl Tawede Grills (2013) have served as president of the ABPsi (terms parenthesized) and as Elders, who are considered respected historians and holders of scholarly knowledge of African/Black psychology. Although this is not an exhaustive list of African-centered psychologists who have articulated the essence, nature, and importance of Africentric psychology in the liberation of African-descended people, Africentric psychologists featured here reflect the breadth of African-centered psychology over its development in theory, research, and praxis.

Na’im Akbar

Dr. Na’im Akbar is one of the earliest proponents of an African-centered psychology. Dr. Akbar focused much of his career on articulating the foundations of African-centered psychology and has arguably been the most effective com- municator of African-centered psychology. A gifted orator, he has spoken on numerous college campuses across the country. Recognizing the importance of having intellectual freedom that was unencumbered by Eurocentric hegemonic thought, Dr. Akbar was the founder and owner of Mind Productions & Associates, a self-publishing and media pro- duction company. It was through this company that Dr. Akbar published several of his books that became popular and essential reading for individuals wanting an accessible description and application of African-centered psychology. These books included Chains and Images of Psychological Slavery (Akbar, 1984), The Community of Self (Akbar, 1985), Breaking the Chains of Psychological Slavery (Akbar, 1996), andAkbarPapers inAfricanPsychology (Akbar, 2004), among many others. Trained as a clinical psychologist at the University of

Michigan, Dr. Akbar was especially interested in an African-centered conception of mental health and mental illness. Among his many notable contributions, we focus on one of his most significant articles. In his article, “Mental Disorder Among African Americans” (Akbar, 1981), Dr. Akbar was concerned with social scientists’ preoccupation with emotional disturbance and poor mental health status of African Americans. His primary concern related to mental health practitioners’ limited conception of mental health, in which concepts of normal and abnormal behavior were determined by the degree to which behavior approximated

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or deviated from the behavior of White people. Dr. Akbar believed that what constituted the normal functioning of a human being was sociopolitically determined, a process that he characterized as “democratic sanity.” He argued that this democratic sanity prevented social scientists from raising questions about the mental competence of people who would enslave nonhostile people as cattle. Dr. Akbar was also critical of African American scholars

whose conceptualizations of African American mental health mimicked that of European American scholars (e.g., Grier & Cobbs, 1968). From an African-centered perspective, Dr. Akbar believed that mental illness should be defined as any behavior or ideas that threaten the survival of the group or collective self. Consequently, Dr. Akbar developed an African-centered classification of mental disorders among African Americans. These disorders consisted of the follow- ing: (a) alien-self disorder, (b) antiself disorder, (c) self- destructive disorder, and (d) organic disorders. Alien-self disorder is characterized by behaving in ways

that are contrary to the “natural dispositions” and survival of African Americans. These individuals are preoccupied with materialism and socialized to ignore issues pertaining to race and oppression. Antiself disorder is characterized by an overt hostility and negativity toward other African Americans. These individuals engage in behaviors that are detrimental to the survival and well-being of African Americans (e.g., Black politicians who betray the interests of their constitu- ents) and are considered to be more severe cases of mental illness than alien-self disorder. Self-destructive disorder is characterized by self-defeating attempts to survive in a systemically unjust and racist society. These individuals engage in behaviors that are harmful to the Black community (e.g., harming Black people through so-called “Black on Black violence,” selling drugs, exploiting women). Organic

disorders represent instances of physiological, neurological, or biochemical malfunction. These individuals suffer from severe mental illness (e.g., schizophrenia), which Dr. Akbar believes involves some contribution from the challenges of the social environment.

Linda James Myers

Dr. Linda James Myers is one of the most well-known Africentric psychologists who has not only guided the applica- tion of African-centered theory to healing practice, but she has also offered a strengths-based perspective that has shaped the discipline of Positive Psychology, particularly Africentric psy- chology in the form of theory of optimal psychology. A renowned psychologist, Dr. Myers earned her doctoral degree in clinical psychology from theOhio State University where she is currently professor emeritus in both their Department of African American and African Studies and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health. Dr. Myers is credited for developing an Africentric theoretical and healing approach— optimal conceptual theory (OCT) and belief systems analysis (BSA), respectively. Additionally, Dr. Myers and colleagues developed the Belief Systems Analysis Scale (BSAS; Myers et al., 1996) to assess a person’s commitment to an Afrocentric worldview (i.e., optimal worldview) and belief system. This section outlines Dr. Myers’ theoretical and healing approaches, OCT and BSA. OCT (Myers, 1988) is an integrative theory of human

development that accounts for the cultural, spiritual, physio- logical, and historical context and connection to Africa. Dr. Myers draws from the wisdom tradition of African deep thought from ancient civilizations (e.g., Kemet, Bantu- Congo) to contemporary times. Deep thought is a technique used to draw on wisdom from ancestors through reflecting on history of African people and cultural artifacts. One goal of deep thought is to quiet negative thoughts and debunk internalized pernicious stereotypes. OCT posits that self- knowledge is the basis of all knowledge, and it provides a framework for us to shift and elevate human consciousness and in turn cultivate positive human development through relational and functional capacities and influencing self- healing and sustainable global well-being among all people. This optimal psychology framework offers a holistic per- spective and healing support to anyone who has experienced inequity and, in particular, to people of African descent given that its foundation is traditional African deep thought. In conjunction with OCT, Dr. Myers (1988) developed

BSA, an African-centered psychoeducational and psycho- therapeutic approach. The goal is wellness and balance restoration for individuals mentally and spiritually harmed by psychological oppression of an incompatible, suboptimal worldview (ABPsi, 2021b; Myers, 1988). BSA details the process of movement from a suboptimal worldview to an optimal worldview and offers concepts for praxis. From a

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suboptimal worldview, one has a low level of awareness of their spiritual essence. Because of European terrorism on the African mind, one’s human worth and reality are primarily based on external criteria (i.e., materialism). In contrast, the optimal worldview values qualities such as spiritness, inter- relatedness, and wholeness. For example, a study examining depressive symptoms in Black American young adults showed that those who held a stronger Africentric worldview experienced fewer depressive symptoms during high stress levels compared to those who held less of an Africentric worldview (Neblett et al., 2010). Black psychologists recog- nize that an African worldview provides a positive frame- work to perceive challenges as useful events and growth opportunities rather than stressful (Fine et al., 1985; Jackson & Sears, 1992; Myers et al., 1996). Dr. Myers developed her conceptualization of the optimal worldview by examining how African ancestors navigated life, which has sustained African people through colonization, enslave- ment, systemic oppression, and current societal challenges (Association of Black Psychologists, 2021b). From an optimal worldview, reality is viewed as spiritually constructed (i.e., energy, mind, consciousness) and guided by a divine life force (i.e., spirit) that is within each human being (Myers et al., 1991). According toMyers (1988), this perspective is the basis of the optimization process detailed in the following six BSA concepts: (a) self-knowledge, (b) extended self-identity, (c) holistic worldview (e.g., interrelatedness and interdepen- dence of all living people and things), (d) intrinsic self-worth, (e) diunital logic (i.e., both/and thinking), and (f) sustainable spiritual development. Clinicians have been providing culturally relevant inter-

ventions and prevention services for Black Americans using OCT and BSA. For over 20 years, the Minority Behavioral Health Group in Akron, Ohio, has trained clinicians in OCT

and BSA principles. Dr. Myers prescribes that prior to implementing OCT/BSA, practitioners must truly believe in its principles and engage in personal work such as exam- ining their worldview, assumptions, beliefs, and values (Myers et al., 2018). BSA is implemented in therapy in three phases: (a) assess the client’s worldview (i.e., optimal or suboptimal), (b) introduce to optimal worldview and discuss its relationship to the client’s experiences, and (c) assess clinical progress and effectiveness of process. Success with BSA looks like a client having increased awareness of their “identity as a manifestation of Divine Spirit with intrinsic self-worth and a connection to others and their community” (Myers et al., 2018, p. 754). A few researchers have articulated OCT in a lens beyond

race and gender through dance narratives about colorism (Rhodes, 2019) and case conceptualizations of Black lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning or queer clients (Vance et al., 2022). Others have used OCT’s seminal tenets and broadened its application to address how spirituality impacts health within a cultural framework inclusive of sexual and gender minority people (OCT-SGM; Lassiter & Mims, 2022). Scientists and practitioners who seek to support Black people’s holistic well-being are encouraged to explore the culturally distinct aspects of Africentric healing practices to be able to adequately serve their needs, accounting for the influence of intersectional identities, within a society that is systemically intent on marginalizing people of African descent.

Wade Nobles

Dr. Wade Nobles’ precocity as an African-centered scholar was demonstrated early as a student when he published what would become an influential essay on African philosophy and Black psychology. Fast forward over half a century later, and Dr. Nobles has established himself as the preeminent theorist of African-centered psychology. Dr. Nobles’ scholarship is notable for its depth, breadth, and analytical rigor. Perhaps owing in part to his training as an experimental social psy- chologist at Stanford University, Dr. Nobles’ insights into the limitations ofWestern psychologymotivated and informed his pursuit to develop independent thought from “White” psy- chology and European hegemony. Throughout the course of his distinguished career, Dr. Nobles has sought to deconstruct Western psychology by challenging its hegemonic assump- tions of universalism and objectivity (Grills, 2006). Dr. Nobles has published many influential scholarly works

that are foundational in African-centered psychology. Space limitations prevent us from doing justice in comprehensively reviewing his scholarship. We briefly review two of his scholarly works that we consider to be especially significant readings inAfrican-centered psychology. In his seminal essay, “African Philosophy: Foundation for Black Psychology,” Dr. Nobles (1972) starts with the premise that Black

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psychology is more than the effects of racism on Black life in White America. He argues that the psychology of Black people cannot be reduced to their oppressive living condi- tions (e.g., ghettoes) and is more than the impact of the dehumanizing condition of slavery. Or, as he bluntly puts it, it is more than the “darker dimension of general psychology” (Nobles, 1972, p. 18). Rather than focus on the negative, reactionary aspects of being Black in White America (i.e., constantly reacting to racism and oppression), Dr. Nobles focuses on the positive aspects of being Black, which he believed derived from basic features of African philosophy. Like the ways European philosophy contributed to European/ White psychology, Dr. Nobles (1972) believes that African philosophy contributes to African/Black psychology. Central to his description of African philosophy is ethos, which he characterizes as a “spiritual disposition” and “collective consciousness.” He notes that ethos cannot be scientifically or empirically examined with current methodology, which is why an understanding of African philosophy is important.3

Concepts that are important in African philosophy include the inseparability of spirituality and philosophy (e.g., spiri- tuality permeates every aspect of the lives of African people), the notion of unity of all living things (i.e., oneness with nature), a past and present conception of time (notably no future conception of time), the special significance of death and immortality, and kinship and collective unity (e.g., survival of the tribe). Dr. Nobles believes that these, and other, concepts in African philosophy serve as the foundation for understanding African/Black psychology. In defining an African/Black psychology, one of Dr.

Nobles’ (1976) most important theoretical contributions was the idea of the extended self. Dr. Nobles believes that Western psychology had been used as a tool of oppression and domination and has engaged in the act of scientific

colonialism. His idea of the extended self was in response to scientific investigations of the so-called “Negro” self- concept that conceptualized Black people from a European worldview that emphasizes individuality, uniqueness, and difference. Dr. Nobles argued that an accurate and more culturally responsive conceptualization of the African/Black self-concept must be grounded in an African worldview that emphasizes groupness, sameness, and commonality. Dr. Nobles then argues that the logical recognition of the Afri- can/Black self-concept is an extended self that emphasizes the WE over the I. This idea of the extended self is best reflected in the African expression, “I am because we are and because we are therefore, I am” (Mbiti, 1990, p. 106). The idea of the extended self has methodological implications for conduct- ing research on popular psychological topics such as self- esteem and self-concept and has implications for clinical practice. The work of Dr. Nobles “challenges us to stretch beyond the confines of our cerebral training in the Western tradition of knowledge production” (Grills, 2006, p. 364).

Cheryl Tawede Grills

Scholar, leader, and healer Dr. Cheryl T. Grills is an African-centered psychologist who has been instrumental in synthesizing the philosophical works on African worldview among Black/African/Africana Studies scholars, anthropolo- gists, Egyptologists, historians, psychologists, and other social scientists (Carroll, 2010). Beyond her collegiate education in Psychology and Afro American Studies at Yale University and later training as a clinical psychologist at the University of California, Los Angeles, Dr. Grills’ breadth and depth of knowledge on African philosophy, worldview, and cultural traditions spans across decades of scholastic inquiry and experiential immersion including “sitting at the feet” of cul- tural historians and traditional medical practitioners in West African countries (e.g., Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal). Dr. Grills (2002) advocates for the clinical practitioner to

gain competence in the African-centered psychology theoreti- cal framework to effectively work with people of African descent. In discussions about counseling persons of African descent, Dr. Grills details some basic principles of African- centered psychology and recommends that African-centered psychologists “must create a nosology and glossary of terms that synthesize and reflect African constructs, models, assump- tions, and practices” (p. 19). Recognizing that psychology is culturally bound, African-centered practitioners contend for an emic approach using African worldview and philosophy as the lens through which to examine and interpret all aspects of being and functioning for African-descended people. It is based on this perspective that what constitutes wellness in

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3 As a side note, the fact that ethos cannot be scientifically or empirically examined is not a foreign idea in Western psychology considering how Freud’s ideas of the unconscious continue to animate psychoanalytic and psychodynamic therapeutic approaches.

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contrast to disorder can be accurately assessed and treated. Unlike Western psychology’s departure from its origin in religion and philosophy toward empiricism, spiritness is emphasized as central to African-centered psychology. Dr. Grills (2002) refers to the term spiritness to encapsulate the notion that our humanity is as spirit beings (immaterial and immortal) living in an earthen vessel (i.e., the body; material and mortal), and this tenet is the healer’s (or therapist’s) guide to understanding and working with their clients. Later, in a provocative dialogue among Black psycholo-

gists about the state and direction of Black psychology, Dr. Grills (2004) asserted the relevance of African-centered psychology in contemporary times. After explaining central constructs (i.e., the virtues of Ma’at, the Maafa, veneration of the person, spiritness, human authenticity, inclusive metaphysical epistemology, dynamic interdependence of community, and the principle of Sankofa) and fundamental psychological concepts of human beingness (knowledge or concept of self) and consciousness from an Africentric perspective, she contended that African-centered psychology is pertinent for (a) the retention of an African perspective on mental health for African-descended people, (b) Black Amer- icans to stay to true to the essence of who they are as African descendants, (c) its ability to liberate the African psyche from the psychological aftermath of the Maafa (or “great disaster” of the enslavement of African people), and (d) matters across time, space (seen and unseen), incomprehensible through human logic. Dr. Grills has also made methodological contributions to

African-centered psychology with instrument development. The Africentrism Scale (Grills & Longshore, 1996) assesses the extent that people of African descent subscribe to the seven principles of Nguzo Saba—Umoja (unity), Kujicha- gulia (self-determination), Ujima (collective work/responsi- bility), Ujamaa (cooperative economics), Nia (purpose), Kuumba (creativity), and Imani (faith)—for healthy living. For more information on the Africentrism Scale, BSAS, and other African-centered instruments, see Utsey, Belvet, and Fisher’s chapter, Assessing African-Centered (Africentric) Psychological Constructs, in Neville et al. (2008). Further- more, with an emphasis on community psychology, Dr. Grills created community interventions focused on healing people of African descent from various assaults on the African spirit such as racial trauma and substance addiction. Dr. Grills further demonstrates her commitment to African- centered psychology and the healing of African-descended people through her long-standing involvement in the collab- oration between the Community Healing Network and the ABPsi in developing Emotional Emancipation Circles (EEC) and leading the Global EEC Training Team. EEC is an Africentric community healing intervention, described as “… safe spaces where Black people can work together to overcome and overturn the lie of Black inferiority” (Grills et al., 2016, p. 338).

The distinguished African-centered scholars highlighted here have contributed to the development of a psychology embedded in an African worldview and ancient African philosophy. The full breadth and depth of African-centered psychology and its seminal contributors are beyond the scope of this article and instead would be more appropriately studied within a course. Next, we revisit Martin Luther King, Jr.’s call to the APA to not only end its perpetuation of racism but to also rectify the culturally biased errors about Black people for context in discussing the current health service psychology (HSP) curriculum. As such, we also discuss the APA’s formal acknowledgment of their wrong, proposal for correction, and the ABPsi’s response.

APA Accreditation for Graduate Training in Health Service Psychology

In September 1976, Martin Luther King Jr.’s address to the APA preceded a transformation within the field of American psychology; within the years that followed his address, racial–ethnic caucuses were formed, and new independent ethnic organizations emerged, such as the ABPsi (Grills, 2013). Dr. King asserted:

Negroes today are experiencing an inner transformation that is liberat- ing them from ideological dependence on the white majority. What has penetrated substantially all strata of Negro life is the revolutionary idea that the philosophy and morals of the dominant white society are not holy or sacred but in all too many respects are degenerate and profane. (King, 1968, pp. 8–9)

Over 40 years later, at the turn of a new decade, publicized murders of Black people at the hands of police in 2020 unearthed the need to address historical and contemporary terrorism against Black lives in this country and its long- standing and ubiquitous impact. Similarly, it uncovered deep wounds from Western/American psychology’s involvement in promoting and perpetuating the devaluing of Black lives. The American Psychological Association (APA, 2021) issued a public apology to communities of color for contributing to systemic inequities and scientific racism to protect Whiteness, White people, andWhite epistemology, “thereby falling short on its mission to benefit society and improve lives” (p. 1). In particular, the APA revealed the contentious divorce between many American psychologists from the APA, in part, because of the Eurocentric worldview embedded in Western/Ameri- can psychology. The ABPsi was founded in 1968 in opposi- tion to the practices and ideology of APA, seeking to effect change in areas in which APA had fallen short, including improving the training of psychologists who seek to work with racially minoritized people (Grills, 2013). Yet, despite these critiques and calls for a less hegemonic psychology, absent from APA-approved graduate psychology training has been the inclusivity of an Africentric perspective to under- stand, study, and appropriately care for Black Americans.

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The American Psychological Association Commission on Accreditation is recognized by the U.S. Department of Edu- cation and the Council of Higher Education Accreditation as the official accrediting body for professional education and training in psychology (APA, n.d.). The Standards of Accred- itation for HSP espouse that the process intends to promote consistently high-quality education and training excellence. HSP is defined as “the integration of psychological science and practice in order to facilitate human development and functioning” (APA, 2015, p. 2). A professional guiding prin- ciple of the accreditation standards is a commitment to cultural and individual differences and diversity. Moreover, one of the stated missions of the APA’s Board of Educational Affairs is to “ensure the importance and commitment to diversity in education and training in all of its activities and initiatives” (APA, 2022, Mission and Purpose section). Although curriculum taught in HSP graduate programs

includes content related to multicultural/cross-cultural psy- chology, there is typically no exposure to African-centered psychology in graduate programs’ training curriculum.When psychologists learn theories of personality or histories and systems that influence our understanding of psychology, it is from a Eurocentric perspective. Africentric psychology was borne out of a recognition that the worldview inherent in American (i.e., Eurocentric) psychology was failing to accu- rately represent the values, beliefs, and behaviors (i.e., worldview) of Black people. African-centered psychology contains innovative theories that “accurately reflect and honor the spirit of African agency and scholarship” (Cokley & Garba, 2018, p. 709) and aid psychologists in addressing the needs of people of African descent. This lack of exposure in the training of psychologists in this country contributes to a misrepresentation of the African mind and spirit and precludes knowledge of diverse worldviews about the human “being” and behavior. Black psychologists are also indoctrinated into a Eurocentric culture-bound philoso- phy about wellness and illness. This is problematic because it promotes menticide—the mental, spiritual, and cultural anni- hilation of a people—and prohibits the healing and liberation of African people (Kambon, 1998). It must be acknowledged that the ABPsi’s response

(ABPsi, 2021a) to the APA’s public apology to communities of color was strongly critical. Among its criticisms, the ABPsi (2021a) acknowledged the many proposed resolu- tions to combat racism and oppression within the organiza- tion as “idealistic” given its history of racism and oppression and its failure to appropriately address issues such as the domination of “White psychology curriculums” in under- graduate and graduate psychology programs and the reality that Black students and professionals continue to be under- represented within our discipline. They state that in failing to acknowledge and promote change in areas where Black people are harmed by the APA’s practices, “APA’s endeavor to be anti-racist misses the mark” (p. 2).

The authors challenge the APA to live up to its ideals and for scholars trained in Western/American psychology to step outside their own ethnocentrism and consider a psychology of Black people grounded in African cosmology, axiology, ontology, and epistemology, and include African-centered psychology in HSP curriculum. To do so will better serve people of African descent while also aiding in critical reflec- tion and awareness of the philosophy and values inherent in mainstream American psychology. To ignore Africentric perspectives would leave the profession vulnerable to per- petuate erroneous conceptualization, examination, and treat- ment of Black persons, contributing to mental health inequity for Black Americans.

Discussion

In the previous pages, we outlined a movement to establish a psychology that accurately understands the ethos of African-descended people. The purpose of African-centered psychology, as highlighted in the mission of the ABPsi, is “the liberation of the African mind, empowerment of the African character, and enlivenment and illumination of the African spirit” (Association of Black Psychologists, 2023, Mission and Vision section). We outlined African worldview and philosophy from which African-centered psychology evolved, its development, and key contributors to its theory, methodology, and clinical praxis. A strained relationship exists between the APA and the ABPsi grounded in the APA’s lack of appreciation for organizational and philosoph- ical differences. TheAPA issued a formal apology to people of color 53 years after several Black psychologists severed their affiliation with the APA due to the organization’s contradic- tory actions to its guiding principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, and respect for people’s rights and dignity (APA, 2021). The apology included resolutions to rectify the wrongs that continue to persist within the organization and the discipline, one of which was the rejection of hegemonic science and the promotion of culturally sensitive training. More specifi- cally, the APA affirmed that they will “improve psychology graduate education and training to include diverse, non- Western cultural perspective” (APA, 2021, p. 4). The trans- gression of omission remains for APA-accredited HSP graduate programs. Many institutions and organizations across the country,

including APA, are more aware of the importance of pro- moting diversity, equity, and inclusion, but we contest that awareness is not sufficient for meaningful and long-term change. Awareness must be followed up by continuous action to cause a shift in cultural norms. For instance, current standard HSP graduate curriculum must be examined for its effectiveness in holistically conceptualizing, studying, and promoting wellness of Black Americans. Leaders in APA, many of which are also leaders in the academy, must model

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cultural humility, intentionally work to overcome barriers to allyship, and advocate against bias and exclusion. This begins with recognition of one’s own privilege and bias, and it continues with a consideration of how research and graduate school curricula contribute to the betterment of Black Americans (Sue, 2017). Given the history of exclusion of African-centered psychology in graduate psychology training, it also stands to reason that intentional inclusion of notable Africentric psychologists such as those outlined in this article is a critical first step in promoting diversity and inclusion within these programs. Psychology graduate stu- dents are not exposed to these theories in their didactic or clinical training, which misrepresents the diversity of seminal scholarship within the field of psychology and perpetuates an unfortunate paucity of cultural competence in assessing, understanding, and caring for people of African descent. Inclusion of Africentric psychologists will also serve to

better equip future researchers and practitioners with a more strength-based, holistic understanding of people of African descent. Exposure to diverse theories and schools of thought could help promote critical thinking skills and broaden their understanding of psychology (Pascarella et al., 2014). While inclusion is an essential first step, it should be noted that it is not the only step. Graduate students must also be exposed to prominent Africentric contributors to psychology in such a way that leaves them with the understanding that African-centered psychology is as equally important and reputable a school of thought as other schools of thought in the HSP curriculum. The strengths and benefits of this perspective should be intentionally affirmed throughout mul- tiple graduate courses, and not compartmentalized to a singular multicultural course. For example, tenets of Afri- centric psychology could be included in courses such as counseling theories; inclusion in this foundational course would affirm to students that this theory should be taken as seriously as the traditional Eurocentric schools of thought currently standard in the curriculum. History and Systems, another common course in psychology graduate programs, could also include this school of thought (as well as the history of its exclusion from psychological education) so that graduate students are aware of the ways in which it has influenced their present understanding of psychology. African-centered psychology provides a path for African

descent people to be authors of their own destiny and at the center of their own analysis grounded in a culturally congru- ent worldview (Asante, 2003). It appropriately contextualizes wellness and illness of African descent people within African philosophy and worldview. An African-centered perspective focuses on that which mainstream psychology in the United States avoids, such as its ontological focus on spiritedness and its epistemological focus on affective–cognitive synthe- sis. The Eurocentric worldview has historically resulted in emphasizing objectification as the only method of scholastic inquiry and quantification as the only accepted measure of

reality (Nobles, 1986). Grills proposes, “to truly embrace an African-centered approach, clinicians must be willing to make a shift in the lens through which the world is seen, how reality is defined, and how human behavior is under- stood” (2002, p. 10). African-centered psychology offers the scientist–practitioner the opportunity to move beyond the intellectual and conceptual status quo and instead, intellec- tually stretch to spark innovation. Otherwise, when studying people of African descent, we may merely “Blackenize” existingmodels, giving the false appearance of being relevant to Black populations when this may not be the case (Baldwin, 1989). Black scholars have contended that psychology is culturally based and if scientists and practitioners are to study, understand, and heal a people of psychological trauma, it cannot come from the same system that created and supported their oppression (White, 1970).

Conclusion

African-centered (Africentric) psychology provides per- spectives germane to conceptualizing and addressing the mental health needs of African descent people. We conclude by reiterating recommendations from Black scholars for using African psychology: (a) know the history of African people before Maafa and encourage Sankofa (self-knowledge grounded in historical and contemporary experiences); (b) use strength-based models that prioritize relationships and interconnectedness; and (c) redefine your role as a healer, social advocate, and liberator (Chapman-Hilliard et al., 2017). It is important to consume literature of African people and healing practices rooted in a philosophy developed by the very people that it was designed to heal. Moreover, diversity must extend beyond having psychologists of varied social identities that reflect a continuously diverse society to include learning multiple theoretical orientations based on different cultural worldviews. Therefore, we recommend amore comprehensive psychology didactic and clinical curriculum for Western/ American psychology that includes Africentric psychology.

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Received February 7, 2022 Revision received February 6, 2023

Accepted March 7, 2023 ▪

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