History

130Sixties.pdf

STUDY GUIDE: “THE SIXTIES” Using this study guide The following document has all of the terms, quotes, lists, and ideas contained in the most recent powerpoint presentation (note: I change these frequently so some variations may exist). As a result, you should not feel that you need to copy any of this information while in class. The following questions are addressed in this section of the lecture. You should be able to answer these questions by the end of this section. If you can’t, see me during my office hours or talk with your seminar leader:

Questions Addressed in the Lectures that will help you to prepare for the exam:

• What are the differences between the image and reality of the 1960s? How does JFK’ s career mirror these differences?

• Is JFK a Hawk or Dove towards the Cold War? Is there plausible evidence that he intended to end our involvement in the Cold War? If there was not a shooting war in Viet Nam, would the US have ended up in such a conflict somewhere else? Evidence?

• Why is Viet Nam America’ s longest war? Why does it become our war? Why could good people come to such completely different views on such a single issue? Why does the war at home become more destructive to the U.S. that the war in S.E. Asia? How does LBJ and then Nixon respond to the conflict?

• What does the Great Society promise America? What external pressures forced LBJ to respond to circumstances? What were the political consequences of Johnson’ s decisions?

Sample Exam Questions from Previous Exams:

• What are “the Sixties”? Based on your definition, what events box in the era (when do the sixties start, when do they end, why)? According to this view, do you think Kennedy, Johnson, or Nixon is the best example of a “60s President” ? What policies support your opinion?

• What is the Great Society? What policies are enacted and what forces are these bills responding to? Does the “war on poverty” suceed or fail? Defend your answer.

• What does Viet Nam mean to the United States? Be sure to use specific terms for specific people in this country. Why is there such disagreement over Viet Nam in the United States? In your opinion, are we beyond the Viet Nam Syndrome? Why or why not?

• In class I suggested that the legacy of John Kennedy is largely a conservative one: little social legislation and an increase in Cold War commitments. Defend Kennedy by suggesting ways in which he and his administration fundamentally changed the ways

that Americans viewed themselves, their role in the world, and the role of the United States in world affairs. In your opinion, could/can the U.S. meet these goals?

• In class, I argued that 1968 was a turning point in modern American history. (a) Focusing on events that led up to 1968, describe why was this so. Be sure to indicate the social, political, economic, and international pressures that affected the United States from 1945 to 1968. (b) What event(s) led to the crisis in confidence experienced by most Americans by 1968? ? How did these effectively undermine the belief, at that time, that the US was a unified country with sound international principles?

Selected Terms:

• “The Sixties” • JFK • “New Frontier” • Bay of Pigs (1961) • Missile Crisis (1962) • Assassination (1963) • Warren Commission (1964) • LBJ • “Great Society” • The Other America (1962) • “War on Poverty” • Economic Opportunity Act (1964) • Cesar Chavez • AIM • Stonewall Riots (1969) • NOW (1966)

General Lecture Outline:

I. The Sixties: Impressionistic with Harsh Realities a. JFK – bio and political rise b. New Frontier Idealism c. JFK and Cold War

i. Cuba d. Assassination

II. LBJ & Great Society a. Goals and motivations b. “Great Society”

i. Civil Rights ii. Environment

iii. Poverty c. Unintended Consequences of Idealism

i. Youth Protest ii. Civil Rights Model followed by others

III. Backlash a. White men b. Democractic Party

IV. Conclusions Powerpoint Notes:

Come gather ‘round people Wherever you roam And admit that the waters Around you have grown And accept it that soon You’ll be drenched to the bone. If your time to you Is worth savin’ Then you better start swimmin’ Or you’ll sink like a stone For the times they are a changin’. Come writers and critics Who prophesize with your pen And keep your eyes wide The chance won’t come again And don’t speak too soon For the wheel’s still in spin And there’s no tellin’ who that it’s namin’. For the loser now will be later to win For the times they are a changin’. Come senators, congressmen Please heed the call Don’t stand in the doorway Don’t block up the hall For he that gets hurt Will be he who has stalled There’s a battle outside ragin’. It’ll soon shake your windows And rattle your walls For the times they are a changin’. Come mothers and fathers Throughout the land And don’t criticize What you can’t understand Your sons and your daughters Are beyond your command

Bob Dylan, “The Times They Are a Changin’”

A Decade of Impressions… Political Idealism Liberalism (use the power of the federal government to improve the lives of those who can not help themselves) Civil Rights Cultural Youth Music Social Interest Groups Empowerment

…but also a decade of harsh realities

Viet Nam Racial Violence Assassinations Drugs and Consumer Excess Pollution Cold War Threat of Nuclear Annihilation ONE THING VERY CLEAR: NOT AN ERA OF SOCIAL OR POLITICAL CONSENSUS

John Fitzgerald Kennedy

Family critical to understand JFK Rose Fitzgerald (Kennedy) daughter of powerful Boston political family Joe Kennedy Millions as Wall St. stock manipulator, bootlegging, Hollywood, links to organized crime Sells out in early 1929, uses money to create political influence 8 Children (4 boys, 4 girls) All driven to be the BEST, all compete with each other, very close Reckless competition? Four eldest (Joe, John, Kathleen, Bobby) meet violent deaths by 1968 Jack (John) always second to Joe, Jr. Distinguishes self in WWII Poor health: bad back, physical exhaustion, diagnosed with Addison’s Disease in 1950s In early 1950s, he is in constant pain, older siblings both dead, why not live it up?

JFK’s Political Rise

Poor Health & Surgery keeps Sen. Kennedy out of limelight during McCarthyism 1956 writes Profiles in Courage, wins Pulitzer with help from father Talk circuit shows handsome, intelligent, very likeable young man Serious candidate for ‘56 VP (if he had won VP and lost in national election, JFK’s Catholicism would have been blamed) JFK Emerges as National Candidate

Serious, intelligent, witty, charismatic Still reckless by 1958 Friends of the “Rat Pack” (Sinatra, Peter Lawford, etc.) Constant womanizing; FBI warns him in Spring, 1962, that his current mistress was also sleeping with Sam Gianconna (Chicago mafia boss) All kept from public by willing press (would they have done the same for Nixon? Certainly not today)

1960 wins close nomination over LBJ, close election over Nixon

“New Frontier” Era of High Idealism – Even the term highlights the emotional aspects of American history Generational change – JFK first president born in 20th c. Take up the burdens of the Cold War (war of ideals) Take on the hardest problems that America faced: Economic opportunity Race/Gender U.S. International leadership (military burden)

But Kennedy faced with huge problems:

Politically LBJ an uncertain ally Close Election: no mandate Public willing to go with a new face, but he better not be incompetent Southern whites flee Democratic Party and pursuit of Civil Rights Cold War (Berlin , Cuba, Indochina, Middle East, S. America, etc.) Civil Rights Cities Powerful Rhetoric & Idealism Post-WWII Americans must lead the world that was created by the WWII generation (a mission)

“Camelot”

Idealistic Youth (JFK youngest elected Pres.; TR assumes office) Action Family “Eggheads” Mostly outsiders from business and academic ranks E.g., Sec’y Defense Robert McNamara was CEO of Ford Motor Co. Little Substance Min. wage D.C. slum clearance (urban renewal) Movement on Civil Rights by 1963 Space program

JFK and the Cold War A very conservative, “Hard Line” Administration 1. Rapid Military Build-Up U.S. faced “missile gap” with Soviets Sec’y Defense Robert McNamara “Flexible Response” (Green Berets and Special Forces) 2. Move against Cuba Bay of Pigs, April, 1961 Look foolish and incompetent (worst of both worlds in politics) 3. Bring Latin America into the Cold War (Alliance for Progress, $20B) 4. Berlin most volatile Following Bay of Pigs and US-Soviet Summit, Berlin Wall erected REAL THREAT OF NUCLEAR EXCHANGE and/or WWIII

Cuban Missile Crisis (October, 1962)

Unexpected (but today predictable) crisis 1961-1962, U.S. deploys 5000+ ICBMs U.S. nuclear arsenal grows by 500% In 1962, U.S. detonates 100 megaton device in the atmosphere (seen at right) USSR responds Rapid expansion of nuclear forces Moves missiles into Cuba Seen by USSR as similar to U.S. missiles in Turkey Convinced JFK would not respond 15 minute striking distance JFK plays and wins war of nerves with Soviet Premiere Krushchev JFK’s single greatest legacy was in how he dealt with this crisis. Suggested that he could be a very good President and world leader

Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara on the Cuban Missile Crisis and the likelihood of a Global Thermo-Nuclear War in October, 1962 [“Mr. President” refers to Fidel Castro, 1992] Knowing what is coming, actions in Cuba prove important

“Operation Mongoose” U.S. agrees not to invade Cuba, but didn’t say anything about Castro CIA and Justice Department Use mafia and CIA in both Cuba and U.S. RFK “was the driving force behind the clandestine effort to overthrow Castro… he seemed like a wild man who was out-CIA-ing the CIA.” Sen. Harris Wofford CIA denies it all to Warren Commission (evidence released with Church Commission Report, 1974)

JFK Assassination

November 22, 1963 Dallas, TX, to promote new “get tough” approach to Communism (i.e., Viet Nam)

3 shots (~7 seconds) 1st hits tree branch, ricochet (Connally turns) 2nd hits JFK in throat, then Connally (“magic bullet”) 3rd hits JFK in head, massive tissue damage, fatal

The “Its not significant but everyone wants to know it anyway” slide

Grassy Knolls, Open Umbrellas, E. Howard Hunt, etc. etc.... Two big questions: How? (Lone gunman? Magic Bullet?) Why? (Conspiracy) Conspiracy theories: The Mob Military-Industrial Complex USSR Lee Harvey Oswald Warren Commission (1964) CIA paints Oswald a “madman;” acting w/o ideological motivation House Select Committee on Assassinations (1976) “Probable conspiracy”

Where is the conspiracy?

Occam’s Razor: “Pluralitas non est ponenda sine neccesitate” (“plurality should not be posited without necessity.”) Plain English: don’t look for complex answers if the simplest solution is plausible Lee Harvey Oswald Committed Marxist; Cuba was a “test case” for Marxism in the Americas Oswald repeatedly acts out violently; sees himself in grandiose terms: 1957 argument in Marines leads to gunshots; 1958 court-martial for fighting with officers; 1959 defects to USSR, slits wrists; 1963 plans assassination Gen. Edwin Walker; then kills JFK – wants his life to “stand” for something big Most people initially angry because Oswald wasn’t “important enough” to have killed the U.S. President Jackie Kennedy: “[JFK] didn’t even have the satisfaction of being killed for civil rights. It had to be some silly little communist.” Dallas Ass’t DA during questioning: “at times I had to walk out of the room because in another few minutes I was going to beat the shit out of him.” CIA denies very existence of Operation Mongoose!

Conclusions for 11/22/63

All wounds can be accounted from three shots Both Oswald and Ruby had “motive” Operation Mongoose, led by RFK, intended to “finish” Castro probably brought about the death of JFK Malcolm X: assassination was a case of the “chickens coming home to roost” When faced with a nervous public and the potential for WWIII, the CIA still lied to the Warren Commission!!

“Cover-up” existed, but not of killers THIS lying, more than anything, fuels wilder claims of a broader “cover up” (Oliver Stone, JFK) (Or none of this is true because they got to me)

LBJ

Lyndon Baines Johnson Born Stonewall, TX, 1908, near Johnson City 1st of 5 children Parent’s personalities affect Lyndon’s Politics: Populist!!! Real concern for “the people,” sees himself as outsider, defender of the public interest As a teacher, he focuses on under-served Mexican-American population in Cotulla Active in New Deal As his influence increases “the people” come to include gas & oil industries, defense contractors (Sun Belt), corporate farms Seen as redneck Southern conservative by most Washington liberals

Steady Rise to Power

1937 to U.S. House, 1948 wins Democratic Primary for Senate by 87 votes (“Landslide Lyndon”) Style the same: mentor creates power base from within Oddly, all next steps opened by death of mentor (conspiracy? Feelings of guilt and desire to “prove” oneself to be worthy of mentor’s acceptance?) LBJ has strong faith in consensus Compromise possible with USSR, racists, anyone! Great at personal, one-on-one situations Terrible at public speaking and mass politics Internal/psychological pressures exposed when he campaigned Bluffed or withdrew name from race in 1948, 1964, 1968 1968 refuses to run for re-election for U.S. Presidency Physically ill 1937, 1941, 1966

National Forum

Probably most powerful Senator of the 20th Century Controlled committees, agenda, perqs -- never forces opponents into ideological corners Style not suited to national politics JFK trounces him at “mass politics” Vice-Presidency not a “mentor” position Kennedy Administration works to marginalize him

Scarred by Assassination

“I took the oath, I became President. But for millions of Americans I was still illegitimate, a naked man with no presidential covering, a pretender to the throne, an illegal usurper. And then there was Texas, my home, the home of both the murder and the murder of the murderer. And then there were the bigots and the dividers and the Eastern

intellectuals, who were waiting to knock me down before I could even begin to stand up. The whole thing was almost unbearable.” Vows to “out-Kennedy” Kennedy, wants to be “loved”

Johnson’s Goals

Maintain “hard-line” against Communism Blind to pitfalls of escalation in Viet Nam Press for legislative action on points where Kennedy only paid lip service But agenda set beyond the White House (e.g., King and Civil Rights) Leaves LBJ vulnerable Redesign the “New Deal Coalition” Emerging voters: youth, women, Hispanics, blacks

LBJ & Viet Nam

Discussed more fully in separate section Johnson doesn’t understand (“have a feel for”) foreign policy As Special Envoy to SE Asia, he believes foreign crowds “love” him because he distributed ball-point pens and cigarette lighters LBJ: “I felt a special rapport with all those Asians. I knew how desperately they needed our help and I wanted to give it. I wanted them to have all the dams and all the projects they could handle.” Wants to keep war FROM the public No declaration, no taxes, no call for sacrifice When trouble starts neither the U.S. public nor Congress feels compelled to support him Contrast this to way that factions supported G.W. Bush and the Iraq War from critics and protesters

“The Great Society”

High Point of Modern Liberalism Environmental causes (Social Gospel Prog.) Use the full power of the federal government (National Progressives) Further the growth of U.S. business overseas and placate organized labor (Corporate Liberalism) GS responds to pressures Agenda already set for LBJ LBJ then acts forcefully to pass legislation

Pressure #1: Civil Rights

1964: Civil Rights Act Title VII outlawed discrimination in the workplace re: race religion national origin Sex 1965 Voting Rights Act

Pressure #2: Environment Industrial pollution and inner-city grime Rachel Carson Silent Spring (1962) Water Quality Act, 1964 Wilderness Preservation Act, 1965 Air Quality Act, 1965 Clean Water Restoration, 1966

Pressure #3: Poverty

Meaningful and important to LBJ (sees poverty in Texas) Michael Harrington, The Other America (1962) 20-25% U.S. in poverty (35M !!!) 40% in poor housing To be poor to be like “an internal alien, to grow up in a culture that is radically different from the ones that dominates the society.” Poverty (cont.) LBJ: “This Administration today ...declares unconditional war on poverty” “Hand up, not a handout” But fears about welfare (“the dole”) strong with LBJ and Democrats in Congress (experiences of Depression) Therefore, Great Society promotes “Opportunity”

“War on Poverty”

Economic Opportunity Act, 1964 OEO, Job Corps, Vista, Head Start (800k children fed each year) Manpower Development and Training Act, 1964 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 1965 (Fed aid to local schools) Public Works Act, 1965; Model Cities Program, 1966 Medicare (for elderly, 79m since 1965), Medicaid (for poor; 200m) This is NOT simply writing checks but providing jobs, education, medical care, and job training: “opportunity”

Politics of the Great Society

LBJ works to help large segments of non-voting citizenry Civil Rights Act, 1964: “I think we just gave the South to the Republicans” EOA: Democrats “will probably lose a million votes a month” as a result Programs harm Democratic strongholds Community poverty programs undermine big city machines LBJ harms relations with organized labor Political suicide by a political mastermind? Only makes sense if we credit Johnson with acting for principles, not politics

Unintended Political Consequence #1: Great Society = Youth Protest

Jack Nicholson in Five Easy Pieces (1970)

She doesn’t “make the rules” but there is power in conforming to the rules (even if they are stupid rules) Generational assumptions of 1940s and 50s too CONFORMIST Unintended Political Consequence #1 The Voice of Protest = the Voice of “Youth” Youth gain (too much) political legitimacy Very vocal politically 1962, Students for a Democratic Society Active as a result of Civil Rights Free Speech Movement 1967-1973, Anti-War Protest But little staying power A majority of elig. voters, 18-24YO, DO NOT VOTE

Who were the “counter-culture”?

Affluent, college-educated, white Upset with (in rank order) parents racism corporate conformity (need to “sell out” individuality to get a job) pollution Vietnam (after 1965) Response: Disillusionment “Turn on, tune in, and drop out” Psychedelic hedonism Middle-brow Culture not politics 1965: “Hippies” get start in Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco 1968: “The Summer of Love” 1969: Woodstock, NY 1969: Altamont, CA

By 1972-3, “movement” completely absorbed by U.S. pop culture

Riches to Rags lifestyle Still: a lot of very idealistic and committed democrats Abbie Hoffman The “New Music”

“Unintended” Political Consequences #2

Civil Rights Model followed by others Is it “American” to treat people unequally? Is it legal?

2.a Cesar Chavez United Farm Workers Grape boycott, 1965-70

1969: La Raza Unida “Chicano” instead of “Mexican-American” (not all approved!) American Indian Movement (AIM) AIM organized in 1968 1973 standoff at Wounded Knee “Native-American” replaces “Indian” “1st Nations”

2.b Gay & Lesbian Discrimination 1969 Stonewall Riots, NYC Sexual Practice Laws voided APA rescinds view that homosexuality a “mental disorder”

2.c “Women’s Liberation” The most powerful of all 1963: The Feminine Mystique 1966: National Organization of Women 1968: “Women’s Liberation Movement” “Ms.” not “Mrs.” Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) Proposed 1923 1972: Congress approves. 1982: defeated; not enough states ratify.

“Backlash”

VERY DRAMATIC EFFECT ON MEN (especially in an era when the economy hits traditionally male jobs the hardest) aka “Backlash” Other forms of Backlash: Critics argue that... Great Society only “throws money at problems.” But... Most programs under-funded as result of Viet Nam and recession (like New Deal) By 1968, funding already cut for most programs Nixon fully funds EEOC and Head Start, and they work! Great Society “undermines traditional values.” But... America was changing well before 1964; Modernization from 1920-1960 Pre-marital sex rates on the rise in the 1930s Divorce rate rises in 1940s Drugs and Alcohol abuse in the 1950s While some think of the 60s as a “Counter Culture,” I would argue they are the culmination of 60 years of Modernization; hardly “counter” to the values of modernity Unleashes “Interest Group” politics that undermines democracy. But... This is typical of American politics - Jas. Madison, Progressives Now more inclusive, therefore groups more varied and more contentious (consensus seems positively foolish; rule by political activism of BASE voters; seen clearly in 2000 and 2004 elections)

But, Real Political Consequences for Democratic Party

Idealism of youth a doubled-edged sword Motivation for fundamental change Easily dissipated through pop culture Activism as “trendy” or “chic,” blunts criticism Interest Group politics splits forces Generally agree on philosophical principles But very hard to manage w/in a political coalition Democrats and Ralph Nader 2000 Presidential campaign Rising opposition to Great Society liberalism Defeat of Goldwater in 1964, but rise of the “New Right” Opposition to liberal idealism (not liberalism, per se)

Conclusions: 1. Efforts of the Great Society are praiseworthy

Poverty in the U.S. falls, life expectancy rises, infant mortality falls Opportunity extended to millions who otherwise were excluded Sense of optimism and mission for the U.S. Civil Rights legislation begins to overturn inequality (ends v. means) Some Benefits of Great Society Education, 1965-2000 29,000,000 students benefit from college loans 60% of today’s students receive loans from GS programs 1965: 41% complete high school; 81% today 1965: 8% complete college; 24% today Economic Opportunity 800,000 grade school children have pre-school care through Head Start; school breakfast 39 million have Medicaid; 79 million have Medicare 30,000,000 families purchased homes for the first time under Ginnie Mae/Fannie Mae Quality of Life 420 playhouses, 120 opera companies, 400 dance companies, 230 orchestras 35 new National Parks, 155 scenic river valleys, 800 recreational trails Environmental regulations begin to curb most problematic pollutants Democracy 1964: 300 minority officials elected nationwide; 2000: 10,000+ Constitutional rights upheld through Civil and Voting Rights Acts Conclusions (cont)

2. “Sixties” shift the meaning of “fitting into” America

Old view was assimilation – be like us or you will be an outcast New view was multi-cultural – unity comes from acceptance of diversity (true American asset for the 21st century… this is hard to do, but we’ve been trying for 30+ years)

3. “Sixties” challenges much about America, but relies on old assumptions

Progressivism – the future is better than the past

Authoritarian – Federal leaders will always do what is right Cold War – fear of communist domination should the U.S. fail in containment When these assumptions fail (domestic unrest, Watergate, and Viet Nam) U.S. confidence will be severely undermined [Add in two major recessions and things get a little nasty]

4. LBJ Changes nature of Presidential Powers

Unlike FDR, LBJ’s Presidential powers are “hidden” from American public Continued by Nixon “Imperial Presidency” weakens institutions that LBJ could control Congress, Cabinet, Party But leads to strengthening of press and populism (primaries) - irony, U.S. politics “self- correcting” Rapid swings in politics War and Great Society were “his” When setbacks occur, opponents attack Cycle of exaggerated expectations and criticism (seen most clearly in Clinton presidency) Conclusions (cont.)

5. After all is said and done, LBJ still accomplished more (politically) than any other single President in the area of Civil Rights (with the exception of Lincoln)

LBJ: “That young hero I replaced may have done something, but I did more.” If you think race relations are better today than 1963, and if you understand where race relations were in the U.S. in 1963, then LBJ is chiefly responsible. Sadly, this legacy is destroyed by Viet Nam