5 page paper

Running head: FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 1

Older Adults Experience More False Memories Compared to Other Age Groups

Amanda Sinclair 11036772

University of Saskatchewan

Psychology 255.3 61: Human Memory

3 November 2013

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 2

Proclamation

In submitting this paper, I attest that this paper, and any version of this paper, has not previously

or concurrently been submitted for credit in another course by myself or anyone else.

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 3

Abstract

Compared to other age groups (e.g. child, teenager, young adult) older adults experience a

greater amount of false memories. This was shown in Fandakova, Shing, and Lindenberg (2013)

with the use of proactive interference. In Jacoby, Bishara, Hessels, & Toth (2005) retroactive

interference was used to create false memories in young and older adults resulting in higher false

memories for older adults. Shing, Werkle-Bergner, Li, & Lindenberger (2009) found that not

only did older adults have a greater amount of false memories but were also disproportionately

more confident in their false memories than children. A neurological study done by Dennis, Kim,

& Cabeza (2008) found that, compared to young adults, older adults showed both a reduction in

true memories and an increase in false memories. It was also shown that a neurological

explanation could be found for the age difference in false memories. In summary, modern

research shows clear evidence in support of older adults having a greater proportion of false

memories than other age groups.

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 4

Older Adults Have More False Memories Than Other Age Groups

Recent research has shown that the likelihood of remembering false events increases as a

person ages, this paper aims to flush out this research and find a clear correlation between age

and false memories. False memories, erroneously remembering episodes that did not occur, have

been an area of interest since Elizabeth Loftus created the “Lost in the Mall” technique in 1994.

This technique involved Loftus implanting a false memory into a child of being lost in a mall at a

younger age (Loftus, 1995). At that point it was thought that only children were susceptible to

false memories (then said to be repressed memories) and not adults. Since then it has been shown

that not only do children create false memories, and are susceptible to implantation, but also

young and older adults (Lindsay, Hagen, Read, Wade, & Garry, 2004). For example, Wade,

Garry, Read, & Lindsay (2002) successfully implanted a false memory of being in a hot air

balloon as a child into twenty subjects whose age ranged from 18-28.

Recently, researchers have begun studying age related differences and changes in false

memories between age groups (Anastasi & Rhodes, 2008; Brainerd & Reyna, 2002; Norman &

Schacter, 1997; Tun, Wingfield, Rosen, & Blanchard, 1998). Early research found an inversed

bell curve when comparing false memories to age, meaning that children were just as likely as

older adults to have false memories and young adults were least likely (Tun et al. 1998).

However, more recent research is finding that older adults are more likely to have false

memories compared to all other age groups (Anastasi & Rhodes, 2008). One study found that

older adults were ten times more likely to have false memories than young adults (Jacoby,

Bishara, Hessels, & Toth, 2005). The purpose of this paper will be to show that compared to

other age groups older adults (ages 60+) have increased false memories which can be caused by

proactive interference, retroactive interference, overconfidence in their memories, and

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 5

neurological differences. Due to these factors older adults are at a heightened risk for

erroneously remembering episodes that did not occur.

Support for Thesis

Proactive Interference and False Memories

In early studies false memories were successfully implanted in children and adults after

repeated sessions of remembering (Loftus & Rickrell, 1995; Wade et al., 2002). These false

memories seemed to take a long time to build within subjects. However, Fandakova, Shing, and

Lindenberg (2013) show that it is possible to create false memories quickly and for recent events

in both children and adults by using proactive interference. Proactive interference is when earlier

memories disrupt the retrieval of more recent memories (Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson,

2010). Fandakova et al. (2013) tested the differences in false memory across three age groups:

children (10-12), young adults (20-27), and older adults (68-76). Twenty participants from each

category were selected from a university community and all were native German speakers. The

selected older adults reported no major health issues and were screened for cognitive

impairments with the Mini Mental State Examination (Fandakova et al.). A baseline comparison

was created by assessing participants’ perceptual speed and crystallized intelligence, and then

equating these age differences. Participants were then familiarized with paired words (e.g. Drum

Clock) and performed three runs of a repeated continuous recognition task (Fandakova et al.). A

continuous recognition task is when study and test phases are not separated, items are

continuously presented and the participant is instructed to respond either with ‘old’ if seen before

or ‘new’ if the item is presented for the first time (“Continuous recognition task,” n.d.). After

each run participants were instructed to forget all previous paired words and being the second

trial fresh (Fandakova et al.). In the beginning of a trail when “Drum Clock” appeared a correct

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 6

response would be ‘new’, however, participants may say ‘old’ falsely remembering “Drum

Clock” having already been presented when in actuality their memory is of the previous trial.

Across runs, false recognition of lure pairs (Drum Clock) was greater in older adults than in

children or young adults. This shows that older adults, compared to both children and young

adults, have a higher likelihood of having erroneous memories of recent events due to proactive

interference. This is consistent with a study done by Hasher, Chung, May, and Foong (2002)

which found that older adults were more vulnerable to proactive interference than young adults.

Retroactive Interference and False Memories

As with proactive interference, retroactive interference has a greater effect on older adults

than young adults (Hedden & Park, 2003). Retroactive interference is when recent memories

disrupt the retrieval of earlier memories (Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2010). Also like

proactive interference, retroactive interference can create false memories as shown by Jacoby

and colleagues (2005) in their three separate studies of age differences in false memories. For

each experiment participants were collected via flyers and participant pools at Washington

University and divided into two groups, 24 young adults (ages 18-27) and 24 older adults (ages

64-87) (Jacoby et al.). To create a baseline comparison in age groups, reading speed and levels of

education were equated between age groups and larger font along with extra study time was used

for older adults. For all three experiments, participants were given a list of associatively related

paired words (Knee Bend or Knee Bone) to study prior to testing.

First age comparison.

For the first experiment the test phase consisted of presentation of a prime word which

was either a studied word (Bend), non-studied word (Bone), or neutral non-word, all of which

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 7

participants were instructed to ignore (Jacoby et al., 2005). This presentation of a non-studied

word was aimed to create retroactive interference for the studied list. A word fragment was then

presented (e.g. Knee B_n_) and participants were asked to complete the fragment with their

studied words. Response of a studied word (Bend) indicated no false memories while response of

the presented non-studied word (Bone) indicated false memories due to retroactive interference.

After completion of the fragment participants were asked to report their memory by indicating

the basis for their response as either “remember”, “familiar”, or “guess” (Jacoby et al.). A

“remember” report meant that they recalled specific details of studying the item, “familiar”

meant the participant recalled that the word was on the list but did not recall specific details

about studying it, and “guess” meant they were purely guessing. Older adults were ten times

more likely to fill in the word fragment with the non-studied word than young adults (Jacoby et

al.). This shows that older adults are more susceptible to retroactive interference than young

adults and as a result had a greater amount of false memories. Older adults were also much more

likely to report their memories as “remember” than young adults. This indicates that young

adults may be more skeptical of their memory than older adults.

Second age comparison.

For the second experiment Jacoby et al. (2005) repeated their test, but this time without

memory report and with the ability to pass on the question if a completion word could not be

remembered. Compared to experiment one, young adults showed fewer false memories, whereas

older adults had the same amount. Older adults were also less likely to use the pass option to

reduce evidence of false memories (Jacoby et al.). This shows that false memories in older adults

are not caused by an external demand to remember. It also shows that older adults are less likely

to take advantage of options that could limit evidence of false memories. This adds support to the

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 8

idea that older adults are less likely to doubt their own memories leading to not only an increase

in false memories but also an increased confidence in those memories.

Third age comparison.

The third experiment was carried out much like the first, but in this case a recognition test

was used rather than a cue-recall test. The recognition test consisted of the presentation of a

prime word followed by two pairs of words (e.g., Knee Bone and Knee Bend) separated by a

large gap. Participants were instructed to choose the pair that had been studied and give a

memory report (Jacoby et al., 2005). The use of a recognition test reduced false memories in

both age groups however the difference between age groups was still significant (Jacoby et al.).

An important finding was that the recognition test dramatically reduced older adult’s false

memories compared to cued-recall. This shows that the chance of having a retroactively induced

false memory can be improved if the context in which the memory is presented relies on

recognition rather than recall. Nevertheless, even when the recognition test was used older adults

still had more false memories than any other age group.

Overconfidence in Memories

As shown in Jacoby et al. (2005) young adults were more likely to be skeptical of their

memories and take advantage of non-report compared to older adults. This finding is also

supported by a study which found that older adults were disproportionately more confident in

their false memories than children (Shing, Werkle-Bergner, Li, & Lindenberger, 2009). Shing

and colleagues’ lifespan sample consisted of 170 residents of Berlin, Germany which were

separated into four age groups: 43 children (age 10-12), 43 teenagers (age 13-15), 42 young

adults (age 20-25), and 42 older adults (age 70-75). An associative recognition memory task was

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 9

used to test subjects on studied word pairs. This test was similar to the continuous recognition

task explained earlier except that Sing et al. added word pairs of a German word with its Malay

translation. This allowed Sing et al. to have lists of two German paired words (GG) or one

German word and a Malay word (GM). The reason for this was due to GG pairs demanding more

associative processing than the GM pairs (Sing et al.). Participants were also instructed to find a

meaningful connection between the GM pairs through either phonological or orthographic

characteristics. This associated imagery helped link the GM pairs together through what is

known as the keyword strategy (Sing et al.). Older adults showed significantly more “sure”

responses after a false memory for both GM and GG pairs than any other age group, including

children. This significantly heightened confidence compared to children was surprising, since

older adults performed the memory task at a similar level to children. The use of the keyword

strategy improved all participants’ performance across age groups. However, the elaborative

imagery (keyword strategy) did not reduce age differences in false memories nor did it affect

older adult’s high-confidence in false memories (Sing et al.). This once again shows that even

when given strategies to reduce false memories older adults still have more false memories than

any other age group while also having a high-confidence in those memories. Sing and colleagues

close by postulating that older adult’s high-confidence error may be due to hippocampal decline.

Neurological Differences

Using fMRI’s Dennis, Kim, & Cabeza (2008) set out to discover if there was a

neurological explanation to why older adults tend to have more false memories. To test age

effects Dennis et al. used fMRI and a false memory task similar to the Deese-Roediger-

McDermott (DRM) paradigm. The DRM paradigm is a procedure involving participants’ study

of a semantically similar word list (e.g. stove, microwave, fridge) and then participants recall as

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 10

many words from the list as possible. Typical results show subjects recalling a related word (e.g.

kitchen) that was not present on the list. When subjects are asked about the non-studied word

many will report they remember studying it, which indicates a false memory (Roediger &

McDermott, 1995). Dennis et al. (2008) found that, compared to young adults, older adults

showed both a reduction in true memories and an increase in false memories. This once again

supports the claim that false memories are more prominent in older adults. The study also found

that older adults exhibited a decrease in hippocampal activity. This hippocampal reduction

indicated that older adults are impaired in retrieval of item-specific details which depends on the

hippocampus. During false memory retrieval older adults exhibited an increased activity in the

retrosplenial cortex and left middle temporal gyrus which is related to semantic processing.

These findings are consistent with fuzzy trace theory which postulates that older adults’ have a

greater reliance on semantic gist (the central idea) (Brainerd, & Reyna, 2002; Dennis et al., 2008;

Gutchess & Schacter, 2012). This reliance on gist based criteria requires older adults to take an

educated guess at information that is not immediately available for recall. These educated

guesses then become encoded as false memories as evidenced by increased activity in the left

middle temporal gyrus during retrieval (Dennis et al., 2008). Then, at retrieval when an older

adults recalls a false memory it is not recognized as an erroneous memory and the older adult is

more likely to be confident in that memory being a true memory. These findings along with

Fuzzy trace theory, regarding age-related increases in semantic gist, give further evidence that

older adults have greater false memories than any other age groups.

Conclusion

The existence of false memories is a well-established area of study and modern research

supports the idea that older adults experience more false memories than any other age groups.

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 11

False memory age effects have been replicated in many different cultures such as America,

Germany, and Britain (Fandakova et al., 2013; Jacoby et al., 2005; Shing et al., 2009).

Fandakova et al. (2013) found that proactive interference caused greater false memories in older

adults than children or young adults. Jacoby and colleagues (2005) found this same age effect

with retroactive interference. It is important to note that recognition tests reduced but did not

eliminate the age effect. They also noted that older adults are less likely to take advantage of

options that could limit evidence of false memories. It was noted that this could be due to older

adults being overconfident in their false memories (Jacoby et al.). This overconfidence was

confirmed by Shing et al. (2009) who showed that older adults had significantly heightened

confidence compared to children who performed the memory task at a similar level. Finally,

Dennis, Kim, & Cabeza (2008) showed an age effect regarding false memories can be seen using

fMRI, so the increased false memories in older adults was not due to errors in report. It was

noted that all these findings are consistent with fuzzy trace theory and show a clear positive

correlation in false memories and age.

A possible explanation for the increased false memories in older adults is that misinformation

effects are larger when memory for the original event is poor (Jacoby et al., 2005). This would

account for false memories of long past events, however, it was shown that false memories were

more prominent in older adults even if the event was very recent (Fandakova at al., 2013;

Jacoby et al., 2005). A more probable explanation was given by Dennis and colleagues (2008)

who found increased false memories in older adults through use of fMRI. Hippocampal

reduction indicates age-related deficits in recollection, whereas the increase in retrosplenial

activity reveals compensation of alternative recollection-related regions.

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 12

This finding that older adults are more susceptible to false memories suggests that there is

reason to worry about older adults being more vulnerable to scams (Jacoby et al., 2005). For

example, one scam involves a plumber attempting to overcharge an older adult by claiming they

quoted the older adult X dollars (a much higher price than actually quoted) and that they agreed

to pay. The scam is effective if the individual remembers discussing a price and agreeing to pay

but falsely remembering the X dollars as opposed to the actual quote (Jacoby et al.). Another

implication is that older adults could be at a disadvantage when driving. It was shown by

Fandakova, Shing, and Lindenberg (2013) that false memories could be created very quickly in

participants. If an older adult has an increased chance of having false memories about where cars

or pedestrians are or are not they would have an increased likelihood of getting into an accident

thus endangering their life and others.

A goal of future research could be focused on longitudinal studies of false memories to

monitor whether or not false memories have cohort effects. Also, most researchers examining

age related false memories have focused on creating false memories for recent events. Future

research should investigate the age difference in induced memories similar to Loftus (1995) lost

in the mall and Wade and colleagues (2002) hot air balloon ride.

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 13

References

Anastasi, J. S., & Rhodes, M. G. (2008). Examining differences in the levels of false memories

in children and adults using child-normed lists. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 889-894. doi:

10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.889

Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M. W., & Anderson, M. C. (2010). Memory. New York: Psychology

Press.

Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2002). Fuzzy-trace theory and false memory. Current Directions

in Psychological Science, 11, 164-169. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00192

Continuous recognition task. (n.d.) In Psychology Dictionary. Retrieved from

http://psychologydictionary.org/continuous-recognition-task/

Dennis, N. A., Kim, H., & Cabeza, R. (2008). Age-related differences in brain activity during

true and false memory retrieval. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(8), 1390-1402. doi:

10.1162/jocn.2008.20096

Fandakova, Y., Shing, Y. L., & Lindenberger, U. (2013). Differences in binding and monitoring

mechanisms contribute to lifespan age differences in false memory. Developmental Psychology,

49(10), 1822-1832. doi: 10.1037/a0031361

Gutchess, A. H., & Schacter, D. L., (2012). The neural correlates of gist-based true and false

recognition. NeuroImage, 59(4), 3418-3426. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.078

Hasher, L., Chung, C., May, C., & Foong, N. (2002). Age, time of testing, and proactive

interference. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56(3), 200-207. Retrieved from

http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com.cyber.usask.ca/sp-

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 14

3.10.0b/ovidweb.cgi?&S=AIEBFPFGNHDDKIIFNCNKODGCPGICAA00&Link+Set=S.sh.27

%7c1%7csl_10

Hedden, T., & Park, D. C. (2003). Contributions of source and inhibitory mechanisms to age-

related retroactive interference in verbal working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:

General, 132(1), 93-112. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.132.1.93

Jacoby, L. L., Bishara, A. J., Hessels, S., & Toth, J. P. (2005). Aging, subjective experience, and

cognitive control: Dramatic false remembering by older adults. Journal of Experimental

Psychology: General, 134(2), 131-148. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.134.2.131

Lindsay, D. S., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and

false memories. Psychological Science, 15(3), 149-154. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/40063945

Loftus, E. F., & Rickrell, J. E. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals,

25(12), 720-725. Retrieved from

http://users.ecs.soton.ac.uk/harnad/Papers/Py104/loftusmem1.pdf

Norman, K. A., & Schacter, D. L. (1997) False recognition in younger and older adults:

Exploring the characteristics of illusory memories. Memory & Cognition, 25(6), 838-848.

Retrieved from http://link.springer.com.cyber.usask.ca/article/10.3758/BF03211328

Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not

presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,

21(4), 803-814. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803

FALSE MEMORIES AND OLDER ADULTS 15

Shing, Y. L., Werkle-Bergner, W., Li, S., & Lindenberger, U. (2009). Committing memory

errors with high confidence: Older adults do but children don’t. Memory, 17(2), 169-179. doi:

10.1080/09658210802190596

Tun, P. A., Wingfield, A. W., Rosen, M. J., & Blanchard, L. (1998). Response latencies for false

memories: Gist-based processes in normal againg. Psychology and Aging, 13(2), 230-241.

Retrieved from http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com.cyber.usask.ca/sp-

3.10.0b/ovidweb.cgi?&S=MNDMFPPGGFDDLIGONCNKIAMCJMGEAA00&Link+Set=S.sh.

48%7c1%7csl_10

Wade, K. A., Garry, M., Read, J. D., & Lindsay, D. S. (2002). A picture is worth a thousand lies:

Using false photographs to create false childhood memories. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,

9(3), 597-603. doi: 10.3758/BF03196318