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10 Balancing Life as a Leader

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Successfully cope with stress. • Effectively manage time. • Balance the relationship between work and life outside of work.

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

Introduction

The world of advertising is fast-paced, challenging, and, many would say, pretty stressful. In the middle of that environment, Zehnder Communications expresses the mantra “Have Fun!” CEO Jeffrey Zehnder has built a full-service agency that “continually challenges traditional thinking.” His company

encourages the tinkering, the restlessness, the keep-you-up-all-night ideas that make us a better agency. It’s a way to give those new ideas a place to live so that we continue our education by teaching each other, developing new marketing strategies or channels, challenging ourselves, challenging each other, and collaborating on end results. These ideas can end up in our client work, or they might be used to help a cause or a charity, an improvement to the city, or even something that makes a great place to work an even better one. (Zehnder Communications, 2015, para. 1)

At the same time, his creativity “involves finding a true balance—whether it’s between artistic inspiration and airtight strategy, or tenacious work and enjoying who you’re doing it with.” Building the agency into what it is today “has been made possible by striking just the right chords to create an incredibly talented, dedicated group that provides great results for a diverse range of motivated clients.”

One of the company’s most noted innovations is the VAN program. “Vacation as needed” means that anyone who thinks it is time for a little break can take one—as long as his or her work is up to date and being away will not slow down any other employee’s tasks. The net result has been an inspired, motivated, but balanced workforce that continues to produce high-quality work.

Zehnder’s accolades include being named Ad Executive of the Year by the Ad Club of New Orleans and receiving the American Advertising Federation’s Silver Medal Award. He also won the March Madness office pool. He asks, “How’s that for balance?”

This chapter examines three important aspects of leadership. The first, stress management, has an impact on you as a leader as well as on any organization where you work. Second, time management constitutes a key skill in today’s fast-paced environment. Finally, achieving work-life balance goes a long way toward making sure you have a long-lasting, successful, and satisfying career. All three skills are needed for success in one’s personal life and work life.

10.1 Stress Management

We live in a high-stress world that is becoming increasingly challenging in both our personal and work lives. Many believe that global, national, local, and societal challenges; unpredict- able economic conditions; and rising healthcare and other critical lifestyle costs will continue to escalate stress levels. Add to this living in a high-tech world where people are connected to information 24/7; the breakdown of traditional support systems such as the family; and the busy, fast-moving, complex lives that people live today, and it becomes apparent that you need to be skilled at managing stress or you might eventually suffer consequences. At the

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

organizational level, stress costs organizations of all types and sizes billions of dollars in decreased productivity and increased mistakes, accidents, absenteeism, turnover, healthcare costs, and lawsuits (American Psychological Association, 2016; Jamal, 1984; American Insti- tute of Stress, n.d.).

Stress management is a skill that affects every aspect of our lives and the quality of life that we experience. Effective stress management can improve your mental, emotional, and physi- cal health and increase the probability of having a longer and happier life. It can improve your productivity (Ivancevich & Matterson, 1981; Allen, Hitt, & Greer, 1982) and consequently make you more promotable. When people are being considered for promotion, a major factor can be how well they handle problems, challenges, and stressful situations. Effective stress management can also give you a greater sense of control over your life.

There is another important incen- tive for becoming skilled at man- aging stress: Stress has a multi- plier effect. Stressed people are likely to become stress carriers who spread their stress to oth- ers. They spread tension, create anxiety, and keep people on edge. In fact, people who get stressed easily often deal with their stress by taking it out on others. This is particularly important for leaders to understand. One study found that about two out of three work- ers say that their bosses are their major source of stress at work, more so than any other personal, organizational, or environmental factor (Shipper & Wilson, 1992). Leaders play a critical role in how stressful work is for their followers (McCormick & Powell, 1988).

There is a third incentive for developing skills in managing stress. It is a learnable skill. You will learn in this chapter that you can change how you view and manage stress, and that by doing so you can remove much of the fear of stress and can turn your ability to manage stress into a strength that will prove to be a major asset in your personal and professional life.

Defining Stress

One of the continuing issues in stress management is definitional. There are any number of versions of definitions. Schuler (1980) defines stress as a dynamic condition in which an indi- vidual is confronted with an opportunity, demand, or resource related to what the individual desired and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important. Another version suggests that stress occurs when a situation poses challenges that exceed an indi- vidual’s ability to deal with them (Elsbach, Kayes, & Kayes, 2016).

Some writers distinguish between challenge-related stress and hindrance-related stress. Challenge-related stress is sometimes called “eustress,” or literally “good” stress, that comes

Purestock/Thinkstock

Stress tends to have a multiplier effect; people who are stressed can transfer stress to others.

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StressEvents lead to

EventsStress leads to

Section 10.1 Stress Management

from a positive experience that involves achievement or overcoming a problem. Hindrance- related stress is negative and results from excessive or undesirable constraints that interfere with an individual’s ability to achieve goals.

Stress management involves mental, emotional, physical, and behavioral responses to anxiety- producing events along with the challenges in everyday life and work. It begins with an event or series of events, good or bad, that cause anxiety. It can come from achieving some- thing special and knowing that you will have to say a few words when receiving an award or from tension in a relationship or from experiencing a difficult situation or event. People tend to respond mentally by the way they perceive and process the stress that is occurring, emotionally by how they react, physically by how the body responds, and behaviorally by the choices they make.

Stress is personal. People react to the same circumstances differently (Benner, 1984; McCau- ley, 1987). Some overreact to minor issues and others seem to be able to handle challenges, difficulties, setbacks, and trials with calmness and minimal effects. On an individual level, stress is relative to the type of stress, how much we have, how long we have it, and how well we manage it. The most important factor is how well we manage it. According to the American Institute of Stress (AIS), stress is the number one health problem in the United States and most likely in the world (Marksberry, 2013). Stress can potentially cause physical, psychological, behavioral, and relational problems and can shorten one’s life span (Chida & Hamer, 2008).

Models of Stress

One approach to understanding stress, the antecedent model you see in Figure 10.1, implies that various forces cause stress. As an example, “She was going through a messy divorce and experienced a great deal of stress because of it,” or “He was in financial trouble and felt really stressed out as a result.” In both of those examples, stress is a condition in which an individual confronts a situation in which the outcome is uncertain and important (Schuler, 1980).

A second conceptualization of stress focuses on what happens as a consequence. As Figure 10.2 shows, the outcome model of stress notes what happens when a person is routinely overwhelmed by stressful events (Sailer, Schlacter, & Edwards, 1982). Someone might say, “He was under so much stress that he had a heart attack,” or “She was so stressed out that she had a nervous breakdown.”

Figure 10.1: The antecedent model of stress

StressEvents lead to

Figure 10.2: An outcome model of stress

EventsStress leads to

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StressEvents Events

Antecedents Outcomes

Life Work Individual Temperament

Physical Mental Social/Behavioral

Section 10.1 Stress Management

Antecedents or Causes of Stress: Life Events Many sources of stress emerge away from work. Certain disruptions or changes lead to men- tal pressure on individuals. These stressors can be family or nonfamily related. You can see examples of each in Table 10.1 (Holmes & Holmes, 1970).

Table 10.1: Life events as sources of stress

Family Problems Nonfamily-Oriented Problems

Marriage Jail term

Divorce Personal injury or illness

Marital separation Outstanding personal achievement

Marital reconciliation Death of close friend

Death of spouse Financial problems

Death of family member Change in residence

Sexual problems New mortgage

Pregnancy Change in living conditions

Gain of new family member Change in social activities

Son or daughter leaving home Traffic ticket

Problems with in-laws

Holidays

Based on Holmes & Holmes, 1970

So, which is the case? Is stress a cause or an effect? In 1951, one famous quote suggested that “[s] tress in addition to being itself, was also the cause of itself, and the result of itself ” (American Institute of Stress, 2011). Further, counselors and managers may focus more on helping individu- als cope with stress-related problems. Assuming their perspective merits equal attention, a more complete stress model can be developed, as Figure 10.3 displays. The model serves as a guide for understanding and describing stress first, and then for resolving stress-related problems.

Figure 10.3: A full model of stress

StressEvents Events

Antecedents Outcomes

Life Work Individual Temperament

Physical Mental Social/Behavioral

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

In learning to manage stress, it is critical to recognize that stress can work for us or against us. There are of course many other stressors such as not having enough time to do all that you need to do, safety concerns, sociological concerns, lacking purpose in life, having to deal with addictions and undesirable habits, and even technostress, which is the stress related to dealing with technology.

A study by Dr. Kenneth Lichstein indicated that while scientists used to believe that the most harmful stress was the result of major life crises like the death of a spouse, loss of a job, or divorce, it is now believed that most people eventually recover from these events and that it is the everyday stress that people are routinely subject to that is causing the most stress and harm (Lichstein, 1993). Dr. Lichstein says, “Each little frustration that occurs throughout the day speeds the heart rate, dilates the pupils, and floods the bloodstream with powerful hor- mones, setting the stage for stress-related problems” (1993, p. 3).

A 2014 Harris Poll performed for the American Psychological Association (Thompson, 2015) revealed that the top four stressors for adults are (1) money, (2) family responsibilities and relationships, (3) healthcare concerns, and (4) work. Note that three of these causes would be in the category of life events.

In terms of money, close to 75% of adults report feeling stressed about money at least some of the time. Money problems or concerns can have a significant multiplier effect. They can be a major source of mental, emotional, and physical stress and can particularly cause strain on relationships.

With regard to family responsibilities and relationships, some find that they can be a major source of strength in managing stress. Unfortunately, even in the best of families and relation- ships, keeping up with all of the responsibilities involved can be stressful. What is particularly stressful, however, is when family or friendship circumstances are strained. This can not only remove a source of strength in managing stress but also can add more stressors.

Healthcare concerns can come from stress caused by rising healthcare costs and determining how to pay for and have access to healthcare, and the actual stress of health problems. For those who struggle with health issues, few things can be more stressful.

Further, when political turmoil threatens one’s way of life, a source of stress arises. Economic uncertainty can worry a family because of the potential loss of job or home. The 2008 reces- sion in the United States created a great deal of stress for those “under water” on mortgages as well as unemployed individuals and underemployed workers. Many also find certain social trends to be unsettling, especially those that inspire conversation and controversy. Further, actual elements in the environment, such as a tornado, earthquake, or hurricane can become sources of stress, either in the worry that one might occur or in those who have experienced tragedies such as Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy and still cope with the aftereffects.

Antecedents or Causes of Stress: Work Events The pressures to acquire and keep meaningful work in an uncertain world of economic upturns and downturns and the constant possibility of downsizing, mergers, acquisitions, and bankruptcies can be stressful. Many other possible stressors to deal with at work such

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

as bad management practices, relationships with one’s boss and coworkers, unhealthy work cultures, poor working conditions, organizational politics, and pressures to do more with less and work harder and longer create difficult situations. In general, a great deal of stress results from issues on the job. Three major job-related categories of stress exist. Each contributes to stress-related problems in unique ways.

Physical stressors include conditions inside the workplace such as excessive heat, excessive cold, polluted or smoke-filled air, loud noise, cramped work areas, proximity to high-traffic areas (inside and outside), dangerous work, overtime or long hours, and extensive travel. Physical stressors may not only affect an individual’s mental state but may also be related to lower productivity. A construction foreman noted that when the temperature drops below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, a crew performs at 50% of capacity. In other words, a temperature below freezing doubles the cost of construction.

Social stressors develop between two or more employees of the same rank or of different ranks. Many types of social stress may be found in everyday work. These include:

• conflicts with peers; • conflicts with supervisors; • discrimination; • sexual harassment; • hazing; • group cohesiveness/morale problems; and • conflicts between groups.

As a group, social stressors can create what has been labeled a toxic workplace.

Job stressors come from the basic demands of the work. Some are related to the worker’s role (McClean, 1980), others to different forces. Each creates challenging circumstances for employees. Role conflict takes two forms. The first occurs when a task conflicts with the indi- vidual’s sense of right and wrong. The second takes place when two assigned tasks conflict with each other. Role ambiguity means the employee remains unsure about which tasks to complete or how to complete them. A matter as simple as a new supervisor can generate role ambiguity as the worker seeks to satisfy the demands of a new boss. Role overload occurs when the amount of work expected of an employee exceeds what the person can handle. Layoffs and downsizing often generate role overload for those who remain with the organiza- tions (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1967; Sutton & Rafaeli, 1987).

Non-role-related job stressors include blocked career progression, otherwise known as a “dead-end job.” The perception, whether real or imagined, that getting promoted will be impossible creates a long-term stressor. The glass ceiling, which affects female employees when they are continually passed over for promotions that are given to men, represents blocked career progression. Monotonous work can be stressful, especially to those seeking more meaningful employment. Rates of alcohol and substance abuse are often higher in bor- ing work settings (Sutton & Rafaeli, 1987).

Job stressors include many things at work including a poorly run organization, difficult lead- ers, poor working conditions, and low job security. Excessive use of authority over workers

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

performing simple tasks that are regulated by numerous rules and procedures can become stressors (Gilboa, Shirom, Fried, & Cooper, 2008).

Occupational stress results from the type of work performed. Table 10.2 provides examples of low- and high-stress occupations (Frank, 2011; Zupek, 2009).

Table 10.2: Low- and high-stress occupations

High Stress Low Stress

Police officer Civil engineers

Fire fighter Carpenters and masons

Financial aid counselor Industrial machinery mechanics

Sales account manager Operations research analysts

Restaurant assistant manager Massage therapists

Nurse College professors

Based on Frank, 2011; Zupek, 2011.

In summary, these factors cause people stress and lead to decreased productivity and morale along with rising levels of mistakes, accidents, and healthcare and legal costs. There is a price to pay for not running organizations well and not taking good care of your people. Leaders can play key roles in reducing these problems.

Antecedents or Causes of Stress: Individual Temperament Two types of individuals may be predisposed to stress-related problems, due to their basic natures. Overachievers and those with the Type A personality factor may experience prob- lems due to the aggressive nature of their personality. Overachievers are highly competitive with others and themselves. Such individuals do not achieve true satisfaction from accom- plishments and constantly move on to the next challenge, leaving them vulnerable to stress- related problems.

Type A personalities received a great deal of attention in the 1980s. The Type A trait was originally identified in heart attack victims. One apt description of a true Type A is someone who tries to do more and more, in less and less time. Type A individuals tend to be impatient and caustic with those who slow them down. An extreme Type A will be susceptible to a heart attack, partly due to heightened blood pressure and because constant anger and annoy- ance produce destructive enzymes associated with an “angry heart” (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974; Ragland & Brand, 1988).

Note that individual temperament stressors may be modified by personal characteristics that play critical roles in managing stress (Peters, Godaert, Ballieux, & Heijen, 2003). Personal characteristics can be helpful or harmful. Helpful characteristics are things in one’s character that reduce stress. For example, a positive thinker eliminates most stress simply by the way he or she views and handles things. Problems, trials, and challenges are part of life that you have to learn to deal with. Another helpful characteristic is having a Type B personality (Schulte,

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ALARM

RESISTANCE

EXHAUSTION

Homeostasis

Stressor occurs

R e

s is

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

2015). People with Type B personalities tend to be easygoing, relaxed, patient, optimistic, positive, and have a long-term perspective of situations.

Harmful characteristics are things that increase stress. For example, a negative thinker with a negative, cynical, pessimistic attitude increases stress by the way he or she views and handles things. Negative thinkers can turn almost anything, large or small, into something stressful. Even when things are going well, they are likely to be stressed, thinking that if things are going that well, there must be a disaster just around the corner.

In summary, life events, work events, and one’s temperament all represent potential causes of stress. The term “antecedent” means things that lead to, or precede, what we call stress. Vari- ous models regarding how to respond have been generated by stress researchers.

How People Deal With Stress

Coping with the antecedents of stress constitutes a continuing challenge for individuals on and off the job. Two models have been developed to display methods by which people deal with stress. The first is known as general adaptation syndrome and the second models responses in terms of on-the-job productivity.

General Adaptation Syndrome Hans Selye was among the first to identify and model stress and stress coping mechanisms. The term used to describe his model—“fight or flight”—has received considerable attention. Figure 10.4 displays the GAS, or general adaptation syndrome, approach.

Figure 10.4: General adaptation syndrome model

Source: Psychlopedia

ALARM

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EXHAUSTION

Homeostasis

Stressor occurs

R e

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

As you can see in the figure, an event or stimulus demands attention. The stimulus can be pos- itive, neutral, or negative. A positive stimulus might be a wave hello from a friend. A negative stimulus results from being yelled at or through the gesture of an aggressive driver. A neutral stimulus occurs when the phone rings because you do not yet know what the call will be like.

In each circumstance, a fight response involves dealing with the stimulus directly. Someone who cuts you off in traffic and then gestures may lead you to “get even” in some way, such as by passing him later or, at the extreme, phoning the police to warn them a drunk driver is in front of you. Often, those who typically take the fight approach deal with stress aggressively by getting upset, getting angry, blowing off steam, taking their stress out on other people, or by saying and doing things that relieve their stress but increase the stress on those around them (Fink, 2007). The fight approach brings at least temporary relief to those practicing it while often doing so at the expense of others. It can be self-deceiving because it may work in the short run but not without costs to others and oneself, as it develops bad habits for dealing with stress and can be damaging to one’s reputation.

A flight response means finding a way to avoid the stimulus, such as slowing down and mov- ing away from the bad driver. The flight approach occurs when people deal with stress pas- sively by internalizing, covering up, storing up, suppressing, or denying stress (Cooper, 1981). While the flight approach is less harmful to others, it can cause serious harm to the person using the flight approach because it may not bring relief. It also runs the risk of developing dependencies to deal with stress such as overeating, drinking, or collecting resentments, or of storing it up and then cashing in on some unsuspecting victim.

Neither the fight nor the flight reaction is “good” or “bad” in and of itself. Rather, how one feels after the response will be the key. When you feel you have successfully adapted to the stimulus, you have dealt with the stressor in an effective manner. When lingering emotions or doubts continue to haunt you, the response has created additional stress. Selye points out that stress cannot and should not be avoided but rather should be managed.

Counselors who employ the fight and flight model try to help the individuals develop posi- tive coping mechanisms for every type of stimulus. In essence, one can learn to “pick your fights” and “let go” at other times. Remember that Selye’s work concentrated on the biological aspects of stress far more than the psychological elements (Selye, 2011). Selye also points out that people need a certain level of stress to function. The appropriate amount establishes the mental energy to cope with the challenges of the day. Only when stressors overwhelm the individual over time does distress emerge (Selye, 1974).

The Stress Curve A number of studies have shown a curvilinear relationship between stress and work-related outcomes, as Figure 10.5 shows (Weiman, 1977; Wall, Jackson, Mullarkey, & Parker, 1996; Franche et al., 2006). This means that we all individually have an optimal level of stress where stress works for us and serves as a motivator that energizes us, sharpens our perceptions, and increases our performance.

At low levels of stress below our optimal stress level, we may not be sufficiently alert, moti- vated, or challenged to perform at our best. At high levels of stress beyond our optimal level,

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High

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Low Stress/Low

Performance

Optimal Stress/ Optimal

Performance

High Stress/Low

Performance

• Boredom • Decrease in Motivation • Absenteeism • Apathy

• High Motivation • High Energy • Sharp Perception • Calmness

• Insomnia • Irritable • Increased Errors • Indecisiveness

Level of Stress

Section 10.1 Stress Management

stress can start to have a debilitating effect psychologically, physically, and behaviorally and can lead to burnout (Halbesleben & Buckley, 2004; Casserley & Megginson, 2009). Burnout is evidenced by emotional exhaustion, fatigue, and feeling run down; depersonalization of peo- ple, emotions, and things where we become detached, stoic, flat, and cynical; and a loss of motivation and hope. The better we are at managing stress, the more stress serves as a moti- vator up to a certain point. The less effective we are at managing stress, the quicker we reach the debilitating effects of stress.

Figure 10.5: The stress and productivity curve

High

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Optimal Stress/ Optimal

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High Stress/Low

Performance

• Boredom • Decrease in Motivation • Absenteeism • Apathy

• High Motivation • High Energy • Sharp Perception • Calmness

• Insomnia • Irritable • Increased Errors • Indecisiveness

Level of Stress

Symptoms of Distress

Distress, or strain, can be used to differentiate normal, manageable levels of stress from a circumstance in which the individual becomes overwhelmed and symptoms begin to occur (Brief, Schuler, & Van Sell, 1981). The symptoms of distress include physical, psychological, and behavioral outcomes, as Table 10.3 summarizes.

Physical outcomes normally begin with less severe outcomes but then increase over time. Occasional indigestion might evolve into more dramatic and chronic stomach problems. High blood pressure over time results in heart attacks and strokes. The same progression often takes place with psychological outcomes (McClelland & Jemmott, 1980). What begins as an occasional sleepless night might evolve into chronic insomnia. Behavioral and social manifes- tations of distress may be less evident to a supervisor, as many take place off the job. Many of these impact family members and friends as much as people at work.

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

Table 10.3: Potential consequences of stress

Psychological Consequences

Mental Emotional

• Negative, unconstructive, and self-defeating thoughts

• Distorted perceptions • Confusion, inability to concentrate • Loss of perspective on issues and events • Loss of memory • Difficulty processing data rationally and thinking

clearly • Subconscious negative thoughts • Decreased self-image and self-confidence

• Feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, worry, anxi- ety, fear, helplessness, hopelessness, and being unloved or disliked

• Oversensitivity • Feeling depressed, demotivated, paranoid,

discouraged • Feelings of anger, rage, resentment, hostility,

bitterness • Negative feelings from the past • Feelings not connected to the actual reality of a

situation

Physiological Consequences

• Dissipates energy (wears us out) • Affects blood flow, blood pressure, and blood

composition • Increases heartbeat • Changes amount of blood flow to organs and

brain • Increases blood pressure • May result in flushed face, headaches, heartburn,

nosebleeds, high blood pressure, blood vessel constriction, heart attacks, etc.

• Raises flow of sugar and adrenaline into the bloodstream

• Affects glandular secretions • Secretes toxins into the body • May result in dry mouth, increased perspiration,

throat irritation, nervousness • Tenses muscles and results in aches, cramps, and

muscle spasms • Causes nervous system malfunctions • May affect the respiratory system and result in

breathing difficulties

• Increases likelihood of illness, infections, diges- tive problems, etc., because of the physiological malfunctioning. This includes increasing the potential for ulcers, diabetes, arthritis, etc.

• Adds wrinkles from the pull of tense muscles on the skin

• Wear and tear on the physiological system speeds up the aging process

• May cause sleeping difficulties • Could result in frigidity or impotence

Behavioral Consequences

• Impaired performance • Accidents and mistakes • Irritability, moodiness, defensiveness, strained

relationships • Overly aggressive or passive behavior, or swings

back and forth • Unconstructive, self-defeating behaviors such as

excessive eating, drinking, smoking, socializing, playing, working, etc., or becoming rebellious, domineering, or resorting to old bad habits

• Withdrawal into oneself • Decreased ability to give and receive love and

caring • Suppression of problems or blaming them on

others or circumstances • Self-centeredness • Exaggerating weaknesses or strengths • Becoming helpless or incapacitated

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

Coping With Stress

The first step in coping with stress is to know where you stand. Many personal inventories of stress levels are available. Perhaps the most valuable and well known is the Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Scale. You can access it through the American Institute of Stress (http://www. stress.org/self-assessment/). The scale assigns numbers to various stressful life events to help you calculate an overall personal score. Among the most potent stressors are the death of a spouse, divorce, jail time, and being fired. Also, even seemingly harmless events, including major holidays (notably Christmas) and vacations increase personal stress. Note that other scales are available; however, many involve the payment of fees to access the instruments, which can in itself add to one’s stress level.

An individual may reach that point that he or she requires help, which occurs when the symp- toms displayed in Table 10.3 become evident. Fortunately, the symptoms of distress can be addressed before they become too severe. Table 10.4 identifies methods for coping with the stress of life as well as distress (Charlesworth, & Nathan, 2004). Stress can be modified through coping responses, which, like personal characteristics, can be helpful or harmful.

Helpful responses are responses that reduce stress in constructive and mature ways. Staying calm, gathering information before reacting, and making good choices for dealing with stress would be examples of helpful coping responses. Getting angry, overreacting, assuming the worst, taking your stress out on others, and resorting to coping mechanisms such as behav- iors or past bad habits that at best bring temporary relief or may escalate the stress and its consequences are examples of harmful coping responses.

Table 10.4: Coping with stress and distress

Physical Coping Mechanisms

Psychological Coping Mechanisms

Social Coping Mechanisms Combination Approach

Proper diet Meditation/prayer/ quiet time

Support group (work) Biofeedback

Mild exercise Prioritization/time management

Support group (home)

Regular rest/sleep Frontal attack on stressors

Massage Healthy escapes

Based on Charlesworth & Nathan, 2004

Proper diet includes avoidance of foods that might make stress symptoms worse, such as caf- feine, energy drinks, and other elements of an upper-downer cycle. Mild exercise discharges tension and creates positive energy. Regular rest can help reduce fatigue.

Quiet moments at any time appear to address stress symptoms (Wallace & Benson, 1972). Prioritization and time management seek to regain a sense of control over the day. A fron- tal attack involves removing stressors proactively. Healthy escapes include relaxing hobbies and vacations. Support can come from friends at work or from family and others off the job (Cohen & Wills, 1985).

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http://www.stress.org/self-assessment/

Section 10.1 Stress Management

Biofeedback, the combination approach, involves mental control over physical symptoms through relaxation and focus techniques (Schwartz & Andrasik, 2005).

A Problem-Solving Approach to Managing Stress The problem-solving approach to managing stress consists of recognizing your mental, emo- tional, physical, and behavioral stress symptoms and managing the stress constructively and rationally before it begins to have harmful consequences. For a person who has learned to manage stress this way, few things are viewed as highly stressful because they are placed in proper perspective with the belief that one way or another they can be managed. Although this approach may appear simplistic, it is often very difficult to apply because it requires a positive but realistic attitude toward life and one’s circumstances, considerable awareness, self-control, owning responsibility for one’s behavior, and much more maturity in handling stress than is found in the fight or flight approaches. It is definitely possible to develop and improve one’s skills in managing stress. Four basic alternatives for managing stress include those displayed in Table 10.5.

Table 10.5: Problem-solving approaches

Develop a new stress mindset

Change your stress-producing behaviors

Change your stress-producing circumstances

Change your coping responses (develop and practice a stress plan)

Stress management begins with a new mindset about stress. Mindsets are beliefs that shape reality. Continuing to see stress as bad, something that is always harmful, and something that you should avoid will make learning to deal effectively with stress difficult at best. To be sure, it is important to be aware of the potential harmful effects of stress so that there is a strong incentive to become skilled at managing stress. At the same time, it is even more important to change your thinking about stress so that stress, trials, problems, setbacks, and the various challenges we face in life are viewed as much as possible as part of life that we can learn to deal with and grow from rather than something to be feared and avoided.

Stress management, like most things in life, is significantly improved by having a positive atti- tude regarding managing stressful situations. Positive thinkers eliminate much of their stress, as few things are perceived as stressful and those that are stressful are effectively managed rather than feared. Imagine that the next time that you face a stressful situation or have some- thing go wrong you see it as a challenge that you can manage your way through rather than something that immediately raises your anxiety level and causes you to feel overwhelmed and discouraged. In her book The Upside of Stress, Stanford University researcher Dr. Kelly McGonigal reports many findings from her research and that of others concluding that stress, trials, and challenges viewed properly can make you stronger; build character; and make you more successful, healthier, and happier (2015). In the book’s introduction, Dr. McGonigal says, “The best way to manage stress isn’t to reduce or avoid it, but rather to rethink and even embrace it.”

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

In order to change personal stress-producing characteristics and behaviors, note that a per- son can actually cause much of the stress experience. For example, stress can be caused by being a negative thinker and by being temperamental, contentious, impatient, easily angered, disorganized, or frequently late. Engaging in self-defeating, irresponsible, or harmful habits and many other behaviors can also cause stress. Some stress can be managed by being aware of stress-producing behaviors and by being willing to change behaviors that produce rather than reduce stress.

It may be necessary to change the stress-producing circumstances in your life. Stress- producing circumstances could include such things as being overcommitted, having financial problems that need to be addressed, working in an unreasonably stressful job or toxic work environ- ment, or being involved in unhealthy relationships or activities that are causing stress. We should evaluate our stress-producing circumstances periodically and explore constructive alternatives for managing them.

One key aspect of a successful life involves changing your coping response. Many alternatives have been offered for managing stress such as practicing deep breathing, meditating, learn- ing relaxation exercises, working out on a regular basis, eating healthy food, getting plenty of sleep, and having a good support system (people who care and will provide support when you need it) (Luria & Torjman, 2009). Ultimately what is needed is a purposeful and practiced stress response that becomes a normal and habitual way to respond to stress. No matter how skilled or unskilled you are at managing stress, you can improve your stress coping response by developing and practicing a stress plan, as Table 10.6 displays.

Table 10.6: A stress plan

Knowing your stress symptoms so you will be aware when you are getting overstressed

Getting in balance mentally and emotionally

Getting in balance physically

Your stress symptoms are the things that you do that signal that you are under stress. Once you can identify these symptoms you are in a position to manage the stress. If you are not aware of your symptoms, then stress will likely manage you. In identifying your stress symp- toms, it may be helpful to ask others close to you for feedback on what they see as your stress symptoms. We tend to go through predictable “stress rituals” when we are feeling stress or about to blow, and those close to us learn to recognize these symptoms.

Stress often throws us off balance mentally and emotionally. We have difficulty thinking objec- tively and our emotions become difficult to manage. The goal is to get control of our thinking and our emotions so we can think clearly and function effectively. This requires planning ways to stay objective, reasonable, and rational, and being aware enough of one’s emotions to manage them, especially when they are motivating expressions that increase rather than decrease stress.

To get in physical balance, note that stress can stimulate one’s physical system. It can cause a person to perform better or to malfunction physically with many possible consequences. If a physical system starts to malfunction, the goal should be to get it back in balance to manage stress successfully without harmful consequences.

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

From a long-term perspective, regular exercise, a nutritious diet, having a relaxing hobby, or daily devotions or other activities that keep the body calm and relaxed can be helpful. It can take considerable energy to manage stress, and if we don’t have the needed energy and calm- ness of attitude, we either succumb to stress or wear our bodies out from making demands on them that they are not conditioned to deliver. This can happen to leaders who are out of shape but operate at a high energy level and eventually suffer the consequences of misusing their bodies.

From a short-term perspective in dealing physically with immediate stress, the goal is to keep calm and relaxed enough for your physical system to function effectively, even if the situation is a highly stressful one. Physical stress can be managed through taking deep breaths, tak- ing a walk or catnapping, using prayer, recalling quotes, or using other helpful ways to keep calm, using muscle tension release exercises (this is what we do when we stretch), listening to relaxing music, or anything constructive that gets rid of the tension and relaxes the body. It is possible for those who purposefully practice getting in balance physically to stay relaxed in a high state of activity and tension.

Complicating Factors

It appears that interactive relationships take place between both the sources of stress and the coping mechanisms. An additive situation occurs when stressors “pile up” on a person. In other words, physical, mental, and social pressures add together to create an even more stressful situation.

In a compensating circumstance, one category of antecedents or outcomes can reduce stress in another. Walking to reduce stress is physical compensation for mental energy. Biofeedback is a counseling and training program in which subjects learn how to mentally compensate for and control physical stress symptoms, such as by learning how to control one’s own pulse and breathing patterns through various relaxation techniques. Social support compensates for both physical and mental stress. Further, items within the same category can compensate, such as when a person travels home to relieve the stress of a pressure-filled job or goes to work to get away from a troubling marriage or personal life.

Segmented circumstances suggest an ebb and flow to both the sources and symptoms of stress. At times a job may feel overwhelming; at others it becomes manageable. The same holds true for physical, mental, and behavioral/social systems (Seers, McGre, Serey, & Graen, 1983).

Organizational Responses

Organizational leaders can take four steps to reduce the impact of stress in the workplace. First, they can work to reduce stressors that arise in the workplace, including attention to all of the potential sources. Second, human resources and other managers can identify individu- als appearing to suffer with stress-related problems and offer help. A manager can detect per- sons appearing to exhibit stress-related symptoms using the checklist provided in Table 10.7.

Table 10.7: Supervisor’s checklist for stress

New, never-seen-before conflicts with peers

Higher levels of absenteeism or tardiness

Lower productivity

Argumentative worker

Daydreaming

Leaving early for breaks or at the end of the day

Extended lunch hour

Hangovers, obvious aftereffects of drug abuse

Statements: “I can’t take much more of this”; “I’m thinking about quitting”; “This isn’t worth it.”

Unwilling to follow directions (when it was never previously a problem or issue)

Throwing/breaking objects

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

Complicating Factors

Organizational Responses

Table 10.7: Supervisor’s checklist for stress

New, never-seen-before conflicts with peers

Higher levels of absenteeism or tardiness

Lower productivity

Argumentative worker

Daydreaming

Leaving early for breaks or at the end of the day

Extended lunch hour

Hangovers, obvious aftereffects of drug abuse

Statements: “I can’t take much more of this”; “I’m thinking about quitting”; “This isn’t worth it.”

Unwilling to follow directions (when it was never previously a problem or issue)

Throwing/breaking objects

Third, employees can be placed properly. Some individuals enjoy being busy and challenged; stress does not seem to be an issue. Others can feel quickly overwhelmed. As part of the recruiting and selection process, the individual can be informed about the level of tension and activity to expect in any position.

Fourth and finally, companies can teach and offer stress management programs and tech- niques. Many organizations now provide exercise facilities, in-house game areas, and even neck massages to those who are bound to desks throughout the day. Companies can schedule appearances by stress management experts to further assist employees in coping with today’s challenging and fast-paced business environment. The ideal is for organizations to do their part in reducing unnecessary stress and to offer training for employees so they can become more skilled at managing stress. Liz Claiborne Fashions, B.F. Goodrich, Equitable Life Insur- ance, and a number of other companies are well known for the stress management training that they provide. Equitable estimated that each $33 it spent on stress training resulted in relieving symptoms that would have cost the company $100 in lost productivity (Quick & Quick, 1984).

Employee Wellness Programs Employee wellness programs are designed to keep employees healthy and productive. A grow- ing number of 100 Best Companies to Work for identified in Fortune Magazine offer wellness programs (Erb, 2011). Wellness programs typically include some combination of options such as subsidized off-site fitness center memberships, the availability of an on-site fitness center, stress training and training in other health-related topics, on-site flu shots, screenings for a variety of health issues, and prevention programs for smoking and other issues. These programs are important to managing stress, as stress and health are closely related. Some of the companies that are well known for their wellness programs are CIGNA, 3M, Wegmans Food Market, SAS, Control Data, and Johnson & Johnson. The goal of the Johnson & Johnson

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Section 10.1 Stress Management

program is to optimize the health and productivity of J&J employees worldwide while helping to control healthcare costs. It has been estimated that over the past decade, the J&J wellness program has saved the company over $250 million in healthcare costs (Berry, Mirabito, & Baun, 2010).

Employee Assistance Programs Employee assistance programs (EAPs) provide employees with assistance in addressing a wide range of problems such as stress; substance abuse; family and marital problems; psy- chological, financial, and legal matters; and career planning. Companies such as Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, Xerox, Caterpillar, IBM, and B.F. Goodrich are well known for their EAPs and even sports teams such as the San Francisco Giants baseball team are seeing the benefits of EAPs (“Taking a Giant L(EAP),” 2012). Workers at McDonnell Douglas (now Boe- ing) who used their alcohol and drug EPA programs missed 44% fewer days of work (Shaimi, 2000).

In general, one secret to reducing stress-related issues in the workplace is to be proactive. The management team can investigate the organization and discover areas that require attention. Problem situations should be quickly addressed and remedied. Understanding the stress pro- cess helps leaders be more aware of stress and its potential benefits or consequences on both a personal and organizational level, and being aware makes it more possible to effectively manage stress.

For organizations, some level of stress is to be expected. Work can be stressful. When orga- nizations create stressful work environments where the treatment of people is questionable and the work culture is tense and not very supportive, performance, morale, and relation- ships are likely to suffer and stress-related costs such as those involving healthcare and turn- over are likely to increase. In contrast, when organizations are run well, take good care of their people, and have a supportive and friendly culture, negative stress effects are kept to a minimum.

Self-Reflection Questions

1. Explain how the right amount of stress is good for a career, while the wrong amount damages it.

2. What is the connection between fight responses and inappropriate behav- iors on the job? What about flight responses and poor performance as a result? Explain your answers.

3. As a leader, what steps would you take if you believed your company was sys- tematically causing distress or strain to entry-level workers, leading to higher levels of turnover and other problems?

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Section 10.2 Time Management

10.2 Time Management

Time management is not just about being busy or getting a lot done. It includes getting the right things done, using time wisely, and having the time to devote to the most important things in life. Time is a precious resource that we all possess. The way we use this valuable resource affects our character, our reputation, our values, our families, our relationships, our careers and achievements, our knowledge, our health, our legacy, our destiny, and all aspects of our lives and often the lives of many others. It is not a resource to be taken lightly. And yet many people have never given serious thought to the importance of time management and developing skills in time management. Does your life show signs of time mismanagement? Look for these clues:

• Your life lacks direction and purpose. • The days slip by and you don’t know where all the time has gone. • You are behind in your work but are so disorganized that you don’t know where to

start. • Your time is primarily controlled by others or by circumstances. • You don’t have enough time for yourself, others, or the important things in life. • Technology has kept you busy or involved with little relief or time for other impor-

tant things. • You constantly reshuffle papers that never get taken care of. • Much of your time is spent in unproductive meetings, conversations, efforts, rela-

tionships, and a variety of other unproductive activities. • You waste time on activities that have little benefit to you or others. • You waste time on worry and negative thinking. • You are so busy making a living that you don’t have time to live and enjoy life. • Your dreams rarely come true. • You collect books that are never read and ideas that are never pursued.

Time management is particularly important for leaders because of the multiplier effect the way they manage their time has. Effective time management can help make leaders and oth- ers successful and poor time management can have far-reaching consequences for leaders and their people. A number of good books and articles focus on the specifics of time manage- ment such as how to manage emails and technology, how to set priorities and goals, learning to say “no,” clearing the clutter, managing distractions, and reducing multitasking (Winston, 2004, 1994; Harvard Business School, 1984, 2005).

In this section we will focus on the big picture of time management. We will examine three concepts: (1) the basic principles of time management, (2) time management tactics, and (3) the benefits of time management. Each of these subjects has direct implications for effective leadership.

Time Management Principles

Time management is not a technique that can magically make you successful. To be highly efficient at doing nothing of great worth or at doing things that are irresponsible or harmful

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Section 10.2 Time Management

is a misuse of time. Table 10.8 identifies some basic time management principles. Each merits further consideration.

Table 10.8: Time management principles

• Commit to a life of excellence.

• Develop a champion’s attitude.

• Start the day in balance.

• Think in terms of effectiveness, not just efficiency.

• Think in terms of end results, not activity traps.

Commitment to a Life of Excellence Have you ever thought of how you spend your time as a wise or foolish investment of one of the most precious resources you have in life? Every day, people make choices about how to invest time. A person can invest time in good ways or bad and ways that are helpful or harm- ful. To think of time as an investment requires a big picture perspective of time management. To make an overall good investment of our time, we need to live with a sense of purpose; have a good understanding of our priorities, values, principles, strengths, and weaknesses; and commit to giving our best with the realities and challenges that we encounter in life. These are the principles that undergird commitment to a life of excellence.

Developing a Champion’s Attitude Our attitude and the way we think about and perceive things significantly affects what we do with our time. A negative, cynical, pessimistic attitude is a time waster for you and everyone affected by you. It limits a person’s potential; fosters discouragement; biases our perception of reality; dissipates energy; causes physical and emotional problems; often results in time- consuming arguments, misunderstandings, and disagreements; fills time with worry; and is perhaps the largest cause of time mismanagement.

A person with a champion’s attitude approaches the issues of life from a positive and helpful perspective as much as possible. He or she can see reality, experience the misfortunes and hardships of life, hurt, grieve, and feel pain. A champion focuses time and energy on working through the issues and finding the best options and solutions given the realities he or she faces.

Think in Terms of Effectiveness, Not Just Efficiency Successful time managers have learned to distinguish between being effective and being effi- cient. A manager may be efficient at keeping his or her office neat and orderly and ineffective at accomplishing meaningful and purposeful tasks. The word efficient refers to accomplishing anything, meaningful or not, with a minimum of waste. The word effective implies achieving meaningful results. The ideal is to be both effective and efficient.

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Section 10.2 Time Management

Think in Terms of End Results, Not Activity Traps Effective time managers think of desired end results before deciding if, when, and how to invest their time. Poor time managers have a tendency to get involved in activity traps. Activ- ity traps are time-consuming, busy work activities that have little or no purpose or value. Faithfully working on reports that no one uses, spending several hours each day watching television, or requiring people to document how they spend each day are examples of pos- sible activity traps. In contrast, those who identify and concentrate on end results are able to see progress each day and substantial improvements over time.

In essence, time management begins with attitude and quality reasoning. Someone who makes the best use out of each day develops and maintains a champion’s attitude that sees the big picture and works to achieve tangible goals while avoiding the trap of insignificant activities that do not yield his or her desired outcomes. Such a champion employs several tactics to help reach those goals.

Time Management Tactics

Have you ever heard the phrase, “If you want to get something done—ask a busy man?” Well, you can also ask a busy woman. Both will be effective time managers. They will utilize many of the tactics displayed in Table 10.9. Key elements of each are described next.

Table 10.9: Time management tactics

Prioritize, organize, and work smart

Identify time wasters and time savers

Make goal setting and planning a way of life

Start the day in balance

Invest most of your time building on strengths

Know your cycles

Develop a rhythm to your life

Prioritize, Organize, and Work Smart Effective time managers think in terms of priorities, staying reasonably well organized, and working smart by focusing on the right things and learning from their mistakes. They invest most of their time and energy in high-priority items and progressively less time and energy on medium- and low-priority items.

Time managers are also skilled at being organized. Disorganization is a significant time waster. Central to being organized is to have a system for organizing your life and managing your time. There are many electronic or manual programs available for being organized and planning your long-term and daily activities.

Fruitful time managers also work smart. In addition to working on the things that are most important, they are quick to admit and learn from mistakes and always looking for new and

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Section 10.2 Time Management

better ways of doing things. One tactic available for working smart is time mapping. Time mapping is a process of tracking how to spend your time by evaluating possible time wasters and savers and improving on time use. Figure 10.6 provides a process for mapping and chang- ing how you spend your time.

Figure 10.6: Time mapping form

Complete this form to learn more about how you spend, waste, and save your time. Then consider how you can improve your time management. Develop an action plan and time frame to apply these changes in both your personal and work life.

1. Keep a brief bullet type diary for each day of the week for about a week that records how you spend your time from the time you get up until the time you go to bed.

2. Evaluate your diary and list any insights you gained about the way you spend your time in your personal life and in your work life.

Insights About How You Spend Your Time

Personal Life Work Life

3. List possible time wasters in your personal life and your work life and possible time savers in your personal life and your work life.

Time Wasters

Personal Life Work Life

Time Savers

Personal Life Work Life

4. Find a minimum of three to five people who are good examples of being organized, productive, and skilled time managers and learn as much as you can from them about what they do to stay organized and manage their personal and work time. List valuable insights below.

5. Ideally, if you had the power and ability to do so, what would you change about the way you spend your time?

(continued)

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Section 10.2 Time Management

Identifying Time Wasters and Time Savers One key element of time mapping involves identifying time wasters and savers. This requires an ongoing evaluation of both while learning as much as possible from others about manag- ing time. Continuing to do things the same old way without evaluating the way you spend your time or availing yourself of ideas and resources for improving time management can be a significant time waster. It can be especially helpful to talk to others about how they manage their time and the resources they use.

Making Goal Setting and List Making a Way of Life High achievers tend to be goal setters and list makers. Although the formality and methods used will vary with the individual, it is almost impossible to use time effectively without some form of goal setting and daily to-do lists. Aiming at nothing and getting something is luck. Setting realistic goals, prioritizing them, and organizing one’s time each day to reach them teaches one the art of making things happen and not having to go through life being a victim of circumstances or relying on luck for success.

It is best to develop long-range, yearly, monthly, and daily goals or lists, depending on what you prefer to call them. While the process itself may seem overly time consuming, in actual- ity long-range and yearly goals can usually be established in about a half day, monthly goals or lists in about 20–30 minutes, and daily goals or lists in about 5–10 minutes. If you do not know where to begin or what goals to pursue, start with anything that seems realistic and is

6. Develop an action plan for improving the way you manage your time in your personal life and work life. It would be best to limit your initial plan to one to two personal life changes and one to two work life changes, accomplish and sustain the changes, and then add additional changes.

Action Plan

Personal Life Work Life

Action Time Frame

Personal Life Work Life

Figure 10.6: Time mapping form (continued)

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Section 10.2 Time Management

appealing, and make adjustments or set new goals as doors become closed or new opportuni- ties become available. The important thing is to get started rather than wait for a perfect plan to suddenly strike you.

The second element of this process is tying a reward to each goal achievement. Reaching a short-term objective should be self-rewarded through some small indulgence, whether it is an extra piece of pie or reading that book you’ve always wanted to enjoy. Medium-range accomplishments deserve more tangible rewards. Long-term goals should be linked with the best possible self-reward you can imagine and afford.

Start the Day in Balance The short term begins with each individual day. A chaotic start makes it difficult to regain the momentum and rhythm necessary to effectively manage your time. Often people start the day by struggling to get out of bed, rushing to get dressed, rushing to eat breakfast or skipping breakfast altogether, having potential conflict with others because of the rush, and driving too fast or carelessly to work to avoid being late. They arrive at work tense and disorganized, and it takes at least part of the morning and many cups of coffee to calm down enough to be mod- erately productive. They start the day out of balance and probably end the day the same way.

We would be in a far better position to manage our time if we would spend more time prepar- ing for the day so that we can start in balance and with a plan. The difference in productivity, control, and the ability to handle stress can be significant. Depending on one’s circumstances and responsibilities, most people need at least 1–2 hours to get ready, take time for planning and possibly a devotion, have a decent breakfast, and allow enough time to get to work on time. Some people prefer to conduct planning at the end of the workday.

Invest Most of Your Time Building on Strengths Effective time managers are aware of and are realistic about their strengths and weaknesses. They are not preoccupied with weaknesses. Instead, they acknowledge those weaknesses and find ways to overcome, manage, or compensate for them. Then, they invest most of their time in utilizing and building on their strengths and in developing new strengths.

Know Your Time Cycles A careful observation of your behavior may reveal patterns that should be kept in mind in organizing your time. When do you work best? When do you work less well? Are you a morn- ing, day, or night person? It may be that your cycles are the result of habits, eating too much at lunch, being out of shape physically and therefore not having enough energy, having a bad diet, office practices, starting the day off balance, avoidance of unpleasant tasks, a medical problem, too little or too much sleep (too much sleep will make you sluggish), or energy- draining stress.

As much as possible, high-priority and difficult tasks should be scheduled during high peri- ods and routine tasks during low periods. Adjustments can be made on days when the cycle changes. For example, on a day when you are tired, it may be best to schedule primarily

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Section 10.2 Time Management

routine tasks rather than waste the whole day. The ideal would be to eliminate your cycles and therefore substantially increase your high-productivity time.

Develop a Life Rhythm Joggers understand the concept of rhythm. Until you establish and adhere to a routine or schedule, it is difficult to get started and maintain the discipline necessary to jog regularly. Circumstances or lack of ambition can break up the rhythm, which often makes it difficult to get started again. Poor time managers have lives that are chaotic and disorganized. They run hot and cold in terms of their productivity, and there seems to be little order or rhythm to their lives.

In today’s fast-moving and busy times, even the best time man- agers need to deal with inter- ruptions and unplanned distrac- tions. They do so by giving their best to get back to a productive and disciplined rhythm. Effec- tive time managers seem to have a rhythm or routine to their lives that enables them to operate at a high level. They start the day right, have some order to their schedules and lives (stable rela- tionships, weekly tennis matches, weekends with the family, jog- ging at lunch, etc.), and discipline themselves to maintain enough order to effectively manage their time.

In summary, time management begins with a clear philosophy that becomes manifest in qual- ity tactics. Leaders who utilize techniques such as setting priorities, time mapping, and self- rewarding for success, combined with self-awareness of daily cycles and life rhythms do, in a phrase, “get more stuff done!”

Benefits of Effective Time Management

The way we manage time tells a story about our lives. It tells what is important to us, what our lives stand for, what we are accomplishing, and the impact we have on others. It has a cumula- tive effect that fits together in desirable and undesirable ways. The choice that we all have to make is whether we want to commit to managing our time in a purposeful and meaningful way or whether we want to simply live from day to day and hope that the days, as they accu- mulate and turn into years, turn out the way we had hoped.

People sometimes incorrectly assume that effective time management implies that a person must become highly structured and insensitive to the needs of others and never waste a min- ute. In fact, the word effective implies a positive and constructive outcome to the way a person

Purestock/Thinkstock

Effective time management helps leaders reduce stress and increase control over their lives.

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Section 10.3 Work-Life Balance

spends his or her time. Effective time management should result in some of the following positive outcomes:

• a more satisfying and productive life; • more free time to do what you want; • a substantial reduction in the stress caused by lateness, procrastination, disorgani-

zation, and a lack of accomplishment; and • more time for others.

There is research that examines something called “life satisfaction.” A connection exists between the perception that you are using your time wisely and how satisfied you are with life. Part of the reason will be that free time becomes available to pursue other interests and activities outside of work. Further, you experience less stress because there is no feeling of “racing the clock” and “catching up” to make life less fun. In the end, this means you can take more time to spend with family and friends, do enjoyable things, or simply relax. In essence, time management combines with stress management in a cumulative fashion to increase your potential to be a better employee and leader.

James Truchard: National Instruments

Dr. James Truchard, or Dr. T, as he’s known in the industry, is the cofounder and CEO of National Instruments (NI), a $900 million company that produces software and hardware test and measurement equipment that brings almost every technology you know about (and some you don’t yet) to market faster, cheaper, and better. His basic concept is that a good work environment creates a quality framework that fosters innovation (Dishman, 2015).

National Instruments received high work-life balance ratings from its employees.

“I make my own hours, don’t put in much over 40 hours a week, and while it’s not company policy I can occasionally work from home when needed.” (Smith, 2013, para. 13).

As the Austin Business Journal notes about Dr. T, “When it comes to protecting his company’s culture, though, he’s as fierce as Mr. T” (Calnan, 2013, para. 1). The biggest mistake companies can make is being distracted by short-term gains and not staying true to their broader vision, Truchard suggests. “The ideas that are longer term things should always trump shorter term things.” He notes, “I try to work in a way that I’m not trying to be at a different level than the employees. . . . I’m still very hands on with the technology . . . creating the right culture is center stage to building a business.” And, as is usually the case, the results speak for themselves.

10.3 Work-Life Balance

Work-life balance has become an increasingly important concept because many individuals experience handling the challenge of having a career and a personal life. Brigid Schulte (2015, para. 1) writes, “Workers around the globe have been finding it harder to juggle the demands of work and the rest of life in the past five years, a report shows, with many working longer hours, deciding to delay or forgo having children, discontinuing education, or struggling to

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Section 10.3 Work-Life Balance

pay tuition for their children.” The push for workers to work harder and do more with less while often being connected to work 24/7 often sends workers home exhausted and ill- prepared and lacking the time to deal with personal and family responsibilities, the pressures to get more and more education, and the need for at least a minimum of relaxation and renewal time. An article in the Harvard Business Review about work-life balance began by say- ing, “Work-life balance is at best an elusive ideal and at worst a complete myth, today’s senior executives will tell you” (Groysberg & Abrahams, 2014, para. 1).

The costs of a work-life imbalance can be significant to individuals and organizations. For individuals, the stress of an imbalance can lead to health problems, burnout, and the breakdown of relationships and families (Alterman, Luckhaupt, Dahlhamer, Ward, & Calvert, 2013). For organizations, having stressed employees with lives out of con- trol translates to lower productiv- ity, morale problems, and possible increased healthcare costs (Matte- son & Ivancevich, 1987).

Work-life balance is particularly important to leaders. Being a

leader can be demanding and stressful, and leaders who are not skilled at work-life balance can suffer the consequences of a lack of balance in both their work and personal lives. It is also important for leaders to consider that they are in the position to impact people, and the privilege of doing so carries with it the responsibility for leaders to be at their best and to be examples to others. Part of being at their best and being an example is having skills in work- life balance, and part of being a leader, especially for those in formal leadership positions, can be encouraging work-life balance in the lives of others so that their people do not suffer the consequences of an imbalance.

This section examines two issues. First, a method for managing life and creating work-life bal- ance is presented. Second, the benefits of work-life balanced are extolled.

A Process for Managing Your Life

There is hope for those committed to some semblance of a work-life balance. Several authors have contributed advice about how to achieve it. A study published over two decades ago offers some reason for optimism (Kurtz, Boone, & Fleenor, (1989). Although times have changed significantly since the study was published, the patterns reported in it are likely to have remained consistent. The research was based on a survey of more than 200 CEOs, many from Fortune 500 companies. Its purpose was to examine the profiles and patterns of those who made it to the top.

Yuri Arcurs/Hemera/Thinkstock

A healthy work-life balance is particularly important for leaders to cultivate.

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Section 10.3 Work-Life Balance

Many of us may have images of top-level leaders as being power-hungry, career-obsessed workaholics who are stressed out, lack integrity, and neglect their loved ones. To be sure, some leaders may fit this profile. That said, the profile of the typical CEO from the research painted a very different picture. Most of the leaders in the survey paid close attention to work- life balance, exercised on a regular basis, and were not overly stressed even though they had many stressors and responsibilities. Few were smokers or excessive drinkers and most had strong religious commitments. They worked long hours but also sought quality personal time. Many had families and tried to make good use of the time they had with them. Eighty-eight percent were still married to their first spouse. They were also far better organized than the typical person and much more likely to be involved in community activities. The bottom line of the study was that leaders tend to be more skilled at work-life balance than most and that having work-life balance raises the probability of being successful at work and life.

Life Management To give perspective and purpose to work-life balance, it is necessary to begin with a focus on life management. One of the most challenging and yet most important tasks in all of life is to be reasonably skilled at it (Groysberg & Abraham, 2014; Schulte, 2015; Alterman et al., 2013). Life management is the process of doing the best that you can, given the realities and challenges that you face, to manage and balance the various aspects of your life so that you can lead a productive and satisfying life. This definition recognizes that life management is an ongoing and changing process. It emphasizes that the goal is to do the best you can with the cards you are dealt. It recognizes that life management involves managing and balancing the many aspects of your life and that it is not just about being productive—it is also about lead- ing a satisfying, meaningful, and rewarding life.

Life management provides the big picture for time management and time management makes life management become a reality. Life and time management work together to give purpose and meaning to what we do. Having a sense of purpose provides a compelling motivator for effective time management. When we lack purpose, time management becomes difficult, as we lack a focus and framework for how to best utilize our time. It should be kept in mind that managing your life and time is a dynamic process that has to be reevaluated as circumstances change.

Life management is more of a philosophy about living life, a commitment to making a dif- ference, and doing your best to effectively manage constantly changing variables in your life than it is an exact step-by-step science. Different people approach life management in differ- ent ways. For some, it is just part of living your life responsibly. For others, it is a purposeful process. For most it is not something they give much thought to. You have to decide how to approach it and what to include in your plan.

For those who choose to manage their life in a purposeful way, life management is similar to managing an organization or team. It is a dynamic process that starts with a plan and requires adjustments to constantly changing circumstances. See the Leadership Applications and Tools section at the end of this chapter for a form that provides a framework for developing a life management plan.

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Section 10.3 Work-Life Balance

The key to developing a way to manage your life is creating a simple and useful approach that works. Once you have developed your approach and can preferably get it on one page so that you are more likely to use it, you can refer to it on a regular basis or periodically to keep focused, guide your choices, and make needed adjustments. It is important to occasionally solicit feedback from others on various aspects of your life in case they are seeing something that you are missing.

Life Management and Stress Management When a person’s life is out of balance, even the smallest stressors can cause a significant amount of stress. Gardner and Warrick conducted a study that evaluated a wide variety of coping responses and found that the number one most effective coping response for reduc- ing the effects of stress was life management (1984). Life management skills involve balanc- ing one’s personal life, work life, health, finances, and relationships. It may not be possible to always have all of these factors in balance, but the attempt provides a sense of peace and control. The ability to handle most situations comes from giving your best given the realities that you face. Consequently, you can easily make the case that time management, life manage- ment, and stress management are closely linked.

Advantages of Work-Life Balance

In today’s times, some would contend that concepts like life management and finding work- life balance are not possible and not worth the effort. While it is unlikely that even those who are skilled at life management ever have everything in balance, there are many advantages to working at life management, and pursuing life management certainly beats the alternative of not managing your life and experiencing the potential consequences. A life out of control is not a pleasant and rewarding experience. In contrast, Table 10.10 displays some of the advan- tages of life management.

Table 10.10: Advantages of life management

• Makes it possible to live with a sense of purpose and direction

• Provides perspective on what is important in life

• Provides a framework for managing your time and all aspects of your life

• Minimizes the potential for bad choices and costly derailments

• Increases the potential for better work-life balance

• Creates the opportunity to make your life count in a meaningful way

• Gives a greater sense of balance, stability, and the strength to manage challenges

• Creates a greater sense of control over your life and what it stands for

• Increases the probability of success, health, and happiness

• Provides more time for renewal, spontaneity, fun, and meaningful activities

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Chapter Summary

Keep in mind in managing your life that there are things that you can control and do something about and others that you cannot, but that even in those cases, you do have choices about how you respond. Also bear in mind that life management is not just about being productive. It is also about having time for relationships, service, fun, relaxation, and renewal, and learning how to deal effectively with the events and circumstances that life presents to you. It isn’t about doing everything right, as no one does, or about never being down, discouraged, or unhappy. It is about leading a purposeful life, minimizing foolish choices that can derail you, learning from your mistakes, and working through the challenges of life step by step.

Self-Reflection Questions

1. Can you think of the negative effects of work-life balance in terms of mental, physical, and social consequences? Explain your answer.

2. How would an overachiever or a Type A personality pose a problem for work- life balance issues? How should a leader help such an individual overcome the consequences?

10.4 Committing to Being a High-Impact Leader and Making a Difference

Developing skills in stress, time, and life management is critical to your success as a person and leader and will be helpful in your efforts throughout your life to achieve work-life bal- ance. These are an important part of the skills that you have been learning in this book that will help you be a skilled, high-impact leader who is committed to making a difference. As you consider what you have learned in your journey through this book, keep in mind the defini- tion of leadership used in the book:

Leadership is the process of providing vision, direction, and inspiration, and bringing out the best in people, teams, and organizations.

Leaders make a difference in the lives of others and the organizations that they serve. It is my great desire that this book will motivate you to lead and prepare you to be an excellent leader. Sending best wishes for your journey.

Chapter Summary

Stress Management Stress management involves mental, emotional, physical, and behavioral responses to anxiety-producing events along with the challenges in everyday life and work. A full model of stress accounts for events that are stressful (antecedents) along with the consequences that may follow (outcomes). Antecedents of stress are found in:

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Chapter Summary

• life events;

• work-related events; and

• individual temperament.

Outcomes include physical, mental, and social/behavioral consequences.

The general adaptation syndrome model of stress notes the fight and flight responses indi- viduals deploy to deal with stressful circumstances, noting that neither response is good or bad, but rather should be considered in terms of what is most helpful to the employee. Stress has a curvilinear relationship with productivity, where too little or too much limits output and the proper degree increases effectiveness.

Coping with stress includes physical, mental, social, and combination responses. The problem- solving approach to stress management involves:

• developing a new stress mindset;

• changing your stress-producing behaviors;

• changing your stress-producing circumstances; and

• changing your coping responses (develop and practice a stress plan).

A stress plan consists of (1) knowing your stress symptoms so you will be aware of when you are getting overstressed, (2) getting in balance mentally and emotionally, and (3) get- ting in balance physically.

Organizational leaders can help employees deal with stress by reducing stressors on the job, helping people who have been identified with stress-related problems, placing people into jobs they can handle, and developing programs. Two options include wellness programs and employee assistance programs.

Time Management Time management programs include getting the right things done, using time wisely, and having the time to devote to the most important things in life. A quality program consists of the following principles:

• commit to a life of excellence;

• develop a champion’s attitude;

• start the day in balance;

• think in terms of effectiveness, not just efficiency; and

• think in terms of end results, not activity traps.

Next, the actual program should include doing the following:

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Key Terms

• prioritize, organize, and work smart;

• identify time wasters and time savers;

• make goal setting and planning a way of life;

• start the day in balance;

• invest most of your time building on strengths;

• know your cycles; and

• develop a rhythm to your life.

Time mapping is an important part of a time management program.

Work-Life Balance Life management is the process of doing the best that you can, given the realities and chal- lenges that you face, to manage and balance the various aspects of your life so that you can lead a productive and satisfying life. It is ongoing. A work-life balance can be best achieved by developing the right philosophy, committing to making changes, and doing your best to carry it out.

Stress management, time management, life management, and a work-life balance are also closely related. Leaders who effectively deal with these challenges have better personal lives and become more likely to succeed in the workplace.

Key Terms blocked career progression A non-role- related job stressor such as a “dead-end job” or the glass ceiling.

challenge-related stress Eustress, or liter- ally “good” stress that comes from a positive experience that involves achievement or overcoming a problem.

distress Strain; can be used to differenti- ate normal, manageable levels of stress from a circumstance in which the individual becomes overwhelmed and symptoms begin to occur.

hindrance-related stress Negative stress that results from excessive or undesirable constraints that interfere with an individ- ual’s ability to achieve goals.

life management The process of doing the best that you can, given the realities and challenges that you face, to manage and bal- ance the various aspects of your life so that you can lead a productive and satisfying life.

role ambiguity Situation in which the employee remains unsure about which tasks to complete or how to complete them.

role conflict Occurs when a task conflicts with the individual’s sense of right and wrong or when two assigned tasks conflict with each other.

role overload Occurs when the amount of work expected of an employee exceeds what the person can handle.

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Leadership Applications and Tools

stress management Involves mental, emo- tional, physical, and behavioral responses to anxiety-producing events along with the challenges in everyday life and work.

technostress The stress related to dealing with technology.

time management Includes getting the right things done, using time wisely, and having the time to devote to the most impor- tant things in life.

time mapping A process of tracking how to spend your time by evaluating possible time wasters and savers, and improving on time use.

Leadership Applications and Tools

Leadership Exercises

1. Meredith is a middle manager rising star at a Fortune 100 high-tech company. What the leaders and her coworkers don’t know is that Meredith is stressed almost to the limit and exhausted, and so is her husband. She simply doesn’t have enough time in the day to take care of all of her responsibilities. She is working 10-hour days in a high- pressure job. She is trying to juggle daycare, grade school, the children’s activities, the relationship with her husband, her family, her husband’s family, and all of the respon- sibilities of taking care of a home. While Meredith and her husband are making an excellent income, they haven’t had time to manage their finances and seem to always be under financial pressure. Meredith can see her life slipping away with little of what she thought was important in life to show for it.

Explain Meredith’s situation in terms of stress management, time management, and work-life balance.

2. If you were asked to explain overachiever behavior in terms of time management, what would you say? In other words, what are the relationships between trying achieve more and trying to effectively manage your time?

3. Explain all of the relationships between the sources (life, work, temperament) of stress in terms of additive, compensating, and segmented models. Explain all of the coping mechanisms for stress in terms of additive, compensating, and segmented models.

4. Lisa is a supervisor of financial analysts at a large investment firm. She has been receiving complaints about two of her employees. The gist is that both have been late to meetings with clients, seem inattentive and tired all the time, complain regularly to support staff about being “under the gun,” and have been reported for having the smell of alcohol on their breath after the lunch hour. The job does have pressure associated with trying to calm clients, as their portfolios lost value during a recent recession. Lisa is convinced that these events may be explained by the presence of stress in their lives. How should she proceed?

5. Multitasking has received a great deal of attention in the past decade. The argument has been made that multitaskers get more done due to their ability to focus on more than one activity at a time. In a recent pushback, some psychologists have argued that multitasking does not exist. People can only attend to one matter at a time.

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Leadership Applications and Tools

What is your belief about multitasking? Does it exist? If so, give examples. If not, explain why you think it is not possible.

How does multitasking relate to the materials presented in this chapter regarding time management?

6. Type A personalities tend to race the clock. They try to get more and more done in less and less time. Type A has been connected to stress and health management issues. Compare the Type A and Type B personalities with the principles of time management presented in this section.

How does Type A differ from being an effective time manager?

How does Type B help with time management? 7. Work-life balance is a goal that many believe is worthwhile. Explain how seeking to

achieve work-life balance is different when you are the following personas, noting how the challenges might be somewhat different in each circumstance: • a college student; • an entry-level professional employee at a young age; • a middle-aged, mid-level manager; • a person about to retire; and • a single working parent with two children under the age of 12.

Applications and Tools 1. Use the following to help develop a life management plan.

Life Management Plan

Life Vision Statement

One or two sentences that capture what you want to be known for

Life Mission Statement

Your purpose in life

Core Values

The values you are committed to living by

Ideal Priorities In Life

Rank order your ideal priorities in life

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Leadership Applications and Tools

Long-Term and Short-Term Goals

List any long-term and short-term goals you hope to accomplish

Long-Term Goals

Short-Term Goals

System for Evaluating and Managing Your Life Complete the following to help identify what you need to keep in balance to effectively manage your life. Remove any that are not important to you and add other areas you find important.

Internal Balance

Mental out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Emotional out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Physical out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Spiritual out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

External Balance

Family out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Work out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Play out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Activities out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Relationships out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Social Life out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

Financial out of Balance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In Balance

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